SYLLABUS

1. Overview of Highway Materials: Soils for

Highway Construction, Soil evaluation and

engineering for highway construction, Soil
surveys for highway construction,
Engineering properties of aggregates,
Aggregate tests, Soil stabilization; 2.
Basic principles, road development and
planning in Ghana, highway alignment,
design of Cross- sectional elements, design
of horizontal and vertical curves, road
specifications design, Construction and
Maintenance of Pavements in Ghana;
3. Quality control: Requirements and tests
on pavement materials, classification of
pavements, design factors, design of flexible
pavements, design of rigid pavements;
Construction practice including modern
methods, Highway drainage ,Special
considerations for hilly roads; Bituminous
materials; Asphalt Mix Design; Design of
Surface Dressing;
bachelor of technology
4. Overlay construction: Asphalt concrete
Cape coast technical university
overlay, Slurry seal, Fog seal;
5. Highway Project Management: Methods
of Procuring works, Procedure for work
procurement, Condition of Contract;
Environmental impact assessment

BTech CCTU
1.0 Overview of Highway materials: Soil Engineering for Highway construction
Lesson objectives:
At end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 Select the most appropriate material for highway construction based on the material
characteristics, engineering properties, availability, tests etc.

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Soil Engineering for Highway construction
 Soil Characteristics
 Origin and Formation of Soils
 Classification of Soils for Highway Use
 Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to Ghana Highway Authority soil Lab to upgrade knowledge on the following soil
test for highway construction;
o Atterberg Limit Test
o Compaction Test
o California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR Test)

Highway Engineering is an engineering discipline branching form Civil Engineering that

involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges,
and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods

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1.1 Introduction
Highway engineers are interested in the basic engineering properties of soils because soils are
used extensively in highway construction. Soil properties are of significant importance when a
highway is to carry high traffic volumes with a large percentage of trucks. They are also of
importance when high embankments are to be constructed and when the soil is to be strengthened
and used as intermediate support for the highway pavement.

1.2 Soil Characteristics

The basic characteristics of a soil may be described in terms of its:
i. Origin
ii. Formation
iii. Grain size
iv. Shape
v. Texture

1.2.1 Origin and Formation of Soils

Soil can be defined from the civil engineering point of view as the loose mass of mineral and
organic materials that cover the solid crust of granitic and basaltic rocks of the earth. Soil is
mainly formed by weathering and other geologic processes that occur on the surface of the solid
rock at or near the surface of the earth. Weathering occurs through either physical (mechanical)
or chemical means.
Soils may be described as residual or transported. The geological history of any soil deposit has a
significant effect on the engineering properties of the soils. Soils also may be described as
organic (organic matter) or as inorganic (mineral materials).

1.2.1 Particle Texture

The texture of a soil can be described in terms of its appearance, which depends mainly on the
shapes and sizes of the soil particles and their distribution in the soil mass. Soils can be divided
into two main categories based on their texture such as coarse-grained soils and fine-grained
soils.
Coarse-grained soils are sometimes defined as those with particle sizes greater than 0.05 mm,
such as sands and gravel. Fine-grained soils are those with particle sizes less than 0.05 mm, such

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as silts and clays. The distribution of particle size in soils can be determined by conducting a
sieve analysis on a soil sample if the particles are sufficiently large.
Table 1.1 Particle-Size Classification

For soils containing particle sizes smaller than the lower limit (0.075 mm), the hydrometer
analysis is used. A hydrometer is used to determine the specific gravity of the suspension at
different times. The specific gravity of the suspension after any time t from the start of the test is
used to determine the maximum particle sizes in the suspension as

The above expression is based on Stoke’s law.

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Figure 1.1 Particle size determination chart

1.2.3 Particle shape

The natural shape of a soil particle is either round, angular, or flat. This natural shape is usually
an indication of the strength of the soil, particularly for larger soil particles. Round particles are
found in deposits of streams and rivers, have been subjected to extensive wear, and are therefore
generally strong. Flat and flaky particles have not been subjected to similar action and are usually
weak.
Fine-grained soils generally have flat and flaky-shaped particles. Coarse-grained soils generally
have round or angular-shaped particles. Soils with angular-shaped particles have more resistance
to deformation than those with round particles, since the individual angular-shaped particles tend
to lock together, whereas the rounded particles tend to roll over each other.

1.3 Basic Engineering Properties of Soils

Highway engineers must be familiar with those basic engineering properties of soils that
influence their behavior when subjected to external loads. The determination of how a specific

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soil deposit will behave when subjected to an external load is rather complicated because soil
deposits may have heterogeneous properties. Highway engineers must always keep in mind that
the behavior of any soil depends on the conditions of that soil at the time it is being tested.
1.3.1 Phase Relations
A soil mass generally consists of solid particles of different minerals with spaces between them.
The spaces can be filled with air and/or water. Soils are therefore considered as three-phase
systems that consist of air, water, and solids.

Figure 1.2 Schematic of the Three Phases of a Soil Mass

i. Porosity
Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil and is
designated as n as shown
VV
n=
V
ii. Void Ratio
The amount of voids can also be measured in terms of the void ratio, which is defined as the ratio
of the volume of voids to the volume of solids and is designated as e as shown below
VV
e=
VS
Combining porosity and void ratio, we obtain
e
n=
1+ e

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 n
e=
1−n

iii. Moisture Content

The quantity of water in a soil mass is expressed in terms of the moisture content, which is
defined as the ratio of the weight of water Ww in the soil mass to the oven dried weight of solids
Ws expressed as a percentage. It is given as
WW
w= 100
WS
iv. Degree of Saturation
The degree of saturation is the percentage of void space occupied by water and is given as

VW
S= 100
VV
The soil is saturated when the void is fully occupied with water, that is, when S = 100%.

v. Density of Soil
A very useful soil property for highway engineers is the density of the soil. The density is the
ratio that relates the mass side of the phase diagram to the volumetric side. Three densities are
commonly used in soil engineering: total or bulk density γ, dry density γd, and submerged or
buoyant density γ’.

1. Total Density
The total (or bulk) density is the ratio of the weight of a given sample of soil to the volume or

W W S +W W
γ= = (weight of air is negligible)
V V S +V W + V a
The total density for saturated soils is the saturated density and is given as

W W S +W W
γ sat = =
V V S +V W
2. Dry Density
The dry density is the density of the soil with the water removed. It is given as

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 Ws WS γ
γ d= = =
V V S +V W +V a 1+W

The dry density is often used to evaluate how well earth embankments have been compacted and
is therefore an important quantity in highway engineering.

3. Submerged Density
The submerged density is the density of the soil when submerged in water and is the difference
between the saturated density and the density of water, or
'
γ =γ sat −γ w

Ɣw= 1.0 g/cm3, Ɣw= 62.4 pcf, Ɣw= 9.81 kN/m3

Specific Gravity of Soil Particles

The specific gravity of soil particles is the ratio of density of the soil particles to the density of
distilled water.
γ ρg ρ
GS = = =
γ W ρ w g ρw
1.4 Other Useful Relationships
The basic definitions presented above can be used to derive other useful relationships. For
example, the bulk density can be given as
GS + S e
γ= γ
1+ e w
Where γ =total ∨bulk density
S ¿ degree of saturation
γ w =density of water
GS =specific gravity of the soil partices
e¿ void ratio

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Table 1.2 Various forms of relationships for 𝛾𝑠 𝛾𝑑 and 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡

1.5 Atterberg Limits

Clay soils with very low moisture content will be in the form of solids. As the water content
increases, however, the solid soil gradually becomes plastic-that is, the soil easily can be molded
into different shapes without breaking up. Continuous increase of the water content will
eventually bring the soil to a state where it can flow as a viscous liquid. The water content levels
at which the soil changes from one state to the other are the Atterberg limits.
They are:
 Shrinkage limit (SL)
 Plastic limit (PL)
 Liquid limit (LL)

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Figure 1.3 Consistency Limits
1.5.1 Shrinkage Limit (SL)
When a saturated soil is slowly dried, the volume shrinks, but the soil continues to contain
moisture. Continuous drying of the soil, however, will lead to moisture content at which further
drying will not result in additional shrinkage. The volume of the soil will stay constant, and
further drying will be accompanied by air entering the voids. The moisture content at which this
occurs is the shrinkage limit, or SL, of the soil.

1.5.2 Plastic Limit (PL)

The plastic limit, or PL, is defined as the moisture content at which the soil crumbles when it is
rolled down to a diameter of one-eighth of an inch. The moisture content is higher than the PL if
the soil can be rolled down to diameters less than one-eighth of an inch, and the moisture content
is lower than the PL if the soil crumbles before it can be rolled to one-eighth of an inch diameter.

1.5.3 Liquid Limit (LL)

The liquid limit, or LL, is defined as the moisture content at which the soil will flow and close a
groove of one-half inch within it after the standard LL equipment has been dropped 25 times.

1.5.4 Plasticity Index (PI)

The range of moisture content over which the soil is in the plastic state is the difference between
the LL and the PL and is known as the plasticity index (PI).
PI =LL – PL
Where PI = Plasticity index
LL = liquid limit
PL = plastic limit

1.5.4.1 Liquidity Index (LI)

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The liquidity index, or LI, is used to reflect the properties of the natural soil and is defined as
W a−PL
LI =
PL
LI < 0, will have a brittle fracture
0<LI<1, will be in a plastic state
LI >1, the soil will be in a state of viscous liquid if sheared

1.6 Permeability
The permeability of a soil is the property that describes how water flows through the soil. It is
usually given in terms of the coefficient of permeability (K), which is the constant of
proportionality of the relationship between the flow velocity and the hydraulic gradient between
two points in the soil. This relationship was first determined by the French engineer Henry
D’Arcy and is given as
U = Ki
Where u = velocity of water in the soil
i = hydraulic gradient
h
¿ (Head loss h per unit length)
l
K= coefficient of permeability
The coefficient of permeability of a soil can be determined in the laboratory by conducting either
a constant head or falling head test, or in the field by pumping tests.
Clays and fine-grained soils have very low permeability; thus hardly any flow of water occurs in
these soils. Coarse-grained soils, such as gravel and sands, have high permeability, which allows
for water to flow easily in them.
Soils with high permeability are therefore generally stable, both in the dry and saturated states.
Note, however, that capillary action may occur in some permeable soils such as “dirty” gravel,
which may cause serious stability problems.
Capillary action is the movement of free moisture by capillary forces through small diameter
openings in the soil mass into pores that are not full of water.

1.6.1 Shear Strength

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The shear strength of soils is of particular importance to the highway engineer, because soil
masses will usually fail in shear under highway loads. The shear strength of a soil depends on the
cohesion and the angle of internal friction and is expressed as
S = C + σ tan ϕ
Where S = Shear strength (Ib/ ft 2)
C = cohesion (Ib/ ft 2)
ϕ = angle of internal fracture
σ = normal stress on the shear plane (Ib/ ft 2)

The degree of importance of either the cohesion or the angle of internal friction depends on the
type of soil.
In fine-grained soils such as clays, the cohesion component is the major contributor to the shear
strength.
In fact, it usually is assumed that the angle of internal friction of saturated clays is zero, which
makes the shearing resistance on any plane of these soils equal to the cohesion C. Factors that
affect the shear strength of cohesive soils include the geologic deposit, moisture content,
drainage conditions, and density.

In coarse-grained soils such as sands, the shear strength is achieved mainly through the internal
resistance to sliding as the particles roll over each other. The angle of internal friction is therefore
important.
The value of the angle of internal friction depends on the density of the soil mass, the shape of
individual soil particles, and the surface texture. In general, the angle of internal friction is high
when the density is high. Similarly, soils with rough particles such as angular sand grains will
have a high angle of internal friction.

The laboratory shearing strengths of soils can be obtained by conducting either the triaxial test,
the unconfined compression test, or the direct shear test. These tests may be conducted either on
the undisturbed soil or on remolding soils. Note, however, that in using remolded samples, the
remolding should represent conditions similar to those in the field.

The in situ shearing strengths of soils also can be obtained directly by conducting either the
plate-bearing test or cone penetration test. Details of each of these tests can be found in

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AASHTO’s Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and
Testing.

1.7 Classification of Soils for Highway Use

The most commonly used classification system for highway purposes is the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Classification System.
The Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS) also is used to a lesser extent. A slightly modified version of the USCS is used
fairly extensively in the United Kingdom
1.7.1 AASHTO Soil Classification System
In the current publication, soils are classified into seven groups, A-1 through A-7, with several
subgroups, as shown in Table 17.1. The classification of a given soil is based on its particle size
distribution, LL, and PI. Soils are evaluated within each group by using an empirical formula to
determine the group index (GI) of the soils, given as
GI = (F - 35) [0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15) (PI – 10)
F = percent of soil particles passing 0.075mm (No. 200) sieve in whole number based material
passing 75mm (3 in.) sieve.
Notes:
The GI is determined to the nearest whole number.
A value of zero should be recorded when a negative value is obtained for the GI.
In determining the GI for A-2-6 and A-2-7 subgroups, the LL part of Eq. 17.18 is not used—that
is, only the second term of the equation is used.
The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always 0.
Under the AASHTO system, granular soils fall into classes A-1 to A-3.
A-1 soils consist of well-graded granular materials, A-2 soils contain significant amounts of silts
and clays, and A-3 soils are clean but poorly graded sands.

Table 1.4 AASHTO Classification of soil and soil aggregate mixtures.

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In general, the suitability of a soil deposit for use in highway construction can be summarized as
follows:
1. Soils classified as A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 can be used satisfactorily as subgrade
or sub-base material if properly drained. In addition, such soils must be properly compacted and
covered with an adequate thickness of pavement (base and/or surface cover) for the surface load
to be carried.

2. Materials classified as A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5, and A-7-6 will require a layer of
sub-base material if used as subgrade. If these are to be used as embankment materials, special
attention must be given to the design of the embankment.

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3. When soils are properly drained and compacted, their value as subgrade material decreases as
the GI increases. For example, a soil with a GI of zero (an indication of a good subgrade
material) will be better as a subgrade material than one with a GI of 20 (an indication of a poor
subgrade material).

1.7.2 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

The original form of this system was proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for use in the airfield
construction works undertaken by the Army Corps of Engineers during World War II. In
cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, this system was revised in 1952. At present, it
is used widely by engineers (ASTM Test Designation D-2487). The Unified classification system
is presented in Table 5.2.
Other symbols used for the classification are:
• W—well graded
• P—poorly graded
• L—low plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
• H—high plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)

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Table 1.5 Unified Soil Classification Systems (Based On Material Passing 76.2mm Sieve)

Fig 1.4. Unified Soil Classification System

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This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50% passing through
the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of G or S. G stands for gravel or
gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.
2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve. The group
symbols start with prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, or O for
organic silts and clays.
For proper classification according to this system, some or all of the following information must
be known:
1. Percent of gravel—that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm sieve and retained on the No. 4
sieve (4.75-mm opening)
2. Percent of sand—that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening) and retained
on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
3. Percent of silt and clay—that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc)
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the No. 40 sieve.

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 Gravel

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 Sand

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 Fine Aggregate

Soil Compaction
When soil is to be used as embankment or sub-base material in highway construction, it is
essential that the material be placed in uniform layers and compacted to a high density.
Proper compaction of the soil will reduce subsequent settlement and volume change to a
minimum, thereby enhancing the strength of the embankment or sub-base.
The strength of the compacted soil is directly related to the maximum dry density achieved
through compaction.
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The zero-air void curve shown in Figure 5 is the theoretical moisture density curve for a
saturated soil and zero-air voids, where the degree of saturation is 100%. This curve usually is
not attained in the field, since the zero-air void cannot be attained. Points on the curve may be
calculated

Figure 1.5 Typical Moisture-Density Relationships for Soils

This phenomenon is due to the effect of moisture on the soil particles. At low moisture content,
the soil particles are not lubricated, and friction between adjacent particles prevents the
densification of the particles. As the moisture content is increased, larger films of water develop
on the particles, making the soil more plastic and easier for the particles to be moved and
densified.
When the optimum moisture content is reached, however, the maximum practical degree of
saturation (where S 100%) is attained.
The degree of saturation at the optimum moisture content cannot be increased by further
compaction because of the presence of entrapped air in the void spaces and around the particles.
Further addition of moisture therefore results in the voids being overfilled with water, with no
accompanying reduction in the air. The soil particles are separated, resulting in a reduction in the
dry density.

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Table 1.6 Details of the Standard AASHTO and Modified ASASHTO Tests

Optimum Moisture Content

The determination of the optimum moisture content of any soil to be used as embankment or
subgrade material is necessary before any field work is commenced. Most highway agencies now
use dynamic or impact tests to determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry
density.
The two types of tests commonly used are the standard AASHTO or the modified AASHTO.

Effect of Compacting Effort

Compacting effort is a measure of the mechanical energy imposed on the soil mass during
compaction. In the laboratory, it is given in units of ft-lb/in.3 or ft-lb/ft3, whereas in the field it is
given in terms of the number of passes of a roller of known weight and type. The compactive
effort in the standard AASHTO test, for example, is approximately calculated as

( no . of blows per layer ) × ( no . of layers ) ×(weight of hammer )×(height of drop of hammer )

E¿
Volume of mold
(5.5 Ib)(1 ft )(3)(25)
¿ =12,375 ft −Ib/ ft 3∨7.16 ft−Ib /¿3
1 3
ft
30

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 γd

Figure 1.6 Effect of Compactive Effort in Dry Density

Figure 1.6 show that as the compactive effort increases, so does the maximum dry density. Also,
the compactive effort required to obtain a given density increases as the moisture content of the
soil decreases.

1.8 Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment

1.8.1 Field Compaction Procedures
The first step in the construction of a highway embankment is the identification and selection of
a suitable material. This is done by obtaining samples from economically feasible borrow pits or
borrow areas and testing them in the laboratory to determine the group of each.
In cases where it is necessary to use materials in other groups, special consideration should be
given to the design and construction. For example, soils in groups A-4 and A-6 can be used for
embankment construction if the embankment height is low, the field compaction process is
carefully controlled, and the embankment is located where the moisture content is not expected
to exceed that at which the construction was undertaken.

A factor that also significantly influences the selection of any material is whether that material
can be economically transported to the construction site. Having identified suitable materials,
their optimum moisture contents and maximum dry densities are determined.

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Embankment Formation. Highway embankments are formed by spreading thin layers of uniform
thickness of the material and compacting each layer at or near the optimum moisture content.
The process of constructing one layer at a time facilitates obtaining uniform strength and
moisture content in the embankment. End dumping or compaction of thick layers on the other
hand may result in variable strengths within the embankment, which could lead to differential
settlement between adjacent areas.

Most states stipulate a thickness of 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) for each layer, although the
thickness may be increased to 24 inches when the lower portion of an embankment consists
mainly of large boulders.
All transportation agencies have their own requirements for the minimum density in the field.
Some of these are based on the AASHTO specifications for transportation materials.
Table 1.7, on the next page, gives commonly used relative density values for different
embankment heights. The relative density is given as a percentage of the maximum dry density
obtained from the standard AASHTO (T99) test.

Table 1.7 commonly used minimum requirements for compaction of embankments and
subgrades

1.8.2 Control of Embankment Construction

The construction control of an embankment entails frequent and regular checks of the dry density
and the moisture content of materials being compacted.

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The bulk density is obtained directly from measurements obtained in the field, and the dry
density is then calculated from the bulk density and the moisture content.
The laboratory moisture-density curve is then used to determine whether the dry density obtained
in the field is in accordance with the laboratory results for the compactive effort used.
These tests are conducted by using either a destructive method or a nondestructive method.

1. Destructive method
In determining the bulk density by the destructive method, a cylindrical hole of about a four inch
diameter and a depth equal to that of the layer is excavated.
The total weight of the excavated material is obtained, usually in the field laboratory, and the
moisture content determined. The compacted volume of the excavated material is then measured
by determining the volume of the excavated hole by one of three methods: sand replacement, oil,
or balloon.

The destructive methods are all subject to errors.

For example, in the sand replacement method, adjacent vibration will increase the density of the
sand in the excavated hole, thereby indicating a larger volume hole. Large errors in the volume of
the hole will be obtained if the balloon method is used in holes having uneven walls, and large
errors may be obtained if the heavy oil method is used in coarse sand or gravel material.

2. Nondestructive method
The nondestructive method involves the direct measurement of the in situ density and moisture
content of the compacted soil, using nuclear equipment.
One advantage of the nondestructive method is that results are obtained speedily, which is
essential if corrective actions are necessary.
Another advantage is that more tests can be carried out, which facilitates the use of statistical
methods in the control process.
The main disadvantages are that a relatively high capital expenditure is required to obtain the
equipment, and that field personnel are exposed to dangerous radioactive material, making it
imperative that strict safety standards be enforced when nuclear equipment is used.

Compaction equipment used in the field can be divided into two main categories. The first
category includes the equipment used for spreading the material to the desired layer or lift

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thickness, and the second category includes the equipment used to compact each layer of
material. Spreading of the material to the required thickness is done by bulldozers and motor
graders. Several types and sizes of graders and dozers are now available on the market. The
equipment used for any specific project will depend on the size of the project. A typical motor
grader is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 1.7 Typical Motor Grader

1.8.3 Compacting Equipment.

Rollers are used for field compaction and apply either a vibrating force or an impact force on the
soil. The type of roller used for any particular job depends on the type of soil to be compacted.
• Smooth Wheel Or Drum Roller
• Rubber-Tired Roller
• Sheepsfoot Roller
• Tamping Foot Roller

A smooth wheel or drum roller applies contact pressure of up to 55 lb/in.2 over 100 percent of
the soil area in contact with the wheel. This type of roller is generally used for finish rolling of
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subgrade material and can be used for all types of soil material except rocky soils. Figure 1.8 (a)
shows a typical smooth wheel roller.

(a) Smooth wheel roller

( a) Smooth wheel roller

(b) A rubber-tired roller

The rubber-tired roller is another type of contact roller, consisting of a heavily loaded wagon
with rows of 3 to 6 tires placed close to each other. The pressure in the tires may be up to 100
lb/in.2. They are used for both granular and cohesive materials. Figure 1.8(b) shows a typical
rubber-tired roller.
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The sheepsfoot has a drum wheel that can be filled with water. The drum wheel has several
protrusions, which may be round or rectangular in shape, ranging from 5 to 12 in.2 in area. The
protrusions penetrate the loose soil and compact from the bottom to the top of each layer of soil,
as the number of passes increases. Contact pressures ranging from 200 to 1000 lb/in.2 can be
obtained from sheepsfoot rollers, depending on the size of the drum and whether or not it is filled
with water. The sheepsfoot roller is used mainly for cohesive soils.

Figure (1.8c) Typical Sheep-sfoot Roller

Tamping foot rollers are similar to sheep foot rollers in that they also have protrusions that are
used to obtain high contact pressures, ranging from 200 to 1200 lb/in.2. The feet of the tamping
foot rollers are specially hinged to obtain a kneading action while compacting the soil. As with
sheep foot rollers, tamping foot rollers compact from the bottom of the soil layer. Tamping foot
rollers are used mainly for compacting fine-grained soils.

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 Figure (1.8d) Tamping foot roller

1.9 Special Soil Tests for Pavement Design

The most commonly used test is the California Bearing Ratio Test.
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
CBR test involves the determination of the load-deformation curve of the soil in the laboratory
using the standard CBR testing equipment shown in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 CBR Testing Equipment

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It was originally developed by the California Division of Highways in 1929 prior to World War
II and was used in the design of some highway pavements.
The test is conducted on samples of soil compacted to required standards and immersed in water
for four days, during which time the samples are loaded with a surcharge that simulate the
estimated weight of pavement material the soil will support.
The objective of the test is to determine the relative strength of a soil with respect to crushed
rock, which is considered an excellent coarse base material.
This is obtained by conducting a penetration test on the samples still carrying the simulated load
and using a standard CBR equipment. The CBR is defined as

CBR = (
unit load for 0.1 piston penetration∈test specimen¿( Ib /¿2 ) ¿
unit load for 0.1 piston penetration∈standrad crushed

The unit load for 0.1 piston in standard crushed rock is usually taken as 1000 lb/in.2 (6.9 Mpa),
which gives the CBR as

(Unit load for 0.1 piston penetration∈test sample )

CBR = ×100
1000

The test is fully described in Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods
of Sampling and Testing by AASHTO and is standardized under the AASHTO designation of
T193.
The main criticism of the CBR test is that it does not correctly simulate the shearing forces
imposed on sub-base and subgrade materials as they support highway pavements.

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2.0 Engineering Properties of Aggregates
Lesson objectives
At the end of the course, students should be:
 Know the engineering properties of aggregates in Civil Engineering
 Aware of the various tests conducted on aggregates.

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Properties of Aggregates
 Aggregates tests

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A seminar on aggregates by an engineer from Ghana highway Authority, Department of
Urban roads or Department of Feeder roads.

 A seminar on an ongoing road construction by a practicing road engineer on;

o The tests conducted on aggregates to determine its suitability for the highway
construction.

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2.1 Introduction
Aggregate plays an important role in construction. Aggregates influence, to a great extent, the
load transfer capability of pavements. Therefore, it is necessary that they should be completely
tested before slabs using for construction. Not only the aggregates should be strong and durable,
aggregates should also have proper shape and size to make the element pavement act
monolithically.
Aggregate is a collective term for the mineral materials such as sand, gravel, and crushed stone
that are used with a binding medium (such as water, bitumen, Portland cement, lime, etc.) to
form compound materials (such as bituminous concrete and Portland cement concrete). By
volume, aggregate generally accounts for 92 to 96 percent of Bituminous concrete and about 70
to 80 percent of Portland cement concrete. Aggregate is also used for base and sub-base courses
for both flexible and rigid pavements.
Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are generally extracted
from larger rock formations through an open excavation (quarry). Extracted rock is typically
reduced to usable sizes by mechanical crushing. Manufactured aggregate is often a bye product
of other manufacturing industries.
The aggregates are tested for strength, toughness, hardness, shape, and water absorption.
Different types of test on aggregate like impact test, abrasion test, crushing value test, soundness
test, etc. are carried out to decide the suitability of aggregate.

2.2 Properties of Aggregates

The origin, distribution, and aggregate types found within Ghana. The intent of this chapter is to
familiarize the personnel responsible for aggregate testing with:

1) Related physical properties

2) Chemical properties
3) General field characteristics of these aggregates
Recognition of these properties and characteristics assists the Technician in evaluating the
different aggregates used in highway construction.

Aggregate particles have certain physical and chemical properties which make the aggregate
acceptable or unacceptable for specific uses and conditions. The following are of concern to
INDOT.
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2.2.1 Physical Properties
The physical properties of aggregates are those that refer to the physical structure of the particles
that make up the aggregate.

1. Absorption, Porosity, and Permeability

The internal pore characteristics are very important properties of aggregates. The size, the
number, and the continuity of the pores through an aggregate particle may affect the strength of
the aggregate, abrasion resistance, surface texture, specific gravity, bonding capabilities, and
resistance to freezing and thawing action.

Absorption relates to the particle's ability to take in a liquid. Porosity is a ratio of the volume of
the pores to the total volume of the particle. Permeability refers to the particle's ability to allow
liquids to pass through. If the rock pores are not connected, a rock may have high porosity and
low permeability.

2. Surface Texture
Surface texture is the pattern and the relative roughness or smoothness of the aggregate particle.
Surface texture plays a big role in developing the bond between an aggregate particle and a
cementing material. A rough surface texture gives the cementing material something to grip,
producing a stronger bond, and thus creating a stronger hot mix asphalt or portland cement
concrete.

Surface texture also affects the workability of hot mix asphalt, the asphalt requirements of hot
mix asphalt, and the water requirements of portland cement concrete. Some aggregates may
initially have good surface texture, but may polish smooth later under traffic. These aggregates
are unacceptable for final wearing surfaces. Limestone usually falls into this category. Dolomite
does not, in general, when the magnesium content exceeds a minimum quantity of the material.

3. Strength and Elasticity

Strength is a measure of the ability of an aggregate particle to stand up to pulling or crushing
forces. Elasticity measures the "stretch" in a particle.

High strength and elasticity are desirable in aggregate base and surface courses. These qualities
minimize the rate of disintegration and maximize the stability of the compacted material. The
best results for portland cement concrete may be obtained by compromising between high and
low strength, and elasticity. This permits volumetric changes to take place more uniformly
throughout the concrete.
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 4. Density and Specific Gravity
Density is the weight per unit of volume of a substance. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density
of the substance to the density of water.

Table 2.1: The following chart illustrates these relationships for some common substances.

Typical Values
Substance Specific Gravity Density (lb/ft3)
Water 1.0 (73.4 °F) 62.4 lb/ft3 (73.4 °F)
Limestone 2.6 165 to 170 lb/ft3
Lead 11.0 680 to 690 lb/ft3

The density and the specific gravity of an aggregate particle is dependent upon the density and
specific gravity of the minerals making up the particle and upon the porosity of the particle.
These may be defined as follows:

1) All of the pore space (bulk density or specific gravity)

2) Some of the pore space (effective density or specific gravity)

3) None of the pore space (apparent density or specific gravity)

Determining the porosity of aggregate is often necessary; however, measuring the volume of
pore space is difficult. Correlations may be made between porosity and the bulk, apparent and
effective specific gravities of the aggregate.

As an example, specific gravity information about a particular aggregate helps in determining the
amount of asphalt needed in the hot mix asphalt. If an aggregate is highly absorptive, the
aggregate continues to absorb asphalt, after initial mixing at the plant, until the mix cools down
completely. This process leaves less asphalt for bonding purposes; therefore, a more porous
aggregate requires more asphalt than a less porous aggregate. The porosity of the aggregate may
be taken into consideration in determining the amount of asphalt required by applying the three
types of specific gravity measurements.

In the example in Figure 3-1, the bulk specific gravity includes all the pores, the apparent
specific gravity does not include any of the pores that would fill with water during a soaking, and

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the effective specific gravity excludes only those pores that would absorb asphalt. Correlation
charts and tables provide guidance to asphalt quantities or acceptability of the aggregate.

5. Aggregate Voids
There are aggregate particle voids, and there are voids between aggregate particles. As solid as
aggregate may be to the naked eye, most aggregate particles have voids, which are natural pores
that are filled with air or water. These voids or pores influence the specific gravity and absorption
of the aggregate materials.

Figure 2-1. Aggregate Specific Gravities.

The voids within an aggregate particle should not be confused with the void system which makes
up the space between particles in an aggregate mass. The voids between the particles influence
the design of hot mix asphalt or Portland cement concrete.

6. Hardness
The hardness of the minerals that make up the aggregate particles and the firmness with which
the individual grains are cemented or interlocked control the resistance of the aggregate to
abrasion and degradation. Soft aggregate particles are composed of minerals with a low degree of
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hardness. Weak particles have poor cementation. Neither type is acceptable. The Mohs Hardness
Scale is frequently used for determination of mineral hardness (Figure 3-2). Although there is no
recognizable INDOT specification or requirement which pertains to Mohs Hardness Scale, the
interpretation, concept, and use of this scale is useful for the field identification of potentially
inferior aggregates

Figure 2-2. Relative Hardness of Minerals in Moh’s scale (numbers in parentheses)

7. Particle Shape
The shape of the aggregate particles affects such things as:

1) The asphalt demands of hot mix asphalt

2) The workability and the strength of both portland cement concrete and asphalt pavements

The best aggregates to use for strength are crushed stone or crushed gravel.

Crushed aggregate have irregular, angular particles that tend to interlock when compacted or
consolidated.

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The crushed stone or crushed gravel aggregate make the asphalt or concrete mix somewhat
difficult to place. To improve the workability, many mixes contain both angular and round
particles. The coarse aggregate particles are usually crushed stone or crushed gravel, and the fine
aggregate particles are usually natural sand. The Standard Specifications detail the requirements
for crushed materials for various uses.

8. Coatings
Coating is a layer of substance covering a part or the entire surface of an aggregate particle. The
coating may be of natural origin, such as mineral deposits formed in sand and gravel by ground
water, or may be artificial, such as dust formed by crushing and handling.

Generally when the aggregates are used in hot mix asphalt or portland cement concrete mixes,
the aggregates are required to be washed to remove the coating (contaminant) left on the
particles. The coating may prevent a good bond from forming between the aggregate surfaces
and the cementing agent. The coating could even increase the quantity of bonding agent required
in the mixture. If the quantity of the coating varies from batch to batch, undesirable fluctuations
in the consistency of the mix may result. Deposits containing aggregates which display a history
of coating problems require decantation.

2.2.1.1 Undesirable Physical Components

Particles with undesirable physical characteristics include but are not limited to the following:

 Non-durable soft or structurally weak particles

 Clay lumps or clay balls
 Flat or elongated particles
 Organic matter contaminants
 Lightweight chert

2.2.2 Chemical Properties

The chemical properties of aggregates have to do with the molecular structure of the minerals in
the aggregate particles.

1. Composition
The chemical composition of aggregate is significant in determining the difference between
limestone and dolomite. Limestone is a rock consisting mainly or wholly of calcium carbonate
and has a tendency to polish smooth under traffic. Therefore, limestone is limited to use in low

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traffic-volume HMA surface courses. Dolostone under traffic maintains a higher-friction, skid-
resistant surface and is used on higher traffic volume locations. Dolostone is a carbonate rock
which consists largely of calcium magnesium carbonate.

The word dolomite is the mineral calcium magnesium carbonate Ca Mg (Co3)2. INDOT uses
elemental magnesium (Mg) content test to determine if a rock source is dolomitic. Elemental
magnesium content of 10.3 percent or above is required for dolomite aggregates.

Some aggregates have minerals that are subject to oxidation, hydration, and carbonation. These
properties are not particularly harmful, except when the aggregates are used in portland cement
concrete. As might be expected, iron sulfides, ferric and ferrous oxides, free lime, and free
magnesia in industrial products and wastes are some of the common substances. Any of these
substances may cause distress in the portland cement concrete and give the concrete an unsightly
appearance.

2. Reactions with Asphalt and Cement

There are several types of substances found in mineral aggregates which may have a negative
effect on the cementing and overall performance qualities of asphalt and cement. Most are rarely
significant but various organic substances may retard hardening, reduce strength development or
cause excessive air entrainment in portland cement concrete. These organic substances include,
but are not limited to, mica, iron oxide, lightweight chert, shale, coal, and lignite.

3. Surface Charge
Aggregate particle surfaces possess either positive or negative electrical charges. Limestone and
dolostone generally have a high affection for liquid asphalt.

2.2.3 General Characteristics

Aggregates have three primary uses in highway construction:

1) As compacted aggregates in bases, subbases and shoulders

2) As ingredients in hot mix asphalt

3) As ingredients in portland cement concrete

Aggregates may also be used as special backfill material, riprap, mineral filler, and other less
significant uses.

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 1) Compacted Aggregates
Compacted aggregates without the addition of a cementing material may be used as a base or
subbase for hot mix asphalt and portland cement concrete pavements. Portland cement concrete
pavements are rigid pavements. For these types of pavements, the purpose of the base may be to
improve drainage, to prevent pumping, or to cover a material that is highly susceptible to frost.

Consequently, gradation and soundness are the primary considerations in selecting or evaluating
aggregates for bases under rigid pavements.

The load-carrying capacity is a primary factor in the selection of aggregates for hot mix asphalt
pavements. A hot mix asphalt pavement does not carry the load; help from the underlying base
courses is required. In addition to gradation requirements, the aggregates are required to also
possess the strength to carry and transmit the applied loads.

Aggregates are sometimes used to make up the entire pavement structure. In this type of
pavement, aggregates are placed on the natural soil to serve as a base course and surface course.
Again, the primary requirement is the gradation.

In many instances, compacted aggregates are also used to construct roadway shoulders and
berms. In these applications, gradation and stability are very important.

2) Aggregate For Hot Mix Asphalt

INDOT uses hot mix asphalt in a number of different ways. In all cases the aggregates used
should meet five requirements:

 Strong, tough and durable

 The ability to be crushed into bulky particles, without many flaky particles, slivers or
pieces that are thin and elongated
 Low porosity
 Low permeability
 Correct particle size and gradation for the type of pavement

3) Aggregates for Portland cement Concrete

There are many uses of Portland cement concrete in highway construction. Some of the major
uses of aggregates are in rigid-pavement slabs, bridges, concrete barriers, sidewalks, curbs, slope
walls, and other structures. Aggregates in Portland cement concrete are required to always be
physically and chemically stable. Other factors to be considered include:

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1) The size, distribution, and interconnection of voids within individual particles

2) The surface character and texture of the particles

3) The gradation of the coarse and fine aggregates

4) The mineral composition of the particles

5) The particle shape

6) Soundness abrasion resistance

7) Water absorption

2.2.4 Other Aggregates

There are other uses for aggregates in highway construction. The requirements are somewhat
different from the ones already discussed; however, in most cases, gradation as a controlling
factor is common to all applications.

2.2.5 Desirable properties of aggregates

 Strength
The aggregates used in top layers are subjected to (i) Stress action due to traffic wheel load, (ii)
Wear and tear, (iii) crushing. For a high quality pavement, the aggregates should possess high
resistance to crushing, and to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load.
 Hardness
The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to
moving traffic. The aggregates should be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by the
movements of traffic. The abrasive action is severe when steel tyred vehicles moves over the
aggregates exposed at the top surface.
 Toughness
Resistance of the aggregates to impact is termed as toughness. Aggregates used in the pavement
should be able to resist the effect caused by the jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one
particle to another at different levels causes’ severe impact on the aggregates.
 Shape of aggregates
Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range may have rounded cubical, angular,
flaky or elongated particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less

39 | P a g e
strength and durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same
aggregate. Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as
possible.
 Adhesion with bitumen
The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with water when
compared with bituminous materials; otherwise the bituminous coating on the aggregate will be
stripped off in presence of water.
 Durability
The property of aggregates to withstand adverse action of weather is called soundness. The
aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities
there-in and that of atmosphere, hence it is desirable that the road aggregates used in the
construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action
 Freedom from deleterious particles
Specifications for aggregates used in bituminous mixes usually require the aggregates to be
clean, tough and durable in nature and free from excess amount of flat or elongated pieces, dust,
clay balls and other objectionable material. Similarly aggregates used in Portland cement
concrete mixes must be clean and free from deleterious substances such as clay lumps, chert, silt
and other organic impurities.

2.6 Aggregate Tests

In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following
tests are carried out:
• Crushing test
• Abrasion test
• Impact test
• Soundness test
• Shape test
• Specific gravity and water absorption test
• Bitumen adhesion test

1. Crushing test
One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress. A
test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to determine the crushing strength of

40 | P a g e
aggregates. The aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing
under gradually applied crushing load. The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate
in standard mould to a compression test under standard load conditions (Figure 1). Dry
aggregates passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a cylindrical
measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers. Each layer is tampered 25 times
with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is weighed and placed in the test cylinder in three
layers each layer being tampered again. The specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40
tonnes gradually applied at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then
sieved through 2.36 mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of
the weight of the total sample (W1) which is the aggregate crushing value.
w1
Aggregate crushing value= × 100
w2
A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above 35 would normally
be regarded as weak aggregates.

Load

Piston

Sample

Figure 2.3: Crushing test setup

2. Abrasion test
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they
are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los Angeles abrasion test is a preferred
one for carrying out the hardness property and has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-IV).
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing
action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.

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Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length 520 mm
mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated (see Figure 2). An abrasive charge consisting
of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and weight 340 - 445 g is placed in the cylinder
along with the aggregates. The number of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of
the sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges
from 5-10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of 500
-1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and passed fraction is
expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value is called Los Angeles abrasion
value. A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian conditions.
For bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 is specified.

Cover Plate

Steel Balls

Figure 2.4: Los Angeles abrasion test setup

3. Impact test
The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.
Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in a cylindrical steel cup
of internal diameter 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is attached to a metal base of impact testing
machine. The material is filled in 3 layers where each layer is tamped for 25 number of blows.
Metal hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by vertical
guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 number of blows. The crushed aggregate is
allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact value is measured as percentage of
aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total weight of the sample (W1).
w1
Aggregate impact value= × 100
w2

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Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn’t exceed 30 percent. For
bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35 percent. For Water bound macadam
base courses the maximum permissible value defined by IRC is 40 percent.

4. Soundness test
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by
conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and
thawing is likely to disintegrate prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they
are subjected to an accelerated soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V. Aggregates of
specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a saturated solution of either sodium
sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 - 18 hours and then dried in oven at 105 − 110 oC to a
constant weight. After five cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out
all undersized particles and weighing. And the loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when
tested with sodium sulphate and 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution.
5. Shape tests
The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated
particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher workability and
stability of mixes. The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate
particles whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Test procedure had been
standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-I). The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the
percentage by weight of particles whose greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean
dimension. This test is applicable to aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. This test is also specified in
(IS: 2386 Part-I). However there are no recognized limits for the elongation index.

Figure 2.5: Flakiness gauge

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 6. Specific Gravity and water absorption
The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties that are required
for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio of its
mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature. Because the
aggregates may contain water-permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of aggregates
are used: apparent specific gravity and bulk specific gravity.

Figure 2.6: Elongation gauge

 Apparent Specific Gravity,tt app , is computed on the basis of the net volume of aggregates
i.e the volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus
M D /V N
tt app =
W
Where, MD is the dry mass of the aggregate, VN is the net volume of the aggregates
excluding the volume of the absorbed matter, W is the density of water.
•

 Bulk Specific Gravity,tt bulk , is computed on the basis of the total volume of aggregates
including water permeable voids. Thus
M D /V B
tt bulk =
W
Where, VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.

 Water absorption: the difference between the apparent and bulk specific gravities is
nothing but the water- permeable voids of the aggregates. We can measure the volume of
such voids by weighing the aggregates dry and in a saturated, surface dry condition, with
all permeable voids filled with water. The difference of the above two is Mw. Mw is the
weight of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated surface dry condition.
Thus
MW
water absorption= × 100
MD
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The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from about 2.5 to
2.9. Water absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for aggregates normally used
in road surfacing.

7. Bitumen adhesion test

Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free from
dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous construction.
Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt with by
removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing temperature. Further,
the presence of water causes stripping of binder from the coated aggregates. These problems
occur when bitumen mixture is permeable to water. Several laboratory tests are conducted to
arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to an aggregate in the presence of water.
Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite simple. The principle of the test is by
immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water maintained at 40 0C temperature for 24
hours. IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 5%.

Table 2.2: Tests for Aggregates

Property of aggregate Type of Test
Crushing strength Crushing test
Hardness Los Angeles abrasion test
Toughness Aggregate impact test
Durability Soundness test- accelerated durability test
Shape factors Shape test
Specific gravity and porosity Specific gravity test and water absorption test
Adhesion to bitumen Stripping value of aggregate

2.6.1 Factors affecting Pavement Design

There are many factors that affect pavement design which can be classified into four categories
as traffic and loading, structural models, material characterization, environment.
a) Traffic and loading
Traffic is the most important factor in the pavement design. The key factors include contact
pressure, wheel load, axle configuration, moving loads, load, and load repetitions.

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Contact pressure: The tyre pressure is an important factor, as it determines the contact area and
the contact pressure between the wheel and the pavement surface. Even though the shape of the
contact area is elliptical, for sake of simplicity in analysis, a circular area is often considered.
Wheel load: The next important factor is the wheel load which determines the depth of the
pavement required to ensure that the subgrade soil is not failed. Wheel configuration affects the
stress distribution and deflection within a pavement. Many commercial vehicles have dual rear
wheels which ensure that the contact pressure is within the limits. The normal practice is to
convert dual wheel into an equivalent single wheel load so that the analysis is made simpler.

Axle configuration: The load carrying capacity of the commercial vehicle is further enhanced by
the introduction of multiple axles.

Moving loads: The damage to the pavement is much higher if the vehicle is moving at creep
speed. Many studies show that when the speed is increased from 2 km/hr to 24 km/hr, the
stresses and deflection reduced by 40 per cent.
Repetition of Loads: The influence of traffic on pavement not only depends on the magnitude of
the wheel load, but also on the frequency of the load applications. Each load application causes
some deformation and the total deformation is the summation of all these. Although the
pavement deformation due to single axle load is very small, the cumulative effect of number of
load repetition is significant. Therefore, modern design is based on total number of standard axle
load (usually 80 kN single axle).

b) Structural models
The structural models are various analysis approaches to determine the pavement responses
(stresses, strains, and deflections) at various locations in a pavement due to the application of
wheel load. The most common structural models are layered elastic model and visco-elastic
models. Layered elastic model: A layered elastic model can compute stresses, strains, and
deflections at any point in a pavement structure resulting from the application of a surface load.
Layered elastic models assume that each pavement structural layer is homogeneous, isotropic,
and linearly elastic. In other words, the material properties are same at every point in a given
layer and the layer will rebound to its original form once the load is removed. The layered elastic
approach works with relatively simple a mathematical model that relates stress, strain, and

46 | P a g e
deformation with wheel loading and material properties like modulus of elasticity and poissons
ratio.

c) Material characterization
The following material properties are important for both flexible and rigid pavements.
 When pavements are considered as linear elastic, the elastic moduli and poisson ratio of
subgrade and each component layer must be specified.
 If the elastic modulus of a material varies with the time of loading, then the resilient
modulus, which is elastic modulus under repeated loads, must be selected in accordance
with a load duration corresponding to the vehicle speed.
 When a material is considered non-linear elastic, the constitutive equation relating the
resilient modulus to the state of the stress must be provided.
However, many of these material properties are used in visco-elastic models which are very
complex and in the development stage. This book covers the layered elastic model which
requires the modulus of elasticity and poisson ratio only.

d) Environmental factors
Environmental factors affect the performance of the pavement materials and cause various
damages. Environmental factors that affect pavement are of two types, temperature and
precipitation and they are discussed below:
 Temperature
The effect of temperature on asphalt pavements is different from that of concrete pavements.
Temperature affects the resilient modulus of asphalt layers, while it induces curling of concrete
slab. In rigid pavements, due to difference in temperatures of top and bottom of slab, temperature
stresses or frictional stresses are developed.
While in flexible pavement, dynamic modulus of asphaltic concrete varies with temperature.
Frost heave causes differential settlements and pavement roughness. Most detrimental effect of
frost penetration occurs during the spring break up period when the ice melts and subgrade is a
saturated condition.
 Precipitation
The precipitation from rain and snow affects the quantity of surface water infiltrating into the
subgrade and the depth of ground water table. Poor drainage may bring lack of shear strength,
pumping, loss of support, etc.

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3.0 Soil Stabilization
Lesson objectives:
At end of the course, students should;
 Have general knowledge and understanding of soil stabilization
 Be able to select the type of additives to improve the construction qualities of available
soil.
 Be aware of the advantages and limitations of soil stabilization methods.

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Soil Stabilization Methods

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to various transport agencies / operators / operatives in the metropolis and conduct
a study on;

o Soil Stabilization Techniques

o Factors Affecting the Strength of Stabilized Soil
 A visit to Ghana Highway Authority to have an advance knowledge on the Soil
Stabilization.

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3.1 Introduction
Soil stabilization may be defined as the alteration or preservation of one or more soil properties
to improve the engineering characteristics and performance of a soil.

Stabilization, in a broad sense, incorporates the various methods employed for modifying the
properties of a soil to improve its engineering performance. Soil stabilization refers to the
procedure in which a special soil, cementing material, or other chemical materials are added to a
natural soil to improve one or more of its properties. One may achieve stabilization by
mechanically mixing the natural soil and stabilizing material together so as to achieve a
homogeneous mixture or by adding stabilizing material to an undisturbed soil deposit and
obtaining interaction by letting it permeate through soil voids. Soil stabilizing additives are used
to improve the properties of less-desirable rood soils. When used these stabilizing agents can
improve and maintain soil moisture content, increase soil particle cohesion and serve as
cementing and water proofing agents. A difficult problem in civil engineering works exists when
the sub-grade is found to be clay soil. Soils having high clay content have the tendency to swell
when their moisture content is allowed to increase. Many research have been done on the subject
of soil stabilization using various additives, the most common methods of soil stabilization of
clay soils in pavement work are cement and lime stabilization. The high strengths obtained from
cement and lime stabilization may not always be required, however, and there is justification for
seeking cheaper additives which may be used to alter the soil properties. Lime or calcium
carbonate is oldest traditional chemical stabilizer used for soil stabilization.

Soil stabilization is a method of improving soil properties by blending and mixing other
materials. Soil stabilization is the process of improving the shear strength parameters of soil and
thus increasing the bearing capacity of soil. It is required when the soil available for construction
is not suitable to carry structural load. Soil stabilization is used to reduce permeability and
compressibility of the soil mass in earth structures and to increase its shear strength. Thus to
reduce the settlement of structures. Soil stabilization involves the use of stabilizing agents
(binder materials) in weak soils to improve its geotechnical properties such as compressibility,
strength, permeability and durability.

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3.2 Soil Stabilization Methods
In road construction projects, soil or gravelly material is used as the road main body in pavement
layers. To have required strength against tensile stresses and strains spectrum, the soil used for
constructing pavement should have special specification. Through soil stabilization, unbound
materials can be stabilized with cementitious materials (cement, lime, fly ash, bitumen or
combination of these). The stabilized soil materials have a higher strength, lower permeability
and lower compressibility than the native soil. The method can be achieved in two ways, namely;

1) In situ stabilization and

2) Ex - situ stabilization.
Note that, stabilization not necessary a magic wand by which every soil properties can be
improved for better. The decision to technological usage depends on which soil properties have
to be modified. The chief properties of soil which are of interest to engineers are volume
stability, strength, compressibility, permeability and durability.

Some stabilization techniques are listed below

a) Mechanical Stabilization
b) Stabilization by using different types admixers
 Lime Stabilization
 Cement Stabilization
 Chemical Stabilization
 Fly ash Stabilization
 Rice Husk ash Stabilization
 Bituminous Stabilization
 Thermal Stabilization
 Electrical Stabilization
 Stabilization by Geo-textile and Fabrics
 Recycled and Waste Products etc.

1) Mechanical Stabilization
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Mechanical Stabilization is the process of improving the properties of the soil by changing its
gradation. This process includes soil compaction and densification by application of mechanical
energy using various sorts of rollers, rammers, vibration techniques and sometime blasting. The
stability of the soil in this method relies on the inherent properties of the soil material. Two or
more types of natural soils are mixed to obtain a composite material which is superior to any of
its components. Mechanical stabilization is accomplished by mixing or blending soils of two or
more gradations to obtain a material meeting the required specification.

2) Stabilization by using different types admixers

 Lime Stabilization
Lime provides an economical way of soil stabilization. The method of soil improvement in which
lime is added to the soil to improve its properties is known as lime stabilization. The types of
lime used to the soil are hydrated high calcium lime, monohydrated dolomite lime, calcite quick
lime, dolomite lime. The quantity of lime is used in most soil stabilizer is in the range of 5% to
10%. Lime modification describes an increase in strength brought by cation exchange capacity
rather than cementing effect brought by pozzolanic reaction. In soil modification, as clay
particles flocculates, transforms natural plate like clays particles into needle like interlocking
metalline structures. Clay soils turn drier and less susceptible to water content changes. Lime
stabilization may refer to pozzolanic reaction in which pozzolana materials reacts with lime in
presence of water to produce cementitious compounds.

The effect can be brought by either quicklime, CaO or hydrated lime, Ca(OH)2. Slurry lime also
can be used in dry soils conditions where water may be required to achieve effective compaction.
Quicklime is the most commonly used lime; the followings are the advantages of quicklime over
hydrated lime higher available free lime content per unit mass - denser than hydrated lime (less
storage space is required) and less dust - generates heat which accelerate strength gain and large
reduction in moisture content according to the reaction equation below CaO + H 2O → Ca(OH)
2 + Heat (65kJ / mol)

Quicklime when mixed with wet soils, immediately takes up to 32% of its own weight of water
from the surrounding soil to form hydrated lime; the generated heat accompanied by this reaction
will further cause loss of water due to evaporation which in turn results into increased plastic
limit of soil i.e. drying out and absorption. The effect can be explained from Figure 1 for 6 soils
at a moisture content of 35% and plastic limit 25%. Addition of 2% lime will change the plastic
limit to 40% so that the moisture content of the soil will be 5% below plastic limit instead of 10%
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above plastic limit. Sherwood investigated the decrease in plasticity as brought about in first
instance by cation exchange in which cations of sodium and hydrogen are replaced by calcium
ions for which the clay mineral has a greater water affinity. Even in soils (e.g. calcareous soils)
where, clay may be saturated with calcium ions, addition of lime will increase pH and hence
increase the exchange capacity. Like cement, lime when reacts with wet clay minerals result into
increased pH which favors solubility of siliceous and aluminous compounds. These compounds
react with calcium to form calcium silica and calcium alumina hydrates, a cementitious product
similar to those of cement paste. Natural pozzolanas materials containing silica and alumina (e.g.
clay minerals, pulverized fly ash, PFA, blast furnace slag) have great potential to react with lime.
Lime stabilizations technology is mostly widely used in geotechnical and environmental
applications. Some of applications include encapsulation of contaminants, rendering of backfill
(e.g. wet cohesive soil), highway capping, slope stabilization and foundation improvement such
as in use of lime pile or lime-stabilized soil columns.

However, presence of sulphur and organic materials may inhibit the lime stabilization process.
Sulphate (e.g. gypsum) will react with lime and swell, which may have effect on soil strength.

 Cement Stabilization
Soil cement stabilization is soil particles bonding caused by hydration of the cement particles
which grow into crystals that can interlock with one another giving a high compressive strength.
In order to achieve a successful bond the cement particles need to coat most of the material
particles. To provide good contact between soil particles and cement, and thus efficient soil
cement stabilization, mixing the cement and soil with certain particle size distribution is
necessary.

Soil-cement is a highly compacted mixture of soil/aggregate, cement, and water. Soil-cement is

sometimes called cement-stabilized base, or cement-treated aggregate base. Soil-cement becomes
a hard and durable material as the cement hydrates and develops strength. Cement stabilization is
done when the compaction process is continuing. As the cement fills the void between the soil
particles, the void ratio of soil is reduced. After this when water is added to the soil, cement
reacts with water and goes hard. So, unit weight of soil is increased. Because of hardening of
cement shear strength and bearing capacity is also increased. Cement helps decrease the liquid
limit and increase the plasticity index and workability of clayey soils. Cement reaction is not
dependent on soil minerals, and the key role is its reaction with water that may be available in
any soil. This can be the reason why cement is used to stabilize a wide range of soils.
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Numerous types of cement are available in the market; these are ordinary Portland cement, blast
furnace cement, sulfate resistant cement and high alumina cement. Usually the choice of cement
depends on type of soil to be treated and desired final strength. Hydration process is a process
under which cement reaction takes place. The process starts when cement is mixed with water
and other components for a desired application resulting into hardening phenomena. The
hardening (setting) of cement will enclose soil as glue, but it will not change the structure of soil.
The hydration reaction is slow proceeding from the surface of the cement grains and the center of
the grains may remain unhydrated. Cement hydration is a complex process with a complex series
of unknown chemical reactions.

However, this process can be affected by

(a) Presence of foreign matters or impurities
(b) water-cement ratio
(c) Curing temperature
(d) Presence of additives
(e) Specific surface of the mixture.
Depending on factor(s) involved, the ultimate effect on setting and gain in strength of cement
stabilized soil may vary. Therefore, this should be taken into account during mix design in order
to achieve the desired strength. Calcium silicates, C3S and C2S are the two main cementitious
properties of ordinary Portland cement responsible for strength development. Calcium hydroxide
is another hydration product of Portland cement that further reacts with pozzolanic five materials
available in stabilized soil to produce further cementitious material. Normally the amount of
cement used is small but sufficient to improve the engineering properties of the soil and further
improved cation exchange of clay. Cement stabilized soils have the following improved
properties:

(a) Decreased cohesiveness (Plasticity)

(b) Decreased volume expansion or compressibility
(c) Increased strength.

 Chemical Stabilization
Chemical stabilization of soil comprises of changing the physico-synthetic around and within
clay particles where by the earth obliges less water to fulfill the static imbalance.

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Calcium chloride being hygroscopic and deliquescent is used as a water retentive additive in
mechanically stabilized soil bases and surfacing. The vapor pressure gets lowered, surface
tension increases and rate of evaporation decreases. The freezing point of pure water gets
lowered and it results in prevention or reduction of frost heave. The depressing the electric
double layer, the salt reduces the water pick up and thus the loss of strength of fine grained soils.
Calcium chloride acts as a soil flocculent and facilitates compaction. Frequent application of
calcium chloride may be necessary to make up for the loss of chemical by leaching action. For
the salt to be effective, the relative humidity of the atmosphere should be above 30%. Sodium
chloride is the other chemical that can be used for this purpose with a stabilizing action similar to
that of calcium chloride. Sodium silicate is yet another chemical used for this purpose in
combination with other chemicals such as calcium chloride, polymers, chrome lignin, alkyl
chlorosilanes, siliconites, amines and quaternary ammonium salts, sodium hexametaphosphate,
phosphoric acid combined with a wetting agent.

 Fly ash Stabilization

Fly ash stabilization is gaining more importance recent times since it has wide spread
availability. This method is inexpensive and takes less time than any other methods. It has a long
history of use as an engineering material and has been successfully employed in geotechnical
applications. Fly ash is a byproduct of coal fired electric power generation facilities; it has little
cementations properties compared to lime and cement. Most of the fly ashes belong to secondary
binders; these binders cannot produce the desired effect on their own. However, in the presence
of a small amount of activator, it can react chemically to form cementations compound that
contributes to improved strength of soft soil.

However, soil fly ash stabilization has the following limitations:

(a) Soil to be stabilized shall have less moisture content; therefore, dewatering may be required.

(b) Soil-fly ash mixture cured below zero and then soaked in water is highly susceptible to
slaking and strength loss

(c) Sulfur contents can form expansive minerals in soil-fly ash mixture, which reduces the long
term strength and durability.

 Rice Husk ash Stabilization

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Disposal of solid waste on the land fill can be minimized if the waste is having desirable
properties such that they can be utilized for various geotechnical application viz. land
reclamation, construction of embankment etc. There are several methods used for improving
geotechnical properties of problematic soils that includes densification (such as shallow
compaction, dynamic deep compaction, pre-loading), drainage, inclusions (such as geosynthetics
and stone columns), and stabilizations. Chemical stabilization of the problematic soils is
especially significant in concerning with the treatment of soft fine-grained, expansive soils, and
collapsible loess deposits. Soil stabilization is the process which is used to improve the
engineering properties of the soil and thus making it more stable. Soil stabilization is required
when the soil available for construction is not suitable for the intended purpose. It includes
compaction, preconsolidation, drainage and many other such processes.

Rice husk ash (RHA) is a pozzolanic material that could be potentially used in soil stabilization,
though it is moderately produced and readily available. When rice husk is burnt under controlled
temperature, ash is produced and about 17%-25% of rice husk’s weight remains ash. Rice husk
ash and rice straw and bagasse are rich in silica and make an excellent pozzolana. Pozzolanas are
siliceous and aluminous materials, which in itself possess little or no cementations value, but
will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium
hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementations properties. The
Rice Husk Ash would appear to be an inert material with the silica in the crystalline form
suggested by the structure of the particles, it is very unlikely that it would react with lime to form
calcium silicates. It is also unlikely that it would be as reactive as fly ash, which is more finely
divided. So Rice Husk Ash would give great results when it used as a stabilizing material. The
ash would appear to be a very suitable light weight fill and should not present great.

 Bituminous Stabilization
Bituminous soil stabilization refers to a process by which a controlled amount of bituminous
material is thoroughly mixed with an existing soil or aggregate material to form a stable base or
wearing surface. Bitumen increases the cohesion and load-bearing capacity of the soil and
renders it resistant to the action of water. Bitumen stabilization accomplished by using asphalt
cement, asphalt cutback or asphalt emulsions. The type of bitumen to be used depends on the
type of soil to be stabilized, method of construction and weather conditions. In frost areas, the
use of tar as binder must be avoided because of its high temperature maximum susceptibility.

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Asphalts and tars are bituminous materials which are used for stabilization of soil, generally for
pavement construction. Bituminous materials when added to a soil, it imparts both cohesion and
reduced water absorption.

 Thermal Stabilization
Thermal change causes a marked improvement in the properties of the soil. Thermal stabilization
is done either by heating the soil or by cooling it.

Heating: As the soil is heated, its water content decreases. Electric repulsion between clay
particles is decreased and the strength of the soil is increased.

Freezing: cooling causes a small loss of strength of clayey soils due to an increase in
interparticles repulsion. However, if the temperature is reduced to the freezing point, the pore
water freezes and the soil is stabilized.

 Electrical Stabilization
Electrical stabilization of clayey soils is done by a process known as electro-osmosis. As a direct
current (DC) is passed through a clayey soil, pore water migrates to the negative electrode
(cathode). It occurs because of attraction of positive ions (cations) that are present in water
towards cathode. The strength of the soil is considerably increased due to removal of water.
Electro-osmosis is an expensive method, and is mainly used for drainage of cohesive soils.
Incidentally, the properties of the soil are also improved.

 Stabilization by Geo-textile and Fabrics

Geotextiles are porous fabrics made of synthetic materials such as polyethylene, polyester,
nylons and polyvinyl chloride. Woven, non-woven and grid form varieties of geotextiles are
available. Geotextiles have a high strength. When properly embedded in soil, it contributes to its
stability. It is used in the construction of unpaved roads over soft soils.

Reinforcing the soil for stabilization by metallic strips into it and providing an anchor or tie back
to restrain a facing skin element. Past research has shown that the strength and load-bearing
capacity of subgrades and base course materials can be improved through the inclusion of no
biodegradable reinforcing materials, such as fibers, geotextiles, geogrids, and geocomposites.
Use of these materials can improve the performance and durability of future highways and may
reduce the cost of construction. At present, most of the research on these materials is based on
56 | P a g e
tests conducted in the laboratory that are only partially complete. Further laboratory tests and
evaluations will be necessary to develop design specifications based on material properties, and
these specifications will need to be verified using large-scale field tests.

 Recycled and Waste Products

Improved chemical and mechanical stabilization techniques are needed for such waste materials
as crushed old asphalt pavement, copper and zinc slag, paper mill sludge, and rubber tire chips.
The need to recycle many potentially hazardous materials, it will be necessary to develop a
realistic, economical and effective means of assessing the risk of pollution posed by these
materials through leachates and emissions. In some cases, risk evaluation is hampered by
restrictive environmental constraints, and this issue needs to be addressed as well.

Factors Affecting the Strength of Stabilized Soil

Presence of organic matters, sulphates, sulphides and carbon dioxide in the stabilized soils may
contribute to undesirable strength of stabilized materials

1. Organic Matter
In many cases, the top layers of most soil constitute large amount of organic matters. However,
in well drained soils organic matter may extend to a depth of 1.5 m. Soil organic matters react
with hydration product e.g. calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2) resulting into low pH value. The
resulting low pH value may retard the 10 hydration process and affect the hardening of stabilized
soils making it difficult or impossible to compact.

2. Sulphates
The use of calcium-based stabilizer in sulphate-rich soils causes the stabilized sulphate rich soil
in the presence of excess moisture to react and form calcium sulphoaluminate (ettringite) and or
thamausite, the product which occupy a greater volume than the combined volume of reactants.

However, excess water to one initially present during the time of mixing may be required to
dissolve sulphate in order to allow the reaction to proceed 16.

3. Sulphides
In many of waste materials and industrial by-product, sulphides in form of iron pyrites (FeS2)
may be present. Oxidation of FeS2 will produce sulphuric acid, which in the presence of calcium

57 | P a g e
carbonate, may react to form gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) according to the reactions (1)
and (2) below;
(1) 2FeS2 + 2H2O +7O2= 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4

(2) CaCO3 + H2SO4 + H2O = CaSO4.2 H2O + CO2

The hydrated sulphate so formed, and in the presence of excess water may attack the stabilized
material in a similar way as sulphate. Even so, gypsum can also be found in natural soil.

4. Compaction
In practice, the effect of addition of binder to the density of soil is of significant importance.
Stabilized mixture has lower maximum dry density than that of unstabilized soil for a given
degree of compaction. The optimum moisture content increases with increasing binders. In
cement stabilized soils, hydration process takes place immediately after cement comes into
contact with water. This process involves hardening of soil mix which means that it is necessary
to compact the soil mix as soon as possible. Any delay in compaction may result in hardening of
stabilized soil mass and therefore extra compaction effort may be required to bring the same
effect. That may lead to serious bond breakage and hence loss of strength. In contrary to cement,
delay in compaction for lime-stabilized soils may have some advantages. Lime stabilized soil
require mellowing period to allow lime to diffuse through the soil thus producing maximum
effects on plasticity. After this period, lime stabilized soil may be remixed and given its final
compaction resulting into remarkable strength than otherwise.

5. Moisture Content
In stabilized soils, enough moisture content is essential not only for hydration process to proceed
but also for efficient compaction. Fully hydrated cement takes up about 20% of its own weight of
water from the surrounding; on other hand, Quicklime (CaO) takes up about 32% of its own
weight of water from the surrounding. Insufficient moisture content will cause binders to 12
compete with soils in order to gain these amounts of moisture. For soils with great soil water
affinity (such as clay, peat and organic soils), the hydration process may be retarded due to
insufficient moisture content, which will ultimately affect the final strength.

6. Temperature
Pozzolanic reaction is sensitive to changes in temperature. In the field, temperature varies
continuously throughout the day. Pozzolanic reactions between binders and soil particles will

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slow down at low temperature and result into lower strength of the stabilized mass. In cold
regions, it may be advisable to stabilize the soil during the warm season.

7. Freeze-Thaw and Dry-Wet Effect

Stabilized soils cannot withstand freeze-thaw cycles. Therefore, in the field, it may be necessary
to protect the stabilized soils against frost damage. Shrinkage forces in stabilized soil will depend
on the chemical reactions of the binder. Cement stabilized soil are susceptible to frequent dry-wet
cycles due to diurnal changes in temperature which may give rise to stresses within a stabilized
soil and, therefore, should be protected from such effects.

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4.0 Highway Alignment
Lesson objective:
At the end of the course, students should be able to;
 Understand the factors influencing highway alignment.
 Understand basic Engineering Surveys for Highway locations

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Requirements of highway alignment
 Factors controlling alignment
 Engineering Surveys for Highway locations

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to various transport agencies / operators / operatives in the metropolis and conduct
a study on;

Factors controlling highway alignment

Requirements of highway alignment

60 | P a g e
4.1 Introduction
The position or lay out of centerline of the highway on the ground is called the alignment. It
includes straight path, horizontal deviation and curves. Due to improper alignment, the
disadvantages are,

 Increase in construction
 Increase in maintenance cost
 Increase in vehicle operation cost
 Increase in accident cost
Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the alignment due to increase in
cost of adjoining land and construction of costly structure.

Fig 4.1 Shows image of road alignment

4.2 Requirements of highway alignment

 Short
 Easy
 Safe
 Economical
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• Short-desirable to have a short alignment between two terminal stations.

• Easy-easy to construct and maintain the road with minimum problem also easy for operation of
vehicle.

• Safe-safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of stability of natural
hill slope, embankment and cut slope also safe for traffic operation.

• Economical-total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost should
be minimum.

4.3 Factors controlling alignment

 Obligatory points
 Traffic
 Geometric design
 Economics
 Other considerations
Additional care in hill roads
 Stability
 Drainage
 Geometric standards of hill roads
 Resisting length

1. Obligatory points
 Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass
Examples:-bridge site, intermediate town, Mountain pass etc…

 Obligatory points through which alignment should not pass.

Examples:-religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land etc…

2. Traffic
• Origin and destination survey should be carried out in the area and the desire lines be drawn
showing the trend of traffic flow.

• New road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traffic flow patterns and future
trends.

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 3. Geometric design
• Design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight distance also govern the final
alignment of the highway.

• Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient or design gradient.

• Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near crossings

• Avoid sharp horizontal curves

• Avoid road intersections near bend

4. Economy
•Alignment finalized based on total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle
operation cost.

5. Other consideration
• Drainage consideration, political consideration

• Surface water level, high flood level

• Environmental consideration

4.3.1 Topographical control points

The alignment, where possible should avoid passing through

 Marshy and low lying land with poor drainage

 Flood prone areas
 Unstable hilly features
Materials and constructional features
 Deep cutting should be avoided
 Earth work is to be balanced; quantities for filling and excavation
 Alignment should preferably be through better soil area to minimize pavement thickness
 Location may be near sources of embankment and pavement materials

4.3.2 Stability
•A common problem in hilly roads is land sliding

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•The cutting and filling of the earth to construct the roads on hilly sides causes steepening of
existing slope and affect its stability.

4.3.3 Drainage
•Avoid the cross drainage structure

•The number of cross drainage structure should be minimum.

Geometric standard of hilly road

•Gradient, curve and speed

•Sight distance, radius of curve

4.3.4 Resisting length

The total work to be done to move the loads along the route taking horizontal length, the actual
difference in level between two stations and the sum of the ineffective rise and fall in excess of
floating gradient. Should kept as low as possible.

4.4 Engineering Surveys for Highway locations

Before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering surveys are to be
carried out. The various stages of engineering surveys are

 Map study (Provisional alignment Identification)

 Reconnaissance survey
 Preliminary survey
 Final location and detailed surveys

1) Map Study
From the map alternative routes can be suggested in the office, if the topographic map of that
area is available.

The probable alignment can be located on the map from the fallowing details available on the
map.

 Avoiding valleys, ponds or lake

 Avoiding bend of river
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  If road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing through mountain pass.
•Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be further surveyed in the field.

2) Reconnaissance Survey
•To confirm features indicated on map.

•To examine the general character of the area in field for deciding the most feasible routes for
detailed studies.

•A survey party may inspect along the proposed alternative routes of the map in the field with
very simple instrument like a bney level, tangent clinometer, barometer etc….To collect
additional details.

•Details to be collected from alternative routes during this survey are,

 Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshland, hill, permanent structure and other obstruction.
 Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curve.
 Number and type of cross drainage structures.
 High Flood Level(HFL)
 Soil Characteristics.
 Geological features.
 Source of construction materials-stone quarries, water sources.

 Prepare a report on merits and demerits of different alternative routes.

As a result a few alternate alignments may be chosen for further study based on practical
considerations observed at the site.

3. Preliminary survey
Objective of preliminary survey are:
 To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to
collect all the necessary physical information and detail of topography, drainage and soil.
 To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of the good alignment.
 To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other construction aspect and to work out
the cost of the alternate proposals.

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Methods of preliminary survey:
a) Conventional approach:
Survey party carries out surveys using the required field equipment, taking measurement,
collecting topographical and other data and carrying out soil survey.

Longitudinal and cross sectional profile.

 Plain Terrain: 100–200m

 Rolling Terrain: 50m
 Hilly Terrain: 30m

Other studies
 Drainage,
 Hydrological survey,
 soil survey,
 Traffic and
 Material survey.

b) Modern rapid approach

By Aerial survey taking the required aerial photographs for obtaining the necessary topographic
and other maps including details of soil and geology.

•Finalise the best alignment from all considerations by comparative analysis of alternative routes.

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5.0 Design of Cross Sectional Elements
Lesson objectives;
At the end of the course, students should be able to;
 Understand and know Pavement surface characteristics
 Aware of the factors that affect friction

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Pavement surface characteristics
 Various factors that affect friction
 Road margins

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to various transport agencies / operators / operatives in the metropolis and conduct
a study on;

o Pavement surface characteristics

o Cross Sectional Elements

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5.1 Introduction
The features of the cross-section of the pavement influence the life of the pavement as well as the
riding comfort and safety. Of these, pavement surface characteristics affect both of these.
Camber, kerbs, and geometry of various cross-sectional elements are important aspects to be
considered in this regard. They are explained briefly in this chapter.

 Pavement surface characteristics

For safe and comfortable driving four aspects of the pavement surface are important; the friction
between the wheels and the pavement surface, smoothness of the road surface, the light reaction
characteristics of the top of pavement surface, and drainage to water.

 Friction
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of
horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also affect the acceleration and
deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of
vehicles.

_ Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the
circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction

_ Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement
along the road.

5.2 Various factors that affect friction are:

 Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),
 Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
 Condition of the tyre (new or old),
 Speed and load of the vehicle.
The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the load acting
multiplied by a factor called the coefficient of friction and denoted as f. The choice of the value
of f is a very complicated issue since it depends on many variables. IRC suggests the coefficient
of longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on the speed and coefficient of lateral friction as
0.15. The former is useful in sight distance calculation and the latter in horizontal curve design.
68 | P a g e
  Unevenness
It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to have such a one. Even
if a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness due to
pavement failures. Unevenness affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety,
fuel consumption and wear and tear of tyres.

Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the cumulative measure of vertical

undulations of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road. An
unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as good, a value less than 2500
mm.km is satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph and values greater than 3200 mm/km is
considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.

 Light reflection
_ White roads have good visibility at night, but caused glare during day time.

_ Black roads has no glare during day, but has poor visibility at night

_ Concrete roads has better visibility and less glare

It is necessary that the road surface should be visible at night and reflection of light is the factor
that answers it.

 Drainage
The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the
pavement layers.

Further, both the geometry and texture of pavement surface should help in draining out the water
from the surface in less time.

 Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:

_ Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

_ Sub-grade protection by proper drainage

_ Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety.

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5.3 Road margins
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road
margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.

 Right of way
Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment.
It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon development along highways,
control lines and building lines may be provided. Control line is a line which represents the
nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road. Building line
represents a line on either side of the road; between which and the road no building activity is
permitted at all. The right of way width is governed by:

_ Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and road
margins.

_ Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the vertical
alignment.

_ Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.

_ Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.

_ Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility on the inner
side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc.

_ Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in advance anticipating future
developments like widening of the road.

 Guard rails
They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an embankment. They
serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment, especially when the height of the
fill exceeds 3 m. various designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones painted in alternate black
and white are usually used. They also give better visibility of curves at night under headlights of
vehicles.

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  Cycle track
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high Minimum
width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every additional track.

 Footpath
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They are provided
for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic is high.
Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be
either as smooth as the pavement or smoother than that to induce the pedestrian to use the
footpath.

 Service roads
Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like freeways and
expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a separator and
access to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These roads are provided to avoid
congestion in the expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes is not reduced.

 Bus-bays
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that they do not
obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. They should be at least 75 meters away
from the intersection so that the traffic near the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.

 Shoulders
Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of stopped
vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base and surface
courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck even in
wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space around a
stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum width of
2.5 m is recommended for 2-lane rural highways in India.

 Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is preferred because it
is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m
width in the case of parallel parking.

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6.0 Design of Horizontal and Vertical curve
Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should:
 Understand the design concept of horizontal and vertical curves
 Understand design guidelines

Lesson content;
 Introduction
 Design of Horizontal Curves
 Design of Vertical curve

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to a road construction site to appreciate the manufacture, laying and compaction of
bitumen on highway pavement.
 A seminar on an ongoing road construction by a practicing road engineer on;
o Design of Horizontal Curves
o Design of Vertical curve

Horizontal curves: it provides a transition between two tangent strips of roadway, allowing
a vehicle to negotiate a turn at a gradual rate than a sharp cut.

Vertical curves: It provides a transition between two sloped (grades) roadways, allowing a
vehicle to negotiate the elevation rate change at a gradual rate than a sharp cut.

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6.1 Introduction
The goal of the designer in the layout of a roadway is to convey users between their point of
origin and their point of destination along a path in a safe and efficient manner that is compatible
with the environment and the users’ operational characteristics. Roadways must respect the
existing and developed environment through which they pass while balancing the needs for
safety and cost- effectiveness. As a result, roadways are not always flat and straight, they possess
vertical and horizontal curves in their alignments to circumvent or be compatible with existing
constraints. Alignment constraints typically include topographical variation, natural resource
areas, property ownership, land use, cost, and environment. Introduction of curvilinear
alignments is necessary when the designer encounters these constraints. Good alignment design
is critical in the effort to balance the needs and safety of the road user with the value of
preserving the integrity of the environment.

The designer must use engineering judgment applied to a variety of factors to develop effective
and efficient geometry in three dimensions. These factors include:

6.1.1 Horizontal Curves

i. Compatibility between existing and proposed conditions (controls)

ii. Topographical/terrain variations

iii. Vehicle characteristics

iv. Driver limitations

v. Design speed

vi. Lines of sight

vii. Roadway cross section

viii. Radius of curve

ix. Super elevation (or banking)

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x. Length of curve

xi. Tangent-to-curve transition

xii. Profile

xiii. Drainage considerations

xiv. Cost

6.1.2 Vertical Curves

i. Compatibility with existing grades and elevations on adjacent land and approaching roads
and driveways/entrances adjacent to the new alignment.

ii. Design speed

iii. Sight distance

iv. Vertical clearances

v. Lengths of grade

vi. Entrance considerations associated with acceleration and deceleration

vii. Horizontal alignment

viii. Drainage considerations

ix. Costs

6.2 Design of Horizontal Curves

Horizontal Curves are one of the two important transition elements in geometric design for
highways (along with Vertical Curves). A horizontal curve provides a transition between two
tangent strips of roadway, allowing a vehicle to negotiate a turn at a gradual rate rather than a
sharp cut. The design of the curve is dependent on the intended design speed for the roadway, as
well as other factors including drainage and friction. These curves are semicircles as to provide
the driver with a constant turning rate with radii determined by the laws of physics surrounding
centripetal force.

6.2.1 Why is Horizontal Curves Needed?

 Necessary for gradual change in direction when a direct point of intersection is not
feasible.

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  Ex. Highways, Interstates, high speed roads with constant flow of traffic.

6.2.2 Types of Curves

 Simple Curve
 Compound Curve
 Reverse Curve
 Spiral Curve

Fig 6.1: Types of Curves

6.2.3 Guidelines to Horizontal Curves

A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets
 Horizontal Alignment Considerations
 Radius
 Design Speed
 Side Friction Factor
 Super elevation
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  Runoff
 Runout
6.2.4 Design Considerations
 Safe
 Economically Practical
 For the most part, Design Speed is used as the overall design control
 Radius

7.2.4.1 Parameters
Design of roadway curves should be based on an appropriate relationship between design speed
and curvature and on their joint relationships with super elevation and side friction

1) Super elevation
 Super elevation is tilting the roadway to help offset centripetal forces developed as the
vehicle goes around a curve. Along with friction, they are what keeps a vehicle from
going off the road.
 Must be done gradually over a distance without noticeable reduction in speed or safety.

Fig 6.2: Super elevation

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  Practical upper limits –6% (NDDOT)
 Climate
 Water
 Ice
 Terrain conditions
 Flat
 Mountainous
 Adjacent land use (rural or urban)
 Frequency of slow moving vehicles
 Tractors, Etc.

Methods of Attaining Super elevation

 Revolve traveled way with normal cross slopes about the centerline profile
 Revolve traveled way with normal cross slope about the inside-edge profile
 Revolve traveled way with normal cross slope about the outside-edge profile
 Revolve traveled way with straight cross slope about the outside edge profile

Super elevation Transitions

 Consists of Runoff and Tangent Runout sections
 Runoff: length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside lane cross slope
from zero to full
 Runout: length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside lane cross slope
from normal rate to zero

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 Figure 6.3: Super elevation Transitions

2) Runoff
 For appearance and comfort, the length of super elevation runoff should be based on a
maximum acceptable difference between the longitudinal grades of the axis of rotation
and the edge of pavement
 Proper runoff design can be attained through the exclusive use of the maximum relative
gradient.
 Locating a portion of the runoff on the tangent, in advance of the PC, is preferable, since
this tends to minimize the peak lateral acceleration and resulting side friction demand.
 For non-spiral curves, the NDDOT places 2/3of the runoff on the tangent, and 1/3of the
runoff on the curve.
 Placing a larger portion of the runoff length on the approach tangent is desirable. It
decreases lateral velocity in an outward direction, which can lead to undesirable side
friction due to corrective steer by the driver.

Equation for minimum length of super elevation runoff

Where w = width of one traffic lane (ft)
N = number of lanes rotated

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 e = design super elevation rate (%)
b = adjustment factor for # of lanes
G = max relative gradient (%)

Figure 6.4: Element of a super elevation transition (right curve)

Determined by the amount of adverse cross slope to be removed and the rate at which is
removed. To effect a smooth edge of pavement profile, the rate of removal should equal the
relative gradient used to define the super elevation runoff length.

Main Points
 Horizontal curves provide transitions between two tangent lengths of roadway
 Simple Curves have 4 variables
 Radius
 Design Speed
 Side Friction Factor
 Super-elevation

 Considerations for Horizontal Curves

 Safety
 Economically Practical
 Super-elevation Transitions
 Runout
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  Runoff

6.2.5 Geometric Properties

Figure 6.5: A Typical Horizontal Curve (Plan View)

Horizontal curves occur at locations where two roadways intersect, providing a gradual transition
between the two. The intersection point of the two roads is defined as the Point of Tangent
Intersection (PI). The location of the curve's start point is defined as the Point of Curve (PC)
while the location of the curve's end point is defined as the Point of Tangent (PT). The PC is a
distance from the PI, where is defined as Tangent Length. Tangent Length can be calculated by
finding the central angle of the curve, in degrees. This angle is equal to the supplement of the
interior angle between the two road tangents.

T =Rtan ( ∆2 )
∆=central angle of the curve ,∈ degrees

T= tangent length (in length units)

R=curve radius (in length units)

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The PT is a distance L from the PC where L is defined as Curve Length. Curve length can be
determined using the formula for semicircle length:

R∆ π
L=
180

The distance between the PI and the vertex of the curve can be easily calculated by using the
property of right triangles with T and R. Taking this distance and subtracting off the curve radius
R, the external distance E, which is the smallest distance between the curve and PI, can be found.

( )
1
E=R −1
∆
cos
2

Where:

E = external distance (in length units)

Similarly, the middle ordinate M can be found. The middle ordinate is the maximum distance
between a line drawn between PC and PT and the curve. It falls along the line between the
curve's vertex and the PI.

(
M =R 1−cos
∆
2 )
M = middle ordinate (in length units)

Similarly, the geometric formula for chord length can find C, which represents the chord length
for this curve.

C=2 RSin ( ∆2 )
6.3 Design of Vertical Curves

6.3.1 What is a vertical curve?

Vertical curves are used in highway and street vertical alignment to provide a gradual change
between two adjacent grade lines. Some highway and municipal agencies introduce vertical
curves at every change in grade line slope, whereas other agencies introduce vertical curves into
the alignment only when the net change in slope direction exceeds a specific value (e.g., 1.5
percent or 2 percent). A parabolic curve that is applied to make a smooth and safe transition
between two grades on a roadway or a highway.

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Figure 6.6: Vertical Curve

Where;

VPC/ PVC: Vertical Point of Curvature

VPI/PVI: Vertical Point of Intersection

VPT/PVT: Vertical Point of Tangency

G1, G2: Tangent grades in percent

A: Algebraic difference in grades

L: Length of vertical curve

When are vertical curves applied?

 At an intersection of two slopes on a highway or a roadway

 To provide a safe and comfort ride for vehicles on a roadway.

6.3.2 Types of vertical curve

There are two kinds of vertical curve

1. Crest Vertical Curves (+ Type I and Type II)

2. Sag Vertical Curve (+ Type III and Type IV).

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Figure 6.7: Vertical Curve

6.3.3 Properties of curve

Figure 6.8: Crest Curve

1. The difference in elevation between the BVC and a point on the g 1 grade line at a distance
X units (feet or meters) is g1X (g1 is expressed as a decimal).

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2. The tangent offset between the grade line and the curve is given by ax 2, where x is the
horizontal distance from the BVC; (that is, tangent offsets are proportional to the squares of the
horizontal distances).

3. The elevation of the curve at distance X from the BVC is given (on a crest curve) by:

BVC + g1x - ax2

(The signs would be reversed in a sag curve).

4. The grade lines (g1 and g2) intersect midway between the BVC and the EVC. That is,
BVC to V = 1/2L = V to EVC.

5. Offsets from the two grade lines are symmetrical with respect to the PVI.

6. The curve lies midway between the PVI and the midpoint of the chord; that is, Cm = mV.

6.3.3.1 Computation of Low or High Point on Curve

The locations of curve high and low points are important for drainage and bridge considerations.
For example, on curbed streets catch basins must be installed precisely at the drainage low point.

It was noted earlier that the slope was given by the expression

Slope = 2ax + g1

Figure 6.9: shows a sag vertical curve

The figure above shows a sag vertical curve with a tangent drawn through the low point; it is
obvious that the tangent line is horizontal with a slope of zero; that is,

2ax + g1 = 0

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 Since 2a = A/L

x = -g1L/A

Where x is the distance from the BVC to the high or low point.

6.3.3.2 Procedure for Computing a Vertical Curve

1. Compute the algebraic difference in grades: A

2. Compute the chainage of the BVC and EVC. If the chainage of the PVI is known, 1/2L is
simply subtracted and added to the PVI chainage.

3. Compute the distance from the BVC to the high or low point (if applicable):

• = -g1L/A and determine the station of the high/low point.

• Compute the tangent grade line elevation of the BVC and the EVC.

• Compute the tangent grade line elevation for each required station.

6. Compute the midpoint of chord elevation {elevation of BVC + elevation of EVC}/2

7. Compute the tangent offset (d) at the PVI (i.e., distance Vm):

d = {elevation of PVI - elevation of midpoint of chord}/2

• Compute the tangent offset for each individual station. Tangent offset = {x/(L/2)} 2d
where x is the distance from the BVC or EVC (whichever is closer) to the required station.

• Compute the elevation on the curve at each required station by combining the tangent
offsets with the appropriate tangent grade line elevations. Add for sag curves and subtract for
crest curves.

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7.0 Road Specification Design

Lesson objectives:

At the end of the course, students should be able to;

 Understand all the technical terms used in the Road Specification Design
 Understand the informatory signs and signals.

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Terminologies
 Road Hierarchy
 Horizontal Curves and Tangent Lengths

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to various transport agencies / operators / operatives in the metropolis and conduct
a study on;

o Specification Design
o Road Hierarchy

7.1 Introduction

This section sets out the specifications developed specifically for the design of subdivision and
reconstruction of road works using principles of street design to ensure safety and improved
amenity and to reduce pedestrian/vehicular conflicts.

A fundamental requirement of the design process is for designers to determine the vehicle speed
which is deemed acceptable for a particular subdivision or section of road. The concept of
designing to regulatory street speeds is contrary to the current principles of subdivision road
design.

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All relevant design principles must be integrated in the development of the road network. A
careful balance is required between maximizing amenity, safety and convenience considerations
and those related to the drivers’ perception of driving practice.

The words “street” and “road” are interchangeable throughout all parts of this Specification.

For the purpose of this Specification the definition of terms used to define the components of the
road reserve shall be in accordance with AS 1348 and AMCORD.

7.2 Terminologies
7.2.1 AS 1348 terms:
 Carriageway - That portion of the road or bridge devoted particularly to the use of
vehicles, inclusive of shoulders and auxiliary lanes.
 Footpath - The paved section of a pathway (verge).
 Pathway - A public way reserved for the movement of pedestrians and of manually
propelled vehicles (AMCORD verge).
 Pavement - That portion of a carriageway placed above the subgrade for the support of,
and to form a running surface for, vehicular traffic.
 Shoulder - The portion of the carriageway beyond the traffic lanes and contiguous and
flush with the surface of the pavement.

7.2.2 AMCORD term:

 Verge: - That part of the road reserve between the carriageway and the road reserve
boundary. It may accommodate public utilities, footpaths, stormwater flows, street
lighting poles and plantings.
7.3 Road Hierarchy
A hierarchical road network is essential to maximize road safety, residential amenity and
legibility. Each class of road in the network serves a distinct set of functions and is designed
accordingly. The design should convey to motorists the predominant function of the road.

Five distinct levels of roads are:

 Access Place
 Access Street
 Local Street

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  Collector Street
 Distributor Road.

7.3.1 Road Network

1. The design features of each type of road convey to the driver its primary functions and
encourage appropriate driver behavior.

2. Traffic volumes and speeds on any road should be compatible with the residential functions of
that road.

3. The maximum length of an access street should ensure its status as a residential place is
retained, where the traffic, in terms of speed and volume will enable the integration of pedestrian,
bicycle and vehicular movements. This length will also ensure that residential convenience is not
unduly impaired as a result of speed restraints.

4. The length of distributor within a development should be minimized.

5. The time required for drivers to travel on all streets within the development should be
minimized.

6. Where access streets form part of a pedestrian or bicycle network, access links should provide
suitable connectivity with adjoining access streets or open space systems so as to ensure such
pedestrian and bicycle network are functionally efficient.

7. The road network should ensure that no road links with another road which is more than two
levels higher or lower in the hierarchy. In exceptional circumstances roads may link with others
that are more than two levels apart, however Council may require additional conditions such as
widening or traffic blisters.

8a). Connections between internal roads should be T-junctions or controlled by roundabouts.

8b). In exceptional circumstances a 4-way intersection may not require a RAB. Alternative
Traffic Devices

9. The road layout should conform to the requirements of the external road network and satisfy
the transport provisions of an outline development plan.

10. The external road network should be designed and located to provide routes which are more
convenient for potential through traffic within the network. Major roads should be provided at
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intervals of no more than 1.5 km and should be complete and of adequate capacity to
accommodate through network movements. The internal road system should not provide through
routes that are more convenient than the external road network.

7.3.2 Design Speed

1. Design speed is generally used as the basic parameter in the specification of design standards,
determining the minimum design value for other elements. The NSW Roads and Traffic
Authority bases its current design standards on a travel speed rather than a design speed. Travel
speed identifies a speed/horizontal radius relationship. This approach is intended for roads of a
minimum travel speed of 50 km/h. The general urban speed limit in NSW for built-up areas is 50
km/h and this should be used in calculating design values which depend on speed, (eg collector
and sub-arterial roads) however, in difficult topography, the design speed may be reduced.
Vehicular speeds are also limited by road intersections as well as changes in horizontal and
vertical alignment.

2. Adoption of a low design speed discourages speeding, however, where vertical or horizontal
curves of low design speed are located in otherwise high speed sections (tangents) the result is a
potentially dangerous section of road. It should be recognized that in low standard roads,
operating speeds will tend to be in excess of arbitrary speed standards. Attention should be given
to ensuring that potentially hazardous features are visible to the driver and adopting traffic
engineering measures which will help a driver avoid errors of judgement.

Generally the following design speeds should be adopted:

 Access Place 25 km/h

 Access Street 25 km/h
 Local Street 40 km/h
 Collector Street 60 km/h
 Distributor 60/80 km/h

7.3.3 Longitudinal Gradient (Centre Line)

1. A general minimum gradient of 0.5 per cent should be adopted. In very flat conditions it may
be reduced to 0.3 per cent. Where underground drainage with gully pits or other special works
are used it is preferable to allow near level grades rather than reverting to the unsatisfactory

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device of introducing artificial undulations. Variable cross fall may be necessary to produce the
required grade in the gutter. Maximum recommended grades are shown in Table below.

Table 7.1 Maximum recommended grades

Local / Collector Distributor Rural

Access
Desirable maximum percentage* 12 10 8 10
Absolute maximum percentage* 16 12 10 12
Note: maximum length 150 m on straight alignment.

Longitudinal grade of the minor street on the approach to an intersection should not exceed 4 per
cent, the actual gradient being dependent on the type of terrain. Design of the road alignment and
the grades used are interrelated. A steep grade on a minor side street is undesirable if vehicles
have to stand waiting for traffic in the major road.

Turning circles in cul-de-sacs on steep grades should have grades less than 5 per cent.

7.4 Horizontal Curves and Tangent Lengths

1. The horizontal alignment of a road is normally in a series of tangents (straights) and curves
which may be connected by transition curves. The choice of the horizontal alignment is normally
determined from the design speeds for a particular street within the road hierarchy. Designers
should ensure that, for a given design speed, the minimum radius of curvature utilised is such
that drivers can safely negotiate the curve. Curves which progressively tighten produce an
uncomfortable sense of disorientation and alarm. Sudden reverse curves which drivers cannot
anticipate also have a potential to cause similar conditions.

Where speed restriction is provided by curves in the street alignment the relationship between the
radius of the curve and the desired vehicle speed is given in Table below.

Sight distance on curves is determined by formula, values of which are tabulated in RTA Road
Design Guide.

Table 7.2(a): Speed/Radius Relationship

Curve Radii (m) on Road Centerline

Desired Vehicle Speed (km/h) Curvilinear Alignment Isolated Curve Alignment

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 (no tangents) (with tangent sections)
20 15 10
25 20 15
30 30 20
35 50 30
40 90 40
45 105 50
50 120 60
55 140 70
60 160 80

Table 7.2(b): Speed/Tangent Length Relationship

Desired Vehicle Maximum Advisable Tangent Length (m) between Curves or

Speed in Curve Restrictions Appropriate to a Selected Design Speed.
DESIGN SPEED
(km/h) 25 30 35 40 45 50 60

20 or less 40 75 100 120 140 155 180

25 - 45 75 100 120 140 165
30 - - 45 80 100 120 150
35 - - - 50 80 100 135
40 - - - - 55 80 120
45 - - - - - 60 105

7.4.1 Vertical Curves

Vertical curves will be simple parabolas and should be used on all changes of grade exceeding 1
per cent. The desirable minimum design speed is 60 km/h. The length of the crest vertical curve
for stopping sight distance should conform with RTA Road Design Guide. These standards are
based on 1.5 second’s reaction time which provides a reasonable safety margin for urban
conditions, where drivers' reaction time is usually considered to be lower than in rural conditions.

For adequate riding comfort, lengths of sag vertical curves should conform to the RTA Road
Design Guide. As residential roads are usually lit at night, the criterion for designing sag vertical

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curves is a vertical acceleration of 0.05g for desirable riding comfort, and 0.10g for minimum
riding comfort. The minimum lengths for sag vertical curves are shown in Table below.

Table 7.3: Minimum Length of Sag Vertical Curves

Local access Collector Local Sub-

(m) (m) Arterial (m)
Minimum vertical curve 25 35 50
Absolute minimum vertical curve (to be 6 12 20
applied at road junctions only)

Junctions of roads should be located at a safe distance from a crest, determined by visibility from
the side road. Location of a side road at a crest should only occur if there is no suitable
alternative.

Drainage poses a practical limit to the length of sag curves and a maximum length (in metres) of
15 times the algebraic sum of the intersecting vertical grades (expressed as a percentage) has
been suggested. This is to avoid water ponding in excessively flat sections of kerb and gutter. A
minimum grade of 0.5 per cent should be maintained in the kerb and gutter. This may require
some warping of road cross sections at sag points.

The three dimensional coordination of the horizontal and vertical alignment of a road should be
aimed at improved traffic safety and aesthetics. Economic considerations often require a
compromise with aesthetic considerations. The following principles should be applied:

• The design speed of the road in both horizontal and vertical planes should be of the same order.

• Combined horizontal and vertical stopping sight distance and minimum sight distance should
be considered three dimensionally.

• Sharp horizontal curves should not be introduced at or near the crest of a vertical curve. A
horizontal curve should leave the vertical curve and be longer than the vertical curve.

• A short vertical curve on a long horizontal curve or a short tangent in the grade line between
sag curves may adversely affect the road's symmetry and appearance.

7.4.2 Super elevation

1. The use of super elevation in association with horizontal curves is an essential aspect of
geometric design of roads with design speeds in excess of 60 km/h. Local access roads which are
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designed for speeds of 40 km/h or less and with curves of 60m radius or less generally have the
pavement crowned on a curve instead of super elevation. Design standards for such curves have
little meaning as drivers usually cut the corners and rely on friction to hold them on a curved
path. As the radius of the curve falls, friction becomes more important than super elevation.

2. The maximum super elevation for urban roads of higher design speeds should be 6 per cent.
Any increase in the longitudinal grade leading to excessive cross fall at intersections should be
considered with caution. While it is desirable to super elevate all curves, negative cross fall
should be limited to 3 per cent.

In general, curve radii larger than the minimum and super elevation rates less than the maximum
should be used where possible. The minimum radius of curves is determined by the design speed,
the minimum super elevation (or maximum adverse cross fall) at any point on the circular portion
of the curve, and the maximum coefficient of side friction which allows safe lane changing. This
is 0.15 where there is positive super elevation and 0.12 where there is adverse cross fall. The
coefficient of side friction depends upon the type and condition of tyres, the pavement, and on
speed.

7.4.3 Intersections
1. The design of intersections or junctions should allow all movements to occur safely without
undue delay. Projected traffic volumes should be used in designing all intersections or junctions
on local sub-arterial roads.

2. Intersection design for the junction of subdivision roads with existing state rural or urban roads
and national highways should generally be in accordance with the publication AUSTROADS
Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice, PART 5, and Intersections at Grade.

3. Intersections with state roads or national highways are to be designed, approved and
constructed in accordance with the requirements of the State Road Authority.

4. Where major intersections are required to serve a development complete reconstruction of the
existing road pavements will be necessary where the speed environment and irregularity of the
existing road pavement may endanger the safety of traffic in the locality.

5. Intersections should be generally located in such a way that:

• The streets intersect preferably at right-angles and not less than 70°.
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• The landform allows clear sight distance on each of the approach legs of the intersection.
• The minor street intersects the convex side of the major street.
• The vertical grade lines at the intersection do not impose undue driving difficulties.
• The vertical grade lines at the intersection will allow for any direct surface drainage.
• Two minor side streets intersecting a major street in a left-right staggered pattern should have a
minimum centerline spacing of 50m to provide for a possible right-turn auxiliary lane on the
major street.

• A right-left manoeuvre between the staggered streets is preferable, avoiding the possibility of
queuing in the major street.

• A 4 way cross junction shall have a round–a–bout provided. This may be varied with approval
from Council’s Subdivision Engineer.

6. Adequate stopping and sight distances are to be provided for horizontal and vertical curves at
all intersections.

7. Where required, appropriate provision should be made for vehicles to park safely.

8. The drainage function of the carriageway and/or road reserve must be satisfied by the road
reserve cross-section profile.

9. All vehicle turning movements are accommodated utilizing AUSTROADS Design Vehicles
and Turning Templates, as follows:

• For intersection turning movements involving local sub-arterial roads, the "design semi-trailer"
with turning path radius 15.0m.

• For intersection turning movements involving local streets or collector streets, but not local
sub-arterial roads, the "design single unit" bus with turning path radius 13m.

• For intersection turning movements on access streets but not involving local sub-arterial roads,
collector streets or local streets, the garbage collection vehicle used by the local authority.

• For turning movements at the head of cul-de-sac access streets sufficient area is provided for
the "design single unit" truck to make a three-point turn or, where the length of the cul-de-sac is
less than 60m for the "design car" to make a three-point turn. Where driveway entrances are to be

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used for turning movements, the required area is to be designed and constructed to withstand the
relevant loads.

10. Turning radii at intersections or driveways on local sub-arterial road accommodate the
intended movements without allowing desired speeds to be exceeded.

11. On bus routes 3-centred curves with radii 7.0m, 10.0m, 7.0m are used at junctions and
intersections.

12. Lot boundary no to protrude critical sight distance triangle.

7.4.4 Traffic Calming

1. Traffic calming devices are to be approved by the Council.

2. Calming devices such as thresholds, slow points, speed humps, chicanes and splitter islands
should be designed in accordance with the requirements of the publication

AUSTROADS Guide to Traffic Engineering Practice - PART 10, Local Area Traffic
Management, (LATM). Devices designs should generally comply with the following:

(a) Streetscape
• reduce the linearity of the street by segmentation

• avoid continuous long straight lines (eg. kerb lines)

• enhance existing landscape character

• maximize continuity between existing and new landscape areas

(b) Location of Devices/Changes

• Devices other than at intersections should be located to be consistent with streetscape
requirements

• Existing street lighting, drainage pits, driveways, and services may decide the exact location of
devices

• Slowing devices are optimally located at spacings of 100-150m.

(c) Design Vehicles

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• Emergency vehicles must be able to reach all residences and properties.

• Local streets with a 'feeding' function between arterial roads and minor local streets might be
designed for a AUSTROADS Design Single Unit Truck/Bus.

• Where bus routes are involved, buses should be able to pass without mounting kerbs and with
minimized discomfort to passengers.

• In newly developing areas where street systems are being developed in line with LATM
principles, building construction traffic must be provided for.

The work to be executed under this Specification consists of the design of the road pavement to
meet the required design life, based on the subgrade strength, traffic loading and environmental
factors, and including the selection of appropriate materials for select subgrade, subbase, base
and wearing surface.

7.5 Pavement Design

The Specification contains procedures for the design of the following forms of surfaced road
pavement construction:

(a) Flexible pavements consisting of unbound granular materials;

(b) Flexible pavements that contain one or more bound layers, including pavements containing
asphalt layers other than thin asphalt wearing surfaces;

(c) Rigid pavements (ie. cement concrete pavements);

(d) Concrete or clay segmental pavements.

7.5.1 Pavement Design Criteria

7.5.1.1 Design Variables
1. Regardless of the type of road pavement proposed, the design of the pavement shall involve
consideration of the following five input variables:

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(a) Design Traffic

(b) Subgrade Evaluation

(c) Environment

(d) Pavement and Surfacing Materials

(e) Construction and Maintenance Considerations

7.5.1.2 Design Traffic

1. The design traffic shall be calculated based on the following minimum design lives of
pavement:-

(a) Flexible, Unbound Granular - 30 years

(b) Flexible, Containing one or more bound layers - 30 years
(c) Rigid (Concrete) - 50 years
(d) Segmental Block - 30 years
Note: The minimum design ESA is noted in “Guide to Design ESAs” as per point 5.

Design traffic shall be calculated in equivalent standard axles (ESAs) for the applicable design
life of the pavement, taking into account present and predicted commercial traffic volumes, axle
loadings and configurations, commercial traffic growth and street capacity. For interlocking
concrete segmental pavements, the simplification of replacing ESA's with the number of
commercial vehicles exceeding 3 tonne gross contained in CMAA - T45 is acceptable up to
design traffic of 106. Beyond this, ESAs should be calculated.

3. The pavement design shall include all traffic data and/or assumptions made in the calculation
of the design traffic.

4. In general, reference should be made to ARRB-SR41 for the calculation of design traffic
volumes up to 106 ESAs and AUSTROADS Pavement Design for design traffic volumes
approaching or exceeding 106 ESAs.

5. In the absence of other traffic data, the following traffic values (in ESAs) may be taken as a
guide to the design traffic, but shall be subject to variation depending on the circumstances for
the particular project.

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7.5.1.3 Pavement and Surfacing Materials
1. Pavement materials can be classified into essentially four categories according to their
fundamental behaviour under the effects of applied loadings:

(a) Unbound granular materials, including modified granular materials

(b) Bound (cemented) granular materials

(c) Asphaltic Concrete

(d) Cement Concrete (May be Recycled)

2. Surfacing materials can also be classified into essentially five categories or types:-

(a) Sprayed bituminous seals (flush seals)

(b) Asphaltic concrete and bituminous micro surfacing (cold overlay)

(c) Cement Concrete

(d) Concrete Segmental Pavers

(e) Clay Segmental Pavers

7.5.1.4 Construction and Maintenance Considerations

1. The type of pavement, choice of base and sub-base materials, and the type of surfacing
adopted should involve consideration of various construction and maintenance factors as follows:

(a) Extent and type of drainage

(b) Use of boxed or full width construction

(c) Available equipment of the Contractor

(d) Use of stabilization

(e) Aesthetic, environmental and safety requirements

(f) Social considerations

(g) Construction under traffic

(h) Use of staged construction

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(i) Ongoing and long-term maintenance costs

These factors are further discussed in AUSTROADS Pavement Design.

7.5.2 Pavement Thickness Design

7.5.3 Pavement Structure
The pavement thickness, including the thickness of surfacing, shall not be less than 300mm for
roads in which kerb and guttering is to be constructed.

Notwithstanding subgrade testing and subsequent pavement thickness design, the thickness of
subbase and base layers shall not be less than the following:-

(a) Flexible pavement: Subbase 100mm, Base 100mm

(b) Rigid pavement: Sub base 100mm, Base 150mm

The sub base layer shall extend a minimum of 150mm behind the rear face of any kerbing and/or
guttering.

The base and surfacing shall extend to the face of any kerbing and/or guttering. Where the top
surface of the sub base layer is below the level of the underside of the kerbing and/or guttering,
the base layer shall also extend a minimum of 150mm behind the rear face of the kerbing and/or
guttering. For un-kerbed roads, the sub base and base layers shall extend at least to the nominated
width of shoulder. The pavement designer shall make specific allowance for traffic load
concentrations within car park areas (eg entrances/exits).

7. The pavement designer shall make provision for pavement layer drainage on the assumption
that during the service life of the pavement ingress of water will occur.

8.0 Construction and Maintenance of Pavement in Ghana

Lesson objectives:
At the end of the course, students should be able to;
 Understand the construction method & techniques used in roads.
 Know about the maintenance of roads.

Lesson content:
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  Highway construction
 Highway maintenance
 Maintenance Programmes
 Timely Maintenance

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to a road construction site to appreciate the construction and maintenance of
highway pavement.
 A seminar on an ongoing road construction by a practicing road engineer on;
o Highway construction and maintenance
o Maintenance program
o Hot-mix asphalt (HMA)

8.1 Highway construction

Highway construction is generally preceded by detailed surveys and subgrade preparation. The
methods and technology for constructing highways has evolved over time and become
increasingly sophisticated. This advancement in technology has raised the level of skill sets
required to manage highway construction projects. This skill varies from project to project,
depending on factors such as the project's complexity and nature, the contrasts between new
construction and reconstruction, and differences between urban region and rural region projects.

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There are a number of elements of highway construction which can be broken up into technical
and commercial elements of the system. Some examples of each are listed below:

8.1.1 Technical Elements

 Materials
 Material quality
 Installation techniques
 Traffic

8.1.2 Commercial Elements

 Contract understanding
 Environmental aspects0
 Political aspects
 Legal aspects
 Public concerns

Typically, construction begins at the lowest elevation of the site, regardless of the project type,
and moves upward. By reviewing the geotechnical specifications of the project, information is
given about.

Existing ground conditions

Required equipment for excavation, grading, and material transportation to and from the
site
Properties of materials to be excavated
Dewatering requirements necessary for below-grade work
Shoring requirements for excavation protection (structure to provide support)
Water quantities for compaction and dust control

A subbase course is a layer designed of carefully selected materials that is located between the
subgrade and base course of the pavement. The subbase thickness is generally in the range of 4 to
16 inches, and it is designed to withstand the required structural capacity of the pavement
section. Common materials used for a highway subbase include gravel, crushed stone, or
subgrade soil that is stabilized with cement, fly ash, or lime. Permeable subbase courses are
becoming more prevalent because of their ability to drain infiltrating water from the surface.

They also prevent subsurface water from reaching the pavement surface.

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When local material costs are excessively expensive or the material requirements to increase the
structural bearing of the sub-base are not readily available, highway engineers can increase the
bearing capacity of the underlying soil by mixing in Portland cement, foamed asphalt, or use
polymer soil stabilization such as cross-linking styrene acrylic polymer that increases the
California Bearing Ratio of in-situ materials by a factor 4 – 6.

The base course is the region of the pavement section that is located directly under the surface
course. If there is a subbase course, the base course is constructed directly about this layer
Otherwise; it is built directly on top of the subgrade. Typical base course thickness ranges from 4
to 6 inches and is governed by underlying layer properties.

Heavy loads are continuously applied to pavement surfaces, and the base layer absorbs the
majority of these stresses. Generally, the base course is constructed with an untreated crushed
aggregate such as crushed stone, slag, or gravel. The base course material will have stability
under the construction traffic and good drainage characteristics.

The base course materials are often treated with cement, bitumen, calcium chloride, sodium
chloride, fly ash, or lime. These treatments provide improved support for heavy loads, frost
susceptibility, and serves as a moisture barrier between the base and surface layers.

8.2 Surface course construction

There are two most commonly used types of pavement surfaces used in highway construction:
hot-mix asphalt and Portland cement concrete. These pavement surface courses provide a smooth
and safe riding surface, while simultaneously transferring the heavy traffic loads through the
various base courses and into the underlying subgrade soils.

8.2.1 Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) layers

Hot-mix asphalt surface courses are referred to as flexible pavements. The Super pave System
was developed in the late 1980s and has offered changes to the design approach, mix design,
specifications, and quality testing of materials.

The construction of an effective, long-lasting asphalt pavement requires an experienced

construction crew, committed to their work quality and equipment control.

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Construction issues:
 Asphalt mix segregation
 Laydown
 Compaction
 Joints

A prime coat is low viscosity asphalt that is applied to the base course prior to laying the HMA
surface course. This coat bonds loose material, creating a cohesive layer between the base course
and asphalt surface.

A tack coat is a low viscosity asphalt emulsion that is used to create a bond between an existing
pavement surface and new asphalt overlay. Tack coats are typically applied on adjacent
pavements (curbs) to assist the bonding of the HMA and concrete.

8.2.2 Highway maintenance

The overall purpose of highway maintenance is to fix defects and preserve the pavement's
structure and serviceability. Defects must be defined, understood, and recorded in order to create
an appropriate maintenance plan. Maintenance planning is solving an optimization problem and
it can be predictive. In predictive maintenance planning empirical, data-driven methods give
more accurate results than mechanical models. Defects differ between flexible and rigid
pavements.

There are four main objectives of highway maintenance:

 extend the functional and structural service life of the pavement
 maintain road safety and signage
 keep road reserve in acceptable condition
 repair of functional pavement defects

Through routine maintenance practices, highway systems and all of their components can be
maintained to their original, as-built condition.

There has long been a debate within the road industry as to which pavement construction
material is better; asphalt or concrete? Both sides of the argument ardently promote their case
and there is much literature in the public domain, which apparently supports both positions. Of
course, the truth probably lies somewhere in between, despite the arguments propounded.

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In such debates, the ground rules are rarely stated and in the multitude of individual road
construction/maintenance contracts there are many factors, which will influence the final
decision as to whether to use concrete, asphalt, or a combination of both. Within the maintenance
sphere, these factors include, existing road condition and pavement type, road site environment
and conditions, specified performance properties, desired surface characteristics, location of
production plants, availability of suitable materials, speed of construction, traffic management
considerations, weather conditions, cost and, even, personal, political or national preferences.
Depending on the priorities set, these will often determine which material is actually used,
however asphalt/bituminous materials are nearly always the preferred choice.

This document considers the role of bituminous and concrete materials used in the maintenance
of the highway network. A literature search on maintenance practices worldwide was carried out
and this document is largely based on a review of those papers that were considered to be of
some importance. All historical data (more than 20 years old) which support either asphalt or
concrete have been omitted from this study because many developments have taken place within
both industries that have probably reduced their value.

This paper will primarily focus on the contribution made by bituminous materials in highway
maintenance.

8.2.2.1 Maintenance Programmes

All road pavements eventually will require some form of maintenance treatment, irrespective of
design life, initial construction type or importance. The questions are normally, "how
frequently?" and "at what cost?" to restore the pavement back to a serviceable level. In these days
of whole life costing (which includes traffic delay and road user costs), the lowest initial cost
treatment may not always be the most cost-effective option. Whole life costing (WLC) is a
particularly difficult area in which to draw comparisons between different maintenance processes
because various assumptions need to be made and costs of various aspects change. Further, there
is often disagreement as to the assumptions to be used and the costs involved.

However, what is agreed is that traffic delay costs can be significant at road works where the
traffic intensity is heavy. Clearly, road users will more favourably receive any works that can
minimise disruption. Increasingly, off-peak and night time workings are favoured as long as the
work can be finished within the often tight time windows of operation. Maintenance contracts

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using bituminous materials, particularly strengthening overlays or replacement surface courses
are often carried out in these time windows, where delays are minimised and the road can be re-
opened in time for the normal and rush-hour traffic flows. The fact that bituminous materials can
be trafficked immediately once cool is a distinct advantage. Many strategic highway maintenance
contracts are carried out during the night hours and it is routine for the works to be completed in
time to allow the full weight of the morning traffic to freely flow.

National policy and budgetary constraints will also dictate the frequency, type and nature of
many maintenance and reconstruction contracts. As far as the road engineer is concerned, there
are many choices that could be made, all of which will give an acceptable performance.

Within either the bituminous or the concrete option, there is also a wide choice of options,
especially so within the bituminous sphere. One must be careful to differentiate between
maintenance of the pavement structure and maintenance of the surface characteristics. The first
relates to the structural performance of the pavement, i.e. its ability to carry loads, and thus the
maintenance options primarily address the more usual failure mechanisms of cracking, fatigue
and deformation. The second relates to the performance characteristics of the surface, i.e. texture,
skidding resistance, ride comfort, noise reduction and other safety considerations. Maintenance
of this second set will often mean restoring the "safety" and/or "environmental" properties even
though the layer may still be perfectly serviceable from a structural viewpoint. Changes in
government policy and road user expectations regarding highways may mean that what was
acceptable or desirable in the past may not be the same as today. For this reason, it is sometimes
misleading to use the design concepts and the expected lives of yesteryear and apply them to
today’s designs and performance.

Assuming maintenance is required to the highway surfacing, the following shows what options
might be available to the engineer:

Bituminous treatments:
 Surface dressing (or chip seal)
 Slurry surfacing (or micro surfacing) mixture of water, asphalt emulsion, aggregate (very
small crush rock), and additives to an existing asphalt pavement surfaces

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  Overlays (thin or conventional) (porous to dense)
 Inlays (milling and inlays)
 Patching repairs

Cementitious treatments:
 Patching, joint sealing, small repairs
 Thin layer topping
 Inlay
However, policy considerations may restrict the final choice, for example, in the Netherlands all
motorways are to be eventually surfaced with porous asphalt; in the UK, all surfaces on the
strategic network, including concrete, will eventually be covered with noise-reducing bituminous
materials.

A report produced by the Committee on Pavement Maintenance (TRB) listed the maintenance
options for both rigid and flexible pavements. The actual selection of a treatment is dependent on
many factors, which usually reduces to an established procedure or policy. In addition, the
performance of the various maintenance treatments are difficult to assess (and compare) because
the same treatment used under different pavement conditions may perform differently. In fact,
the concept of providing "the right treatment, to the right road, at the right time" is considered to
be the key to maintenance practices. It is not, strictly, a debate between concrete and asphalt but
a process to deliver the most appropriate solution to give the most cost-effective performance
requirement. There have also been moves in specifications, particularly towards performance
related ones, where "guarantees" of performance or aspects thereof, are required. Evaluation and
validation of these newer specifications will be needed; especially as the road user requirements
are becoming more demanding.

8.2.2.2 Timely Maintenance

In the United States, approximately 90 per cent of the highway network is covered in asphalt
concrete, the proportion varying from state to state. Many studies have been carried out on
pavement design and repair to both asphalt and concrete roads. An acronym commonly quoted in
the literature is "SMART", which stands for "Surface Maintenance at the Right Time",
recognizing that if maintenance is not carried out at the right time, much more expensive repairs

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and/or total reconstruction will be inevitable. As an example, a comprehensive study carried out
by South Dakota Department of Transportation showed the various maintenance scenarios for
both asphalt (flexible) and concrete (rigid) roads and further stated:

"Just as the case for flexible pavements, JPCP [Joint Plain Concrete Pavement] repair needs
increase tremendously as the condition of the pavement deteriorates. However, prolonged delay
in maintenance and rehabilitation can be even more costly in JPCP".

One aspect of SHRP (Strategic Highways Research Program) in the USA was the Long Term
Pavement Performance (LTPP), which was to monitor the performance of materials over a 20-
year period. One of its objectives was to develop improved design methodologies for the
maintenance and rehabilitation of existing pavements. A Technical Brief issued by the FHWA
(Federal Highway Works Administration) in October 2000 concluded that the majority of AC
(Asphalt Concrete) overlays included in the LTPP (GPS-6 sites) database had remained in-
service for at least 15 years before the deterioration had necessitated rehabilitation. In fact, some
sections were still performing well after 20 years with little, or nominal, signs of distress.
Naturally, traffic density, type and thickness of the pavement structure and climatic variations all
play a part, but the study does demonstrate that asphalt overlays offer durable in-service
performance.

It is well known that the SHRP Asphalt program has had a significant effect within the North
American market on the performance of asphalt mixtures. Recent evidence indicates that by
moving to the new binder specification will result in significant savings in maintenance and
reconstruction costs, because pavement life has been increased (by up to 25 per cent). The
mixtures being made, using the SUPERPAVE procedure, (together with technology imported
from Europe, e.g. SMA), are also performing markedly better than the previously used recipe
asphalt mixtures adopted by many of the State Highway Authorities. With this evolution, and
despite the fact that further research is necessary to fine-tune the performance properties, it is
clear that bituminous materials have dramatically improved in performance in the USA.

Developments within the concrete industry are also leading to newer, performance-driven,
materials, which are competing in the cost-conscious road environment. One such material is
"ultra-thin white topping" (UTW) a thin concrete overlay (50-100 mm), which can be used to
overlay both concrete and asphalt roads, although its success has been limited to lower volume
highways. In order for the applied, bonded, concrete not to warp or be subjected to undue stress

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build-up, UTW is laid with short joint spacing. This material has been used successfully in the
United States, albeit on low traffic volume roads, but is relatively less common elsewhere. There
have been projects using more traditional, i.e. thick, concrete overlays, but their greater thickness
often precludes them from being used where there are significant kerb, drain or bridge height
restrictions.

The greatest benefit in using bituminous surfacing layers is that they can offer a wide range of
performance properties. Within Western Europe, particularly on the strategic road network and in
urban areas, the trend is toward safety, environment and comfort to both the road user and the
wider community. As a result of this, surface layers tend to be viewed more for their ability to
provide and maintain these performance characteristics rather than their contribution to the
overall structural strength of the road pavement (where the road is already structurally
sound). The political climate has changed over the recent decades towards providing materials,
which will both provide these benefits and be durable. Each country has its own priority over
which properties are the most desirable, but they may be summarized as:

 Safety: skidding resistance and texture

 Environmental: noise reduction
 Comfort: ride, evenness
 Durability: maintenance of the above.
Obviously, other characteristics are important such as resisting rutting, cracking, fretting and
fatigue but these can be largely minimized through the choice and design of the most appropriate
material. Since the mid-1980s France has been developing asphalt thin surfacing layers, which
have revolutionized the maintenance market. This has happened largely through "an
encouragement to innovate" and by the development of specialty binders. As a result, the French
Standards (AFNOR) includes various thin layer types within their specifications. Other countries
have followed suit (including for example, Poland) and this growing technology is capturing a
greater proportion of the maintenance market. In fact, many new construction schemes are also
using asphalt thin surfacing layers specifically for the provision of certain surface characteristics.

8.2.2.3 Changes in Asphalt Design

The structural design considerations and actual performance capability of fully flexible
pavements are now much better understood leading to the concept of an indeterminate, or
perpetual, structural life (and to the increasing use of high modulus bases, originally developed in
France where they are known as EME (enrobé à module élevé). It is now generally realised that
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asphalt roads can be designed for at least a 40-year life, without structural strengthening during
this time. This very significant shift in bituminous pavement design has implications in terms of
Whole Life Costing (WLC), such that asphalt’s generally highly competitive advantage has been
significantly further improved, as well as for intervention maintenance options. Surfacing layers,
in such designs, are consequently viewed as veneer treatments offering the road designer a
multitude of options to give the desired, or specified, performance characteristics. In fact, a major
conclusion from TRL Report 250 states:

"A well-constructed, flexible pavement that is built above a defined threshold strength will have
a very long structural service life provided that distress, in the form of cracks and ruts appearing
at the surface, is detected and remedied before it begins to affect the structural integrity of the
road".

Herein lies a potential concern, which is highlighted in much of the available literature. Highway
budgets are constrained and the fund of money made available for the maintenance of the total
highway network is not sufficient to repair or maintain roads at "the right time".

Many highways would cost less to maintain if preventative treatments were carried out before
structural deterioration commenced. For example, it is estimated in the US that to maintain their
highways at the existing level will require about $50 billion per annum. The amount currently
being spent is about half of this. In addition, to raise the US National Highway System to an
acceptable standard would require about $200 billion. Given that this level of expenditure is
unlikely, the dilemma that faces the US road industry is how to manage the investment whilst
still providing a safe serviceable pavement to the road user.

It is considered the same dilemma prevails throughout most of the transport world.

A priority is to have a framework that will select the most effective maintenance strategy, by
matching a specific material treatment to offer a durable, cost-effective solution taking into
account both the traffic level and environment. It is in precisely this area where a wide range of
bituminous products can help in the decision process. Preventative maintenance (PM) is not a
new concept but to ensure the correct timing of a treatment, in order to maintain the in service
performance of the road, is the key to cost-effectiveness. The report further discusses the various
treatments available and various decision tree processes to select the most suitable bituminous
option, depending on the distress mode.

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8.2.2.4 Maintenance Options: Surface Layers
The most common maintenance treatment used to restore texture and skidding resistance to a
road is surface dressing (chip seal). For the majority of low-volume roads it is a highly cost-
effective treatment and has additional advantages in that it seals the existing road against the
ingress of water and is a fast process, with minimal traffic delays. Micro surfacing (slurry
sealing) is also a common application in many countries for low to medium volume roads.

Often, many of these roads are only maintained once every 50 years or so (see a lot of rural roads
in every country), because of budgetary constraints, and it is therefore quite remarkable that these
low cost bituminous products perform so well.

These treatments can be, and are, used in more heavily trafficked applications, again with good
performance results. However, these treatments are generally less good at performing in higher
stress locations and, in the case of surface dressing, can be considered to be noisy.

That said, these low-cost maintenance treatments are suitable for both concrete and asphalt roads,
provided that they are structurally sound and they are likely to remain as cost-effective
treatments for much of the highway network for the foreseeable future. Various developments
have taken place in both processes in order to further improve their in-service performance and
broaden their application suitability, including the use of polymer-modified binders.

For the strategic road network, surface layers were more usually maintained with either gap
graded or continuously graded mixtures using aggregates and recipes locally determined in each
country. For instance, the UK generally had a preference for gap-graded hot rolled asphalt
(HRA) for its major road network, Germany its gap-graded stone mastic asphalt

(SMA) and generally for elsewhere, the commonly used continuously graded asphalt concrete
(AC) surfacing.

In terms of maintenance of the strategic network, innovations in mixture design and

developments in binder technology, especially polymer modification, together with cross border
transfer of technology has greatly improved the bituminous maintenance options.

Further, with specific performance criteria being specified (noise reduction, skidding resistance
etc), an appropriate asphalt design can be relatively easily proposed.

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The newer materials comprise variations on the conventional materials (for example, porous
asphalt) together with the multitude of thin surfacing systems. Although thin layers (typically
less than 40 mm thick) are not new, their increasing use on heavily trafficked roads and on
difficult road sites is. Thin surfacing have increased in popularity for at least five principal
reasons:

 Environmental: saving on new aggregate extraction (hence, conservation of quarrying

resources)
 Durability: through the increasing use of PMBs a longer life than with conventional
bituminous surface layers is possible
 Serviceability: restore specified surface performance properties in order to maintain road
users safety and comfort
 Operational: thin surface treatments can be laid quicker than conventional surface layers
causing less traffic disruption and delays. Many can be opened up to traffic within 30
minutes of being laid meaning less traffic congestions and better mobility
 Generally, a lower cost per square metre than conventional surfacing.
Thin layers may be laid over a range of thicknesses and machine developments allow for very
thin paver-laid layers (less than 20 mm) to be successfully applied. It is essential that a good
bond be established between the thin layer and the existing material. Grading range from
between super-porous (30 per cent voids) to dense (2 - 4 per cent voids). Obviously, the engineer
must select the most appropriate solution for the site in question and this is considered to be
easier, given the options available. Correctly designed bituminous materials can be used over a
very wide temperature range even in thin layers. In urban situations, thin layers are an obvious
attraction where consideration always has to be given to kerb levels, bridge clearances and
ironwork. Not having to make adjustments to any of these will result in a much quicker job with
associated less traffic disruption and lower costs.

Thus far, mention has only been made of typical highway applications. It should also be
mentioned that specialty bituminous-based surfacing are increasingly used. One such group of
materials is the fuel-resisting asphalts, where their use is increasing in fuel spillage susceptible
areas such as bus depots, lorry parking areas and service station stops. Not only are these
materials replacing the now discontinued tar-based products but they are effectively competing
with both concrete and block paving.

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Coloured surfacings are another group where different pigments can promote differentiation or
an aesthetic appearance to a highway or other paved area. Here again, various bituminous
materials (as well as non-bituminous materials) can be tailored to suit the application.

Furthermore bituminous surfacings have been developed that can be "imprinted" to give the
appearance of block or stone paving.

Reviewing the maintenance options, it is clear that bituminous materials will continue to provide
for a wide range of cost-effective solutions in the future. With more stringent safety demands
being imposed on strategic highways, bituminous materials offer the greatest variety of options
in order to ensure roads meet these demands. The often-voiced fears regarding rutting
susceptibility can be overcome by the selection of an appropriate material.

8.2.2.5 Maintenance: General Benefits

Within Europe, many more, and different, maintenance treatments have been trialled and found
to perform satisfactorily. Trials using thin layers in the UK, France, Germany, Poland and
Sweden have resulted in their approval for use in many applications and locations.

Moves towards performance specifications for the surfacing are likely to increase the use of
specifically designed bituminous materials. Performance specified materials and proprietary
asphalt surfacing are preferentially being considered for use in many road contracts. The benefits
to be derived from performance specifications have been summarized and are reproduced in
Table 1.

An earlier study carried out by the Refined Bitumen Association in the UK stated a number of
benefits from using asphalt, which included:

 Good reservoir of construction plant and skills

 Best historical value for money in whole-life cost terms in the UK
 Flexibility in design: can be designed for short or long lives under light or heavy traffic
 Versatility of scale: equal facility with large and small jobs
 Best environmentally in terms of noise; lower energy use
 Best for safety: porous materials dramatically reduce blinding spray. Road markings
 easier to see
 Application is relatively easy: rapid to construct, repair and overlay
 Rehabilitation costs lower: relatively easy to plane and/or surface dress to restore skid
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  resistance
 Stage construction easier
 Fewer delays due to weather or other construction activities
 Preferable for constructions on weak sub-bases but suitable for almost all kinds of
subgrade
 Can be trafficked immediately after paving
 Fewer early maintenance problems
 Waterproof and frost proof – especially full-depth asphalt; resistant to chemical attack
 Totally recyclable
Table 8.1 - Benefits of Performance Specifications for Bituminous Surfacing Materials

Quality Economy Innovation Environment

Road User Reduces delays Better use of The road user Less congestion
and available will at
accidents road funds benefit from the road works
Smoother and new solutions resulting
more that this form of in reduced traffic
consistent ride Specification emissions
Improves encourages.
reliability of
journey time
Infrastructure Improves Ensures value Encourages Road
Owner performance offor money. innovation management
surfacing designs. Performance can be carried
High consistency criteria can out in
of surfacing. be changed to a manner that is
Reduces match less
contractual risk. circumstances harmful to the
Improves public Less environment
image. maintenance
Easier to
compare
technical merits
of
competing bids
Construction Reduces Clear basis for Rewards Removes barrier
Industry contractual risk. alternative bids. innovation to
Provides an Reduces risk of and encourages the introduction
objective defects. industrial of
measurement of Potential to research "alternative

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 performance. reduce material Initiatives. materials"
Improves public production costs Encourages
image. sustainable
solutions
Reduced
material
haulage

Of particular importance in bituminous road construction and maintenance is the concept of

staged construction, which has the following distinct advantages:

 If there are limits to initial finance, a minimum, fit for purpose, thickness of pavement
could be laid followed, in time, by further overlays when money becomes available.
 If one is unsure of the likely traffic levels, then the construction could be staged to
account for the rise in traffic volume.
 If the road is being opened in advance of other road sections that would eventually
increase the traffic volume, then a lower volume design may be initially constructed to
carry the interim traffic volume.
The importance with all of these is that the planned overlay(s) or strengthening must be carried
out at the due time in order to provide the desired road performance over its design life.

8.2.2.6 Maintenance Options: Recycling

Asphaltic materials are 100 per cent recyclable. For instance, in the Netherlands 70% and in
Germany till 80% of the available reclaimed asphalt is reused in warm asphalt recycling.

Recycling itself can take many forms depending on location, convenience and cost and the
processes include:

 Hot-mix recycling off-site ("in plant")

 Hot-mix recycling in-situ ("in place")
 Cold mix recycling off-site ("in plant")
 Cold mix recycling in-situ ("in place")
Sometimes, concerns are raised regarding the suitability of recycling of some types of
bituminous mixtures (for example, porous asphalt) but recent experience has shown that there are
recycling options available that will give satisfactory results. A recent article has reported that the
technical feasibility of recycling porous asphalt, either to provide a new porous or dense material

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has now been demonstrated. Further, overlaying the existing porous asphalt with a further porous
layer has been successful, provided the original porous layer has been appropriately prepared.

In addition, it is commonplace for old concrete roads to be recycled by overlaying with asphaltic
materials. A US nation-wide detailed evaluation study of AC overlays placed on fractured PCC
pavements was carried out on approximately 100 sites. With about US$1 billion of AC layers
placed every year on PCC (and likely to rise), the study was timely.

In this study, a number of PCC pavements were fractured using one of three methods;
rubbilisation, crack and seat and break and seat, followed by an application of an AC overlay.

Rubbilisation involves fracturing the layer into fragments similar to large aggregates and can be
successfully used on all concrete pavement types. The crack/seat process is predominantly used
on joint plain concrete (JPC) pavements and involves fracturing the layer into closely spaced
cracks that permit load transfer across the cracks. The break/seat process is effective on joint
reinforced concrete (JRC) pavements and the objective is to fracture the distributed steel or de-
bond the steel from the concrete. In terms of the effectiveness of the AC overlays, the following
conclusions and recommendations were:

 Rubbilisation of deteriorating PCC pavements followed by an AC overlay is an excellent

rehabilitation method that is equally effective for all types of existing PCC pavements.
 The crack and seat technique followed by an AC overlay is a very effective rehabilitation
method for deteriorating JPC pavements.
 The break and seat technique currently gives variable results, indicating inadequate
breaking of the pavement.
In these studies, as in many others from North America, the benefits of asphalt materials in
maintenance contracts for concrete highways are clearly demonstrated, provided the most
appropriate conditioning of the concrete is carried out.

9.0 Quality Control

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Lesson objectives
At the end of the course, students should;
 Know the Quality Control outputs in Civil Engineering
 Understand Tools and Techniques for Quality Control

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Inputs to Quality Control
 Tools and Techniques for Quality Control
 Outputs from Quality Control

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to a road construction site to appreciate the control of materials, labour, plants etc.
 A seminar on an ongoing road construction by a practicing road engineer on;
o Tools and Techniques for Quality Control
o Outputs from Quality Control

Quality Assurance is process oriented and focuses on defects prevention, eg test on

aggregates
Quality control is product oriented and focuses on defects identification, eg. Cube crush
testing for concrete and thickness and relative compaction of the various layers

9.1 Introduction

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Quality control involves monitoring specific project results to determine if they comply with
relevant quality standards and identifying ways to eliminate causes of unsatisfactory results. It
should be performed throughout the project. Project results include both product results such as
deliverables and management results such as cost and schedule performance.
Quality control is often performed by a Quality Control Department or similarly titled
organizational unit, but it does not have to be. The project management team should have a
working knowledge of statistical quality control, especially sampling and probability, to help
them evaluate quality control outputs. Among other subjects, they should know the differences
between:
 Prevention (keeping errors out of the process) and inspection (keeping errors out of the
hands of the customer).

 Attribute sampling (the result conforms or it does not) and variables sampling (the result
is rated on a continuous scale that measures the degree of conformity).

 Special causes (unusual events) and random causes (normal process variation).

Tolerances (the result is acceptable if it falls within the range specified by the tolerance) and
control limits (the process is in control if the result falls within the control limits).

9.1.1 Inputs to Quality Control

 Work results. Work results include both process results and product results. Information
about the planned or expected results (from the project plan) should be available along
with information about the actual results.

 Quality management plan. The quality management plan should describe how the
project management team will implement its quality policy. In ISO 9000 terminology, it
should describe the project quality system: “the organizational structure, responsibilities,
procedures, processes, and resources needed to implement quality management”

 Operational definitions. Operational definitions describes, in very specific terms, what

something is, and how it is measured by the quality control process. For example, it is not
enough to say that meeting the planned schedule dates is a measure of management
quality; the project management team must also indicate whether every activity must start
on time, or only finish on time; whether individual activities will be measured or only

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 certain deliverables, and if so, which ones. Operational definitions are also called metrics
in some application areas.

 Checklists. Checklist is a structured tool, usually industry- or activity-specific, used to

verify that a set of required steps has been performed. Checklists may be simple or
complex. They are usually phrased as imperatives (“Do this!”) or interrogatories (“Have
you done this?”). Many organizations have standardized checklists available to ensure
consistency in frequently performed activities. In some application areas, checklists are
also available from professional associations or commercial service providers.

9.2 Tools and Techniques for Quality Control

Inspection. Inspection includes activities such as measuring, examining, and testing undertaken
to determine whether results conform to requirements. Inspections may be conducted at any level
(e.g., the results of a single activity may be inspected or the final product of the project may be
inspected). Inspections are variously called reviews, product reviews, audits, and walk-throughs;
in some application areas, these terms have narrow and specific meanings.

Control charts. Control charts are a graphic display of the results, over time, of a process.
They are used to determine if the process is “in control” (e.g., are differences in the results
created by random variations or are unusual events occurring whose causes must be identified
and corrected?). When a process is in control, the process should not be adjusted. The process
may be changed in order to provide improvements but it should not be adjusted when it is in
control.
Control charts may be used to monitor any type of output variable. Although used most
frequently to track repetitive activities such as manufactured lots, control charts can also be used
to monitor cost and schedule variances, volume and frequency of scope changes, errors in project
documents, or other management results to help determine if the “project management process”
is in control..

Pareto diagrams. A Pareto diagram is a histogram, ordered by frequency of occurrence that

shows how many results were generated by type or category of identified cause. Rank ordering is
used to guide corrective action—the project team should take action to fix the problems that are
causing the greatest number of defects first. Pareto diagrams are conceptually related to Pareto’s
Law, which holds that a relatively small number of causes will typically produce a large majority
of the problems or defects.

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Statistical sampling. Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a population of interest for
inspection (e.g., selecting ten engineering drawings at random from a list of 75). Appropriate
sampling can often reduce the cost of quality control. There is a substantial body of knowledge
on statistical sampling; in some application areas, it is necessary for the project management
team to be familiar with a variety of sampling techniques.

Flowcharting. Flowcharting is any diagram which shows how various elements of a system
relate. Flowcharting techniques commonly used in quality management include. Flowcharting is
used in quality control to help analyze how problems occur.

Trend analysis. Trend analysis involves using mathematical techniques to forecast future
outcomes based on historical results. Trend analysis is often used to monitor:
 Technical performance—how many errors or defects have been identified, how many
remain uncorrected.
 Cost and schedule performance—how many activities per period were completed with
significant variances.

9.3 Outputs from Quality Control

Quality improvement. Quality improvement includes taking action to increase the
effectiveness and efficiency of the project to provide added benefits to the project
stakeholders. In most cases, implementing quality improvements will require preparation
of change requests or taking of corrective action and will be handled according to
procedures for overall change control
Acceptance decisions. The items inspected will be either accepted or rejected. Rejected
items may require rework
Rework. Rework is action taken to bring a defective or non-conforming item into
compliance with requirements or specifications. Rework, especially unanticipated rework,
is a frequent cause of project overruns in most application areas. The project team should
make every reasonable effort to minimize rework.
Completed checklists. When checklists are used, the completed checklists should
become part of the project’s records.
Process adjustments. Process adjustments involve immediate corrective or preventive
action as a result of quality control measurements. In some cases, the process adjustment
may need to be handled according to procedures for overall change control.

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10.0 Pavements
Lesson objectives
At the end of the course, students should be able to;
 Explain the difference between rigid Pavement and Flexible Pavement.
 Understand various technical terms used in pavements.
 Design the various classes of pavement

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Requirements of a pavement
 Classification of Pavement
 Factors Affecting Pavement Design
 Design of Flexible Pavement
 Design of rigid Pavement

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to a road Design firm to appreciate the geometric design of a highway.
 A seminar by a guest road engineer on;
 Practical flexible and rigid pavement design using a case study of a road designed and
constructed.
o The required materials for pavement design.
o Selection of materials for pavement design.

10.1 Introduction
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Pavement is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or
foot traffic, such as a road or walkway. In the past, gravel road surfaces, cobblestone and granite
setts were extensively used, but these surfaces have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete
laid on a compacted base course. Road surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic. Today,
permeable paving methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways and walkways.
Pavements are crucial to countries such as US and Canada, which heavily depend on road
transportation. Therefore, research projects such as Long-Term Pavement Performance are
launched to optimize the life-cycle of different road surfaces.

10.1.1 Requirements of a pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-grade
soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost

10.1.2 Classification of Pavement

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two, flexible
pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-
grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible pavement, having less
flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road). On the contrary, in rigid
pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by flexural strength of the pavement and
the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement concrete roads). In addition to these, composite
pavements are also available. A thin layer of flexible pavement over rigid pavement is an ideal
pavement with most desirable characteristics. However, such pavements are rarely used in new
construction because of high cost and complex analysis required.

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 RIGID
Pavement

Fig 10.1: Rigid Pavement

Flexible
Pavement

Fig 10.2: Flexible Pavement

10.1.2.1 Flexible pavements

Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain
transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure (see Figure 10.3).

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Figure 10.3: Load transfer in granular structure

10.1.2.1.1 Deflection on flexible pavement

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of these stress distribution characteristic, flexible
pavements normally has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of
layered system. Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and
the top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to wear
and tear. The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality material can
be used. Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in
the form of surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments generally found on low
volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on high volume roads such as
national highways). Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to
the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub-grade then it will be transferred to the
surface layer). In the case of flexible pavement, the design is based on overall performance of
flexible pavement, and the stresses produced should be kept well below the allowable stresses of
each pavement layer.

10.1.2.1.2 Types of Flexible Pavements

The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:
 Conventional layered flexible pavement,
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  Full - depth asphalt pavement, and
 Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).
Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high quality expensive materials are
placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials are placed in lower
layers.

Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on the
soil sub-grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are not
available.

Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate layers in
between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-
grade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from
surface water.

10.1.2.1.3 Typical layers of a flexible pavement

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack coat,
binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and natural sub-
grade (Figure 10.4).

 Seal Coat:
Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.

 Tack Coat:
Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It
provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover
the entire surface, and set very fast.

 Prime Coat:
Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like granular
bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers. Unlike tack coat,
prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.

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 Figure 10.4: Typical cross section of a flexible pavement

 Surface course
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains superior
quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt concrete (AC). The
functions and requirements of this layer are:

 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will prevent
the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base, sub-base
and sub-grade,

 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,

 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening effect
of water.

 Binder course or Prime Coat

This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to distribute
load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt
and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface course
by the binder course results in more economical design.

 Base course
The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and it
provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may be
composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.

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  Sub-Base course
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary functions
are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of fines from the
sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then the sub-base course
with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course A sub-base course is
not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high quality, stiff sub-
grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base course. In such situations, sub-
base course may not be provided.

 Sub-grade
The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the layers
above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be compacted to the
desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

10.1.2.1.4 Failure of flexible pavements

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The
fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load repetitions to tensile
strain and this relation can be determined in the laboratory fatigue test on asphaltic concrete
specimens. Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent deformation or
rut depth along wheel load path. Two design methods have been used to control rutting: one to
limit the vertical compressive strain on the top of subgrade and other to limit rutting to a
tolerable amount (12 mm normally). Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature cracking
and thermal fatigue cracking.

Paved roads unpaved

Depression Gravel loss
Alligator/crocodile crack Loss of camber
Rutting Depression
Ravelling Pothole
Pot holes Soft spot
Edge break corrugations, eg ripples gallies
Longitudical/edge crack rutting
Transverse crack slippery section
Bleeding/flushing
Raveling/stripping/streaking

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10.1.2.2 Rigid pavements
Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider
area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure 10.5. Compared to
flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-grade or on a
single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of material between
the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be called as base or sub-base course.

Figure 10.5: Typical Cross section of Rigid pavement

In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an elastic
plate resting on a viscous medium (Figure 10.5). Rigid pavements are constructed by Portland
cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by plate theory instead of layer theory, assuming
an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate theory is a simplified version of layer theory
that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate which is plane before loading and to
remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to wheel load and temperature variation and
the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

Elastic plate resting on viscous foundation

Deflection on concrete pavement

10.1.2.2.1 Types of Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:
 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
 Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP), and
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
Dowel bars are short bars that provide a mechanical connection between slabs without
restricting horizontal joint movement.

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 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement:
Are plain cement concrete pavements constructed with closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel
bars or aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints. They normally have
a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement:

Although reinforcements do not improve the structural capacity significantly, they can drastically
increase the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel bars are required for load transfer.
Reinforcement’s help to keep the slab together even after cracks.

Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement:

Complete elimination of joints is achieved by reinforcement.

10.1.2.2.2 Failure criteria of rigid pavements

Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only criterion for rigid
pavement design. The allowable number of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends on
the stress ratio between flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture. Of late, pumping
is identified as an important failure criterion. Pumping is the ejection of soil slurry through the
joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement, caused during the downward movement of slab
under the heavy wheel loads. Other major types of distress in rigid pavements include faulting,
spalling, and deterioration.

Table 10.1 Comparison of Flexible Pavement & Rigid Pavement

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT RIGID PAVEMENT

1.Have low flexural strength 1.Have more flexural strength
2.Load is transferred by grain to grain contact 2.No such phenomenon of grain to grain load
transfer exists
3.Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the sub
3.Surfacing can be directly laid on the sub
grade but a sub base is needed
grade
4.No thermal stresses are induced
4.Thermal stresses are induced
5.Expansion joints are not needed
5.Expansion joints are needed
6.Design life 10-15 years
6.Design life 20-30 years

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 7.Initial cost of construction is low 7.Initial cost of construction is high
8.Maintenance cost is high 8.Less maintenance cost
9.Road can be used for traffic within 24 hours 9.Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
10.Damaged by Oils and Certain Chemicals 10.No Damage by Oils and other chemicals

10.2 Factors Affecting Pavement Design

Many factors such as number of vehicles, speed, climatic conditions and other factors affect are
to be considered for the design of pavement.

Pavements are engineered structures which are used as roads, runways, parking areas, etc.
Ground or surface transportation is the most widely used transportation in the world. So,
construction of pavements should be done as it is strong and durable for their design life.

There are so many factors which influencing the pavement design. The factors may be of
loading, environment, materials used etc. Which are as follows:

1. Wheel load (weight of vehicle)

2. Axle configuration

3. Contact pressure

4. Vehicle speed

5. Repetition of loads

6. Subgrade type

7. Temperature

8. Precipitation

1. Wheel Load Influence on Pavements

Wheel load on pavement is an important factor to determine the pavement thickness to be
adopted. By providing adequate thickness, the load coming from wheels doesn’t affect the
subgrade soil. The wheel load is acts at particular point on pavement and cause deformations. If
the vehicle contains dual wheels on one side of axle, then convert it into equivalent single wheel
load. Dual wheeled axle vehicles control the contact pressure within the limits.

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Fig 10.6: Wheel Load Influence on Pavement Design

2. Axle Configuration
Axles are the important part of the vehicles which enables the wheels to rotate while moving. By
providing multiple axles, vehicle can carry more loads. So, the axle load also influences the
design of pavement. In the layer theory of flexible pavement design wheels on one side of axles
are considered to design the pavement. Similarly in the plate theory of rigid pavement design
wheels on both sides are considered.

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Fig 10.7: Effect of Axle Configuration on Pavement Design

3. Tire Contact Pressure on Pavement

When the vehicle is moving on pavement, a pressure developed between the tire and pavement.
If the tire is low pressure tire, then contact pressure will be greater than tire pressure. If it is high
pressure tire, then contact pressure will be less than tire pressure. The original Shape of contact
area is generally elliptical. But to ease the calculations circular shape is considered.

Fig 10.8: Tire Contact Pressure on Pavement

4. Vehicle Speed
If the vehicle is moving at creep speed then also damage occurs to the pavement. If vehicle speed
is gradually increased then it will cause smaller strains in the pavement.

5. Repetition of Loads
Constructed pavement is used by several vehicles in its design life. The wheel loads are repeated
all the time due to this some deformation occurs on the pavement. Total deformation is the sum
of all wheel loads acting on it. So, in the design of pavement frequency of load is also
considered. For the design of pavement, single axle with dual wheels carrying 80 Kn load is
considered as standard axle.

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 Fig 10.9: Axle Load on Pavement

6. Subgrade Type
To construct pavement sub grade soil need to be tested. Various test like CBR, Tri axial etc. will
helps to determine the quality of subgrade. From this we can adopt the required thickness to the
pavement. If subgrade soil is poor then the pavement should damage easily.

Fig 10.10: Effect of Subgrade Type on Pavement Design

7. Temperature Effects on Pavements Design

Temperature is the important environmental factor to be considered in the design of pavement. In
case of asphalt roads, temperature affects the resilient modulus of surface course. In very hot
condition asphalt layers lose their stiffness. At low temperature, asphalt layers become brittle and
cracks are formed.

In case of rigid pavement, temperature stresses are developed. Curling of concrete is also
possible due to variation of temperature in top and bottom layers of pavement.

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Fig 10.11: Temperature Effects on Pavements Design

8. Precipitation

Fig 10.12: Effect of Rain on Pavement Design

Moisture variations or precipitation from rain affects the depth of groundwater table. Good
drainage facilities should be provided for good strength and support. The ground water table
should be at least below 1m from the pavement surface.

10.3 Design of Flexible Pavement

A flexible, or asphalt, or Tarmac pavement typically consists of three or four layers. For a four
layer flexible pavement, there is a surface course, base course, and subbase course constructed

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over a compacted, natural soil subgrade. When building a three layer flexible pavement, the
subbase layer is not used and the base course is placed directly on the natural subgrade.

A flexible pavement's surface layer is constructed of hot-mix asphalt (HMA).Unstabilized

aggregates are typically used for the base course; however, the base course could also be
stabilized with asphalt, Foamed Bitumen,<Roadstone Recycling> Portland cement, or another
stabilizing agent. The subbase is generally constructed from local aggregate material, while the
top of the subgrade is often stabilized with cement or lime.

With flexible pavement, the highest stress occurs at the surface and the stress decreases as the
depth of the pavement increases.

Therefore, the highest quality material needs to be used for the surface, while lower quality
materials can be used as the depth of the pavement increases. The term "flexible" is used because
of the asphalts ability to bend and deform slightly, then return to its original position as each
traffic load is applied and removed. It is possible for these small deformations to become
permanent, which can lead to rutting in the wheel path over an extended time.

The service life of a flexible pavement is typically designed in the range of 20 to 30 years.
Required thicknesses of each layer of a flexible pavement vary widely depending on the
materials used, magnitude, number of repetitions of traffic loads, environmental conditions, and
the desired service life of the pavement. Factors such as these are taken into consideration during
the design process so that the pavement will last for the designed life without excessive
distresses.

Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure defects, or exes, under
loading. A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of materials. Each
layer receives loads from the above layer, spreads them out, and passes on these loads to the next
layer below. Thus the stresses will be reduced, which are maximum at the top layer and
minimum on the top of subgrade. In order to take maximum advantage of this property, layers
are usually arranged in the order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest load
bearing capacity material (and most expensive) on the top and the lowest load bearing capacity
material (and least expensive) on the bottom.

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Fig 10.13: Flexible pavement

Fig 10.14: Load transfer in granular structure

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 Fig 10.15: Cross Section of Load transfer in granular structure

10.3.1 Components of Flexible Pavement

Figure 10.16: Components of Flexible Pavement

10.3.1.1 Function and Significance of Subgrade Properties

 Basement soil of road bed.
 Important for structural and pavement life.
 Should not deflect excessively due to dynamic loading.
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  May be in fill or embankment.

10.3.2 Flexible Pavement Design

 Basic Principles
• Vertical stress or strain on sub-grade
• Tensile stress or strain on surface course

10.3.2.1 Factors for design of pavements

1. Design wheel load
 Static load on wheels
 Contact Pressure
 Load Repetition

2. Subgrade soil
 Thickness of pavement required
 Stress-strain behavior under load
 Moisture variation

3. Climatic factors:(rain fall)

4. Pavement component materials
5. Environment factors:(height of embankment and its detailed)
6. Traffic Characteristics
7. Required Cross sectional elements of the alignment

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10.3.1.2.2 Evaluation of Pavement Component Layers

Sub-grade
 To Receive Layers of Pavement Materials Placed over it
 Plate Bearing Test
 CBR Test
 Triaxial Compression Test

Design Life
 National Highways –15 Years
 Expressways and Urban Roads –20 Years
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  Other Category Roads –10 –15 Years

Flexible Pavement Design Using CBR Value of Sub-grade Soil

 California State Highways Department Method
 Required data
Design Traffic in terms of cumulative number of standard axles (CSA)
CBR value of subgrade

Traffic Data
 Initial data in terms of number of commercial vehicles per day (CVPD).
 Traffic growth rate during design life in %
 Design life in number of years.
 Distribution of commercial vehicles over the carriage way.

Traffic –In Terms Of CSA (8160 Kg) During Design Life

 Initial Traffic
 In terms of Cumulative Vehicles/day
 Based on 7 days 24 hours Classified Traffic
 Traffic Growth Rate
 % may be assumed
Traffic growth rates should be estimated by studying the past trends of traffic growth, and by
establishing econometric models, as per the procedure outlined in IRC:108 “Guidelines for
traffic prediction on rural highways”.

If adequate data is not available, it is recommended that an average annual growth rate of 7.5
percent may be adopted.

Design Traffic
The design traffic is considered in terms of cumulative number of standard axles (in the lane
carrying maximum traffic) to be carried during the design life of pavement using

365 [(1+ r )¿ ¿ n−1]

N= × A ×D×F¿
r

N = The cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the design life in terms of msa

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A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction in terms of the number of commercial
vehicles per day

D = Lane distribution factor

F = Vehicle damage factor

n = Design life in years

r = Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles

The traffic in the year of completion is estimated using

x
A=P(1+r )

P = Number of commercial vehicles as per last count

x = Number of years between the last count and the year of completion of construction

Design Criteria
The flexible pavements has been modeled as a three layer structure and stresses and strains at
critical locations have been computed using the linear elastic model. To consider the aspects of
performance, the following three types of pavement distress resulting from repeated (cyclic)
application of traffic loads are considered:

 Vertical compressive strain at the top of the sub-grade which can cause sub-grade
deformation resulting in permanent deformation at the pavement surface.
 Horizontal tensile strain or stress at the bottom of the bituminous layer which can cause
fracture of the bituminous layer.
 Pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.

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Figure 10.17: Critical Locations in Pavement

While the permanent deformation within the bituminous layer can be controlled by meeting the
mix design requirements, thickness of granular and bituminous layers are selected using the
analytical design approach so that strains at the critical points are within the allowable limits. For
calculating tensile strains at the bottom of the bituminous layer, the stiffness of dense bituminous
macadam (DBM) layer with 60/70 bitumen has been used in the analysis.

10.4 Design of Rigid Pavement

10.4.1 Introduction
This is an introduction to rigid pavement design for engineers. It is not intended as definitive
treatise, and it does not encompass the design of flexible pavements. Engineers are cautioned
that much of pavement design is governed by codes, specifications and practices of public
agencies. Engineers must always determine the requirements of the regulatory authority within
whose jurisdiction specific projects fall.

Rigid pavements are generally used in constructing airports and major highways, such as those
in the interstate highway system. In addition, they commonly serve as heavy-duty industrial
floor slabs, port and harbor yard pavements, and heavy-vehicle park or terminal pavements.
Like flexible pavements, rigid highway pavements are designed as all-weather, long-lasting
structures to serve modern day high-speed traffic. Offering high quality riding surfaces for
safe vehicular travel, they function as structural layers to distribute vehicular wheel loads in
such a manner that the induced stresses transmitted to the subgrade soil are of acceptable
magnitudes.

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Portland cement concrete (PCC) is the most common material used in the construction of rigid
pavement slabs. The reason for its popularity is due to its availability and the economy. Rigid
pavements must be designed to endure frequently repeated traffic loadings. The typical
designed service life of a rigid pavement is between 30 and 40 years, lasting about twice as
long as a flexible pavement.
One major design consideration of rigid pavements is reducing fatigue failure due to the
repeated stresses of traffic. Fatigue failure is common among major roads because a typical
highway will experience millions of wheel passes throughout its service life. In addition to
design criteria such as traffic loadings, tensile stresses due to thermal energy must also be
taken into consideration. As pavement design has progressed, many highway engineers have
noted that thermally induced stresses in rigid pavements can be just as intense as those
imposed by wheel loadings. Due to the relatively low tensile strength of concrete, thermal
stresses are extremely important to the design considerations of rigid pavements.
Rigid pavements are generally constructed in three layers - a prepared subgrade, base or
subbase, and a concrete slab. The concrete slab is constructed according to a designed choice
of plan dimensions for the slab panels, directly influencing the intensity of thermal stresses
occurring within the pavement. In addition to the slab panels, temperature reinforcements must
be designed to control cracking behavior in the slab. Joint spacing is determined by the slab
panel dimension.
Three main types of concrete pavements commonly used are jointed plain concrete pavement
(JPCP), jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP), and continuously reinforced concrete
pavements (CRCP). JPCP’s are constructed with contraction joints which direct the natural
cracking of the pavement. These pavements do not use any reinforcing steel. JRCP’s are
constructed with both contraction joints and reinforcing steel to control the cracking of the
pavement. High temperatures and moisture stresses within the pavement creates cracking,
which the reinforcing steel holds tightly together. At transverse joints, dowel bars are typically
placed to assist with transferring the load of the vehicle across the cracking. CRCP’s solely
rely on continuous reinforcing steel to hold the pavement’s natural transverse cracks together.
Prestressed concrete pavements have also been used in the construction of highways; however,
they are not as common as the other three. Prestressed pavements allow for a thinner slab
thickness by partly or wholly neutralizing thermally induced stresses or loadings.

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10.4.2 Rigid Pavement Design
10.4.2.1 Soil Classification and Tests
All soils should be classified according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USGS) as
given in ASTM D 2487. There have been instances in construction specifications where the
use of such terms as "loam," “gumbo,” "mud," and "muck" have resulted in
misunderstandings. These terms are not specific and are subject to different interpretations
throughout the United States. Such terms should not be used. Sufficient investigations should
be performed at the proposed site to facilitate the description of all soils that will be used or
removed during construction in accordance with ASTM D 2487; any additional descriptive
information considered pertinent should also be included. If Atterberg limits are a required
part of the description, as indicated by the classification tests, the test procedures and limits
should be referenced in the construction specifications.

10.4.2.2 Compaction
General. Compaction improves the stability of the subgrade soils and provides a more
uniform foundation for the pavement. ASTM D 1557 soil compaction test conducted at several
moisture contents is used to determine the compaction characteristics of the subgrade soils.
This test method should not be used if the soil contains particles that are easily broken under
the blow of the tamper unless the field method of compaction will produce a similar
degradation. Certain types of soil may require the use of a laboratory compaction control test
other than the above-mentioned compaction test. The unit weight of some types of sands and
gravels obtained using the compaction method above may be lower than the unit weight that
can be obtained by field compaction; hence, the method may not be applicable. In those cases
where a higher laboratory density is desired, compaction tests are usually made under some
variation of the ASTM D 1557 method, such as vibration or tamping (alone or in combination)
with a type hammer or compaction effort different from that used in the test.

Requirements. For all subgrade soil types, the subgrade under the pavement slab or base
course must be compacted to a minimum depth of 6 inches. If the densities of the natural
subgrade materials are equal to or greater than 90 percent of the maximum density from
ASTM D 1557, no rolling is necessary other than that required to provide a smooth surface.
Compaction requirements for cohesive soils (LL > 25; PI > 5) will be 90 percent of maximum
density for the top 6 inches of cuts and the full depth of fills. Compaction requirements for

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cohesionless soils (LL < 25: PI <5) will be 95 percent for the top 6 inches of cuts and the full
depth of fills. Compaction of the top 6 inches of cuts may require the subgrade to be scarified
and dried or moistened as necessary and recompacted to the desired density.

Special Soils. Although compaction increases the stability and strength of most soils, some
soil types show a marked decrease in stability when scarified, worked, and rolled. Also,
expansive soils shrink excessively during dry periods and expand excessively when allowed to
absorb moisture. When any of these types are encountered, special treatment will be required.
For nominally expansive soils, water content, compaction effort, and overburden should be
determined to control swell. For highly expansive soils, replacement to depth of moisture
equilibrium, raising grade, lime stabilization, prewetting, or other acceptable means of
controlling swell should be considered.

Treatment of Unsuitable Soils. Soils not suitable for subgrade use should be removed and
replaced or covered with soils which are suitable. The depth to which such adverse soils
should be removed or covered depends on the soil type, drainage conditions, and depth of
freezing temperature penetration and should be determined by the engineer on the basis of
judgment and previous experience, with due consideration of the traffic to be served and the
costs involved. Where freezing temperatures penetrate a frost-susceptible subgrade, special
design procedures should be followed. In some instances, unsuitable or adverse soils may be
improved economically by stabilization with such materials as cement, flyash, lime, or certain
chemical additives, whereby the characteristics of the composite material become suitable for
subgrade purposes. However, subgrade stabilization should not be attempted unless the costs
reflect corresponding savings in base-course, pavement, or drainage facilities construction.

Determination of Modulus of Subgrade Reaction. For the design of rigid pavements in

those areas where no previous experience regarding pavement performance is available, the
modulus of subgrade reaction k to be used for design purposes is determined by the field plate-
bearing test. This test procedure and the method for evaluating its results are not part of this
discussion. Where performance data from existing rigid pavements are available, adequate
values for k can usually be determined on the basis of consideration of soil type, drainage
conditions, and frost conditions that prevail at the proposed site. Table 2-1 presents typical
values of k for various soil types and moisture conditions. These values should be considered
as a guide only and their use in lieu of the field plate-bearing test, although not recommended,
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is left to the discretion of the engineer. Where a base course is used under the pavement, the k
value on top of the base is used to determine the modulus of soil reaction on top of the base.
The plate-bearing test may be run on top of the base, or figure 2-1 may be used to determine
the modulus of soil reaction on top of the base. It is good practice to confirm adequacy of the k
on top of the base from figure 2-1 by running a field plate-load test.

Table 10.2: Modulus of Soil Reaction

Figure 10.18 Effect of Base-Course Thickness on Modulus of Soil Reaction

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10.4.3 Rigid Pavement Base Courses
10.4.3.1 General Requirements.
Base courses may be required under rigid pavements for replacing soft, highly compressible or
expansive soils and for providing the following:
• Additional structural strength.
• More uniform bearing surface for the pavement.
• Protection for the subgrade against detrimental frost action.
• Drainage.
• Suitable surface for the operation of construction equipment, especially slipform pavers.

Use of base courses under a rigid pavement to provide structural benefit should be based on
economy of construction. The first cost is usually less for an increase in thickness than for
providing a thick base course. However, thick base courses have often resulted in lower
maintenance costs since the thick base course provides stronger foundation and therefore less
slab movement. A minimum base course thickness of 4 inches is required over subgrades that are
classified as OH, CH, CL, MH, ML, and OL to provide protection against pumping. In certain
cases of adverse moisture conditions (high water table or poor drainage), SM and SC soils also
may require base courses to prevent pumping. The designer is cautioned against the use of fine-
grained material for leveling courses or choking open-graded base courses since this may create
a pumping condition. Positive drainage should be provided for all base courses to ensure water is
not trapped directly beneath the pavement since saturation of these layers will cause the pumping
condition that the base course is intended to prevent.

Materials. If conditions indicate that a base course is desirable under a rigid pavement, a
thorough investigation should be made to determine the source, quantity, and characteristics of
the available materials. A study should also be made to determine the most economical thickness
of material for a base course that will meet the requirements. The base course may consist of
natural, processed, or stabilized materials. The material selected should be the one that best
accomplishes the intended purpose of the base course. In general, the base- course material
should be a well- graded high-stability material. In this connection all base courses to be placed
beneath concrete pavements for military roads and streets should conform to the following
requirements:

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• Percent passing No.10 sieve; not more than 85.
• Percent passing No.200 sieve: Not more than 15.
• Plasticity index: Not higher than 6.

Where local experience indicates their desirability, other control limitations such as limited
abrasion loss may be imposed to ensure a uniform high quality base course.

Compaction. Where base courses are used under rigid pavements, the base-course material
should be compacted to a minimum of 95 percent of the maximum density. The engineer is
cautioned that it is difficult to compact thin base courses to high densities when they are placed
on yielding subgrades.

Frost Requirements. In areas where subgrade soils are subjected to seasonal frost action
detrimental to the performance of pavements, the requirements for base-course thickness and
gradation will follow the criteria in this discussion.

10.5.3.2 Concrete Pavement

Mix Proportioning and Control. Normally, a design flexural strength at 28-day age will be
used for the pavement thickness determination. Should it be necessary to use the pavements at an
earlier age, consideration should be given to the use of a design flexural strength at the earlier
age or to the use of high early strength cement, whichever is more Mix proportion or pavement
thickness may have to economical. Fly ash gains strength more slowly than cement, so that if
used it may be desirable to select a strength value at a period other than 28 days if time permits.

Testing. The flexural strength of the concrete and lean concrete base will be determined in
accordance with ASTM C 78. The standard test specimen will be a 6- by 6-inch section long
enough to permit testing over a span of 18 inches. The standard beam will be used for concrete
with the maximum size aggregate up to 2 inches. When aggregate larger than the 2-inch nominal
size is used in the concrete, the cross-sectional dimensions of the beam will be at least three
times the nominal maximum size of the aggregate, and the length will be increased to at least 2
inches more than three times the depth.

Special Conditions. Mix proportion or pavement thickness may have to be adjusted due to
results of concrete tests. If the tests show strength gain less than predicted or retrogression in
strength, then the pavement would have to be thicker. If the concrete strength was higher than

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predicted, then the thickness may be reduced. Rather than modifying the thickness required as a
result of tests on the concrete, the mix proportioning could be changed to increase or decrease
the concrete strength, thereby not changing the thickness.

10.4.3.3 Plain Concrete Pavement Design

Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements. Roller-compacted concrete pavements (RCCP) are
plain concrete pavements constructed using a zero-slump portland cement concrete mixture that
is placed with an AC paving machine and compacted with vibratory and rubber-tired rollers.

Design Procedure. For convenience in determining design requirements, the entire range of
vehicle loadings and traffic intensities anticipated during the design life of pavements for the
various classifications of roads and streets has been expressed as an equivalent number of
repetitions of an 18,000- pound single-axle loading. To further simplify the design procedure, the
range of equivalent repetitions of the basic loading thus determined has been designated by a
numerical scale defined as the pavement design index. This index extends from 1 through 10
with an increase in numerical value indicative of an increase in pavement design requirements.
Values for the design index are determined using standard procedures. Once the design index has
been determined the required thickness of plain concrete pavement is then obtained from the
design chart presented in figure 5-1 for roads and streets. Figure 10.19 (1) is used to determine
the thickness of parking and storage areas except that the thickness of roller-compacted concrete
parking and storage areas will be designed using figure 10.19 (2). These design charts are
graphical representations of the interrelation of flexural strength, modulus of subgrade reaction k,
pavement thickness, and repetitions (design index) of the basic 18,000-pound single-axle
loading. These design charts are based on the theoretical analyses supplemented by empirical
modifications determined from accelerated traffic tests and observations of pavement behavior
under actual service conditions. The design charts are entered using the 28-day flexural strength
of the concrete. A horizontal projection is then made to the right to the design value for k. A
vertical projection is then made to the appropriate design-index line. A second horizontal
projection to the right is then made to intersect the scale of pavement thickness. The dashed line
shown on curves is an example of the correct use of the curves. When the thickness from the
design curve indicates a fractional value, it will be rounded up to the next ½-inch thickness. All
plain concrete pavements will be uniform in cross-sectional thickness. Thickened edges are not
normally required since the design is for free edge stresses. The minimum thickness of plain
concrete for any military road, street, or open storage area will be 6 inches.
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Figure 10.19 (1): Design Curves for Plain Concrete Streets and Roads, and RCCP

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Figure 10.19 (2): Design Curves for Plain Concrete Parking and Storage Areas

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Design Example.
As an example of the application of the design procedure given for no-stabilized
foundations, design a plain concrete pavement for a road in a rural area on rolling terrain
to carry the following traffic:

• Average daily volume - 3,500 vehicles per lane

• Trucks, 2 axle - 150 per lane per day

• Trucks, 3 or more axles 50 per day

Based on accepted criteria, this traffic would be evaluated as requiring a class C

road. It would be designed for category IV traffic and a design index of 5. Assuming
a 28- day flexural strength for the concrete of 675 psi, and a k value of 100 pounds
per cubic inch (pci), the required pavement thickness as indicated by figure 3-1 is
approximately 7.3 inches. This thickness value would be rounded off to 7.5 inches
for design.

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10.4.3.4 Reinforced Concrete Pavement Design
Application. Under certain conditions, concrete pavement slabs may be reinforced with welded
wire fabric or formed bar mats arranged in a square or rectangular grid. The advantages of using
steel reinforcement include a reduction in the required slab thickness, greater spacing between
joints, and reduced differential settlement due to non-uniform support or frost heave.

Subgrade conditions. Reinforcement may reduce the damage resulting from cracked slabs.
Cracking may occur in rigid pavements founded on subgrades where differential vertical
movement is a definite potential. An example is a foundation with definite or borderline frost
susceptibility that cannot feasibly be made to conform to conventional frost design
requirements.

Economic considerations. In general, reinforced concrete pavements will not be economically

competitive with plain concrete pavements of equal load-carrying capacity, even though a
reduction in pavement thickness is possible. Alternate bids, however, should be invited if
reasonable doubt exists on this point.

Plain concrete pavements. In otherwise plain concrete pavements, steel reinforcement

should be used for the following conditions:

• Odd-shaped slabs. Odd-shaped slabs should be reinforced in two directions normal to

each other using a minimum of 0.05 percent of steel in both directions. The entire area of the
slab should be reinforced. An odd-shaped slab is considered to be one in which the longer
dimension exceeds the shorter dimension by more than 25 percent or a slab which essentially is
neither square nor rectangular. Figure 10.20 (1) includes examples of reinforcement required in
odd-shaped slabs.
• Mismatched joints. A partial reinforcement or slab is required where the joint
patterns of abutting pavements or adjacent paving lanes do Dot match, unless the pavements
are positively separated by an expansion joint or slip-type joint having less than ¼-inch
bond-breaking medium. The pavement slab directly opposite the mismatched joint should be
reinforced with a minimum of 0.05 percent of steel in directions normal to each other for a
distance of 3 feet back from the juncture and for the full width or length of the slab in 8
direction normal to the mismatched joint. Mismatched joints normally will occur at
intersections of pavements or between pavement and fillet areas as shown in figure 10.20 (1).

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10.4.3.4.1 Design Procedure.
Thickness design on unbound base or sub base. The design procedure for reinforced concrete
pavements uses the principle of allowing a reduction in the required thickness of plain concrete
pavement due to the presence of the steel reinforcing. The design procedure has been developed
empirically from a limited number of prototype test pavements subjected to accelerated traffic
testing. Although some cracking will occur in the pavement under the design traffic loadings, the
steel reinforcing will hold the cracks tightly closed. The reinforcing will prevent spalling or
faulting at the cracks and provide a serviceable pavement during the anticipated design life.
Essentially, the design method consists of determining the percentage of steel required, the
thickness of the reinforced concrete pavement, and the minimum allowable length of the slabs.
Figure 10.20 (2): presents a graphic solution for the design of reinforced concrete pavements.
Since the thickness of a reinforced concrete pavement is a function of the percentage of steel
reinforcing, the designer may determine either the required percentage of steel for a
predetermined thickness of pavement or the required thickness of pavement for a predetermined
percentage of steel. In either case, it is necessary to determine the required thickness of plain
concrete pavement by the method outlined. The plain concrete thickness h (to the nearest 0.1
inch) is used to enter the nomograph in Figure 10.20 (2). A straight line is then drawn from the
value of hd to the value selected for either the reinforced concrete thickness h r or the percentage
of reinforcing steel S. It should be noted that the S value indicated by figure 10.20 (2) is the
percentage to be used in the longitudinal direction only. For normal designs, the percentage of
steel used in the transverse direction will be one- half of that to be used in the longitudinal
direction. In fillets, the percent steel will be the same in both directions. Once the h and S values
have been determined, the maximum allowable slab length L is obtained from the intersection of
the straight line and the scale for L. Difficulties may be encountered in sealing joints between
very long slabs because of volumetric changes caused by temperature changes.

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Figure 10.20 (1): Typical Layout of Joints at Intersection

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Thickness design on stabilized base or subgrade. To determine the thickness requirements for
reinforced concrete pavement on a stabilized foundation, it is first necessary to determine the
thickness of plain concrete pavement required over the stabilized layer using procedures set
forth above. This thickness of plain concrete is then used with figure 10.20 (2): to design the
reinforced in the same manner discussed above for nonstabilized foundations.

Limitations. The design criteria for reinforced concrete pavement for roads and streets may
be subject to the following limitations.
• No reduction in the required thickness of plain concrete pavement should be
allowed for percentages of longitudinal steel less than 0.05 percent.
• No further reduction in the required thickness of plain concrete pavement should be
allowed over that indicated in figure 10.20 (2): for 0.5 percent longitudinal steel, regardless of
the percentage of steel used.
• The maximum length L of reinforced concrete pavement slabs should not exceed 75 feet
regardless of the percentage of longitudinal steel, yield strength of the steel, or thickness of the
pavement. When long slabs are used, special consideration must be given to joint design and
sealant requirements.

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Figure 10.20 (2): Reinforced Rigid Pavement Design

• The minimum thickness of reinforced concrete pavements should be 6 inches, except

that the minimum thickness for driveways will be 5 inches and the minimum thickness for
reinforced overlays over rigid pavements will be 4 inches.

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10.4.3.4.2 Reinforcing Steel.
Type of reinforcing steel. The reinforcing steel may be either deformed bars or welded wire
fabric. Deformed bars should conform to the requirements of ASTM A 615, A 616, or A 617. In
general, grade 60 deformed bars should be specified, but other grades may be used if warranted.
Fabricated steel bar mats should conform to ASTM A
184. Cold drawn wire for fabric reinforcement should conform to the requirements of
requirements of ASTM A 82, and welded steel wire fabric to ASTM A 185. The use of epoxy
coated steel may be considered in areas where corrosion of the steel may be a problem.

Placement of reinforcing steel. The reinforcing steel will be placed at a depth of ¼hd + 1 inch
from the surface of the reinforced slab. This will place the steel above the neutral axis of the slab
and will allow clearance for dowel bars. The wire or bar sizes and spacing should be selected to
give, as nearly as possible, the required percentage of steel per foot of pavement width or length.
In no case should the percent steel used be less than that required by figure 6-2. Two layers of
wire fabric or bar mat, one placed directly on top of the other, may be used to obtain the required
percent of steel; however, this should only be done when it is impracticable to provide the
required steel in one layer. If two layers of steel are used, the layers must be fastened together
(either wired or clipped) to prevent excessive separation during concrete placement. When the
reinforcement is installed and concrete is to be placed through the mat or fabric, the minimum
clear spacing between bars or wires will be 1½ times the maximum size of aggregate. If the
strike-off method is used to place the reinforcement (layer of concrete placed and struck off at
the desired depth, the reinforcement placed on the plastic concrete, and the remaining concrete
placed on top of the reinforcement), the minimum spacing of wires or bars will not be less than
the maximum size of aggregate. Maximum bar or wire spacing or slab thickness shall not exceed
12 inches. The bar mat or wire fabric will be securely anchored to prevent forward creep of the
steel mats during concrete placement and finishing operations. The reinforcement shall be
fabricated and placed in such a manner that the spacing between the longitudinal wire or bar and
the longitudinal joint, or between the transverse wire or bar and the transverse joint, will not
exceed 3 inches or one-half of the wire or bar spacing in the fabric or mat. The wires or bars will
be lapped as follows:

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  Deformed steel bars will be overlapped for a distance of at least 24 bar diameters
measured from the tip of one bar to the tip of the other bar. The lapped bars will be wired
or otherwise securely fastened to prevent separation during concrete placement.
 Wire fabric will be overlapped for a distance equal to at least one spacing of the wire in
the fabric or 32 wire diameters, whichever is greater. The length of lap is measured from
the tip of one wire to the tip of the other wire normal to the lap.
The wires in the lap will be wired or otherwise securely fastened to prevent
separation during concrete placement.

Design Example. As an example, let it be required to design a reinforced concrete pavement for
the same set of conditions used in the initial design example given previously in paragraph 12-4.
Using the value of hd of 7.9 inches, the percentage of longitudinal reinforcing steel S required to
reduce the pavement thickness to 7 inches is obtained from figure 10.20 (2) as 0.10 percent.
Similarly, the percentage of longitudinal reinforcing steel required to reduce the pavement
thickness to 6 inches is 0.30 percent. The percentage of transverse reinforcing steel would be
either 0.05 for a design thickness of 7 inches or 0.15 for a design thickness of 6 inches. The
choice of which percentage of steel reinforcement to use should be based on economic
considerations as well as on foundation and climatic conditions peculiar to the project area. If the
yield strength of the steel is assumed to be 60,000 psi, the maximum allowable spacing of the
transverse contraction joints would be 49 feet for 0.10 percent longitudinal steel, and 97 feet
would be indicated as the maximum spacing for 0.30 percent longitudinal steel. In the latter case,
the maximum permissible spacing of 75 feet would be used.

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  Typical Details.
Typical details for the design and construction of reinforced concrete pavements for roads
and streets are shown in figures 10.20 (3), 10.20 (4), 10.20 (5), and 10.20 (6).

Figure 10.20 (3): (Part 1); Design Details of Reinforced Rigid Pavement with Two Traffic Lanes

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Figure 10.20 (3): (Part 2): Design Details of Reinforced Rigid Pavement with Two Traffic Lanes

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Figure 10.20 (4):: Design Details of Reinforced Rigid Pavement with Traffic and Parking Lanes

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Figure 10.20 (5): (Part 1): Design Details of Reinforced Rigid Pavement with Integral Curb

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Figure 10.20 (5): (Part 2): Design Details of Reinforced Rigid Pavement with Integral Curb

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Figure 10.20 (6): (Part 1): Typical Layout of Joints at the Intersection of Reinforced Rigid
Pavement

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Figure 10.20 (6): (Part 2): Typical Layout of Joints at the Intersection of Reinforced Rigid
Pavement

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11.0 Construction Practices
Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 Understand road construction equipment.
Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Clearing, Grubbing and Excavation.
 Embankment
 Bituminous Surface Treatment

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to various transport agencies / operators / operatives in the metropolis and
conduct a study on;

o Embankment
o Construction Methods of Pavements
o Bituminous Layers and Mixes

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11.1 Introduction
Construction is a highly technical and extremely complex industry where companies survive
on razor-thin margins of one to three percent. Set this against an average total cost of risk of
three to five percent, and the message is quite clear: there is little room for error. From start to
finish, every detail matters if you want to not only survive, but prosper.

1. Clearing, Grubbing and Excavation.

 Before any construction the roadway must be cleared of all vegetation and trees
including their roots removed.
 Cross sections should be taken prior to any excavation works.
 All construction works must be carried out in as safe a manner as possible.
 Excavated suitable materials should be used when possible in the works.
 Provision has to be made for drainage of the temporary and permanent works.
 Soil containing vegetable matter is not suitable as fill material.
 Borrow pits should not affect the stability of the road, or any other structure.

Clearing and Grubbing

Before any construction starts the roadway must be cleared of debris. Unless there are
specific reasons, agreed to by the Engineer in writing, all materials including trees, grass,
crops and structures, which fall within the road alignment must be removed.

Also all major stumps and roots need to be removed (grubbed out) and the holes left must be
filled with compacted suitable fill material.

Excavation
Before any excavation, including the removal of any areas of unsuitable materials, cross-
sections should be taken of the undisturbed ground. From this information, and the cross
sections taken of the completed road, earthwork quantities can be calculated.

No existing material, which will remain in the completed works, should be loosened
unnecessarily during excavation.

Excavation works, along with all construction activities, must be undertaken in as safe a
manner as possible to minimize the dangers to road users and the contractors personnel.

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  Excavated Material
Excavated materials need assessing as suitable or unsuitable. Suitable materials should be
used when possible in the works. The excavated materials can be temporarily stockpiled, but
must cause no damage to roads, services or property and not prevent water draining from the
road or from the surrounding land.

Any excess suitable material, which is not required for the construction of the Works or any
material classified as unsuitable is the property of RHD. The Contractor should stockpile
these materials separately, as directed, or place the material in an approved location on site.
To be suitable as fill material the soil must not contain any vegetable matter. To be suitable as
road pavement the requirements for sub base or base materials must be met. Materials
excavated from existing road pavements may meet the necessary requirements directly, or
after breaking and mixing with other materials.

 Drainage and Channel Excavation

During construction, ditches are required to be maintained to ensure proper drainage at all
times. Any necessary ditches and channels should be constructed and maintained to ensure
there is no damage to the roadway section. All existing ditches, or drainage channels, which
the road crosses, need to be closed at the edge of the embankment, unless pipes or structures
are to be constructed and, where necessary, alternative outfalls are to be provided.

Any canals and channels which are located within the embankment area need to be cleaned
up and then back filled with sand. The sand fill should reach a level of 500 mm above the
water level, but thereafter earthworks (as described in Embankments below) can be placed.

 Borrow Pits
The borrow pits should be kept as drained as possible. Borrow pits should not be constructed
where they might:-

a) Affect the stability or safety of the highway or any railway or other structures, which may
be present.

b) Prevent natural or artificial drainage or irrigation.

c) Damage adjacent property or future expansion plans for the highway.

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As materials are only paid for when included in the embankment, there is no need to measure
the volumes of material removed from any borrow pits.

11.1 Embankment
 All fill materials must be free from vegetable matter and the material must be
approved as suitable.
 The material should be of an appropriate nature and at moisture content that it can be
compacted to form a stable layer.
 Generally embankments should be constructed in 150 mm compacted layers parallel
to the finished grade of the road.
 For each completed layer the density should be checked (One test for each 1,000
square metres) by laboratory personnel. If test results show the required density is not
achieved further compaction is necessary
 Any soft areas must be rectified before further material is placed. Each earthworks
layer requires to be approved before the next layer can be started.

11.1.1 Embankment Construction Methods

Before placing any material, clearing and grubbing and the removal of any unsuitable
materials needs to have been completed. Also any necessary information to determine
earthwork quantities should have been collected (normally cross sections of the original
ground).

Where an existing embankment is widened, the new fill material must be fully keyed into the
old embankment by means of benching. Steps not less than 300 mm high and 600 mm wide
should be cut into the old embankment prior to any filling. Material cut from these benches
may be used as fill, if it is suitable.

Normally embankments should be constructed in layers approximately parallel to the finished

grade of the road. The grade and crossfall should be maintained during construction, as this
will enable water to run off the embankment allowing construction work to start as soon as
possible after rainfall and avoid soft spots forming.

All fill material used must be free from roots, or any vegetable matter. Each layer of fill
should be less than 150 mm on completion of the compaction. Compaction must be
undertaken using appropriate equipment. If large rollers (very heavy vibrating compaction)
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are used it may be possible to increase the depth of the layers but this should only occur after
checking that adequate compaction is being achieved.

Generally the compaction should begin at the outer embankment edges and gradually
progress toward the centre rolling in a longitudinal direction so that the full width is
uniformly compacted. In order to ensure proper compaction of the embankment slope it is
good practice to overfill by 150 – 300 mm and then trim the embankment to the specified
shape. The arisings can be re-used as fill material.

11.2 Construction Methods of Pavements

The grading and quality of the materials need to be monitored throughout the works. Samples
of the materials brought to site should be regularly taken for testing (see table at back of this
report for frequency) to ensure that the materials continue to conform to the specification. If
the tests indicate changes have occurred the contractor is to be notified of the noncompliance
and the Engineer must be informed immediately.

Each layer needs to be inspected and be acceptable immediately prior to laying the next layer.
If the previous layer is acceptable material should be spread in layers of nearly equal
thickness up to 150mm un-compacted thickness. Where sand and aggregates are combined
together to meet the specified grading, care should be taken to prevent separation into fine
and coarse parts (segregation). If separation occurs, this either needs to be corrected, or the
material should be removed and replaced.

When the shoulder construction is the same as for the road, the material should be spread, for
the full width of the pavement and shoulders at the same time.

The moisture content at the time of spreading requires being appropriate to produce a dense
compacted layer. This requires that the material contains moisture content close to optimum
throughout the layer. Additional water, or time to allow the pavement material to dry, prior
to, or during compaction may be required. This is the contractor’s responsibility and no
additional payment be made.

After spreading, each layer requires to be compacted with suitable and adequate compaction
equipment, see fig 11.1.

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Rolling should begin from the outer edge of the placed material and gradually progress
towards the centre, rolling in generally a longitudinal direction. However, on super-elevated
curves, the rolling should begin at the low side and progress towards the high side.

Density of the compacted pavement layer must be determined by laboratory personnel in

accordance with STP 6.2 with at least three tests being made for each 1,000 square metres. If
the test results show that the achieved dry density is less than that required, further
compaction is necessary. After further compaction the layer should be tested again to ensure
the required density is achieved. Results of all the compaction tests should be kept on file as a
permanent record.

The level and thickness of each pavement layer should be checked every 20 m. A pavement
layer, which does not conform to the requirements for that layer (thickness or tolerance of
surface), must be corrected. This should be done by loosening the affected areas, adding or
removing materials and re-rolling, mixing and watering, if necessary. Once this has been
done the area should be checked again to ensure it conforms to all the requirements for that
pavement layer.

Table 11.1: Tolerance of Surface and Thickness of Layer

Improved Sub base Base

subgrade
Tolerance above or No point more than No point more than No point more than
Below proposed level. 20 mm above or 15 mm above or 10 mm above or
below. below. below.
Thickness of finished Required thickness Required thickness Required thickness
layer.
On average not less than 20 mm less than the 10 mm less than 10 mm less than
the: required thickness the the
No point thinner than: required thickness required thickness

When the pavement is spread next to concrete kerbs or gutters, care must be taken not to
damage them. If they are damaged due to the Contractor’s carelessness they should be
removed and replaced at the Contractor’s expense.

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At the start of constructing the improved sub grade and sub base layers a field compaction
trial should be carried out. This is to determine the optimum moisture content and the
required number of passes of the compaction equipment to comply with the Specification.
This trial should also determine the relationship between the loose and compacted thickness
to ensure the material placed is adequately compacted to the specified density and the
finished surface profile complies with the design level and permitted tolerances. Provided the
method produces satisfactory results it should then be used for all subsequent compaction of
that material. In this case provided the Contractor follows the agreed procedure, the
frequency of checking the compacted density of the layer may be reduced with the Engineer’s
approval.

Fig 11.1: Rolling Pavement Layers, suitable and adequate compaction equipment must be
used.

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Fig 11.2: Spray Bar at the Rear of Bitumen Distributor, Spraying Bituminous Prime Coat.

Fig 11.3: Mechanical spreader spreading aggregate on recently sprayed bitumen surface.

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11.2.1 Bituminous Layers and Mixes
 At least 14 days in advance of a proposed material’s use, samples of the material
along with laboratory test results should be submitted to the Engineer. If approved,
the contractor should then carry out trial mixes.
 The surface upon which the bitumen or bituminous mixture is to be placed must be
thoroughly cleaned immediately before the bitumen or mixture is placed.
 Bituminous materials should be placed only when the surface is dry, when rain does
not appear imminent and when the prepared roadbed is in a satisfactory condition.
 The entire surface to be primed must be covered evenly. Prior to any spraying, the
nozzles on the spray bar of the distributor should be checked to ensure that they are all
working. Where appropriate the distributor should be calibrated to ensure the required
rate of spray is achieved. Depending on the nature of the surface to be primed a light
application of water just prior to priming may be beneficial to aid penetration of the
bituminous material.
 No bituminous mixtures should be placed until the prime coat has dried.
 Tack coat may need to be applied to make the road surface sticky prior to the
bituminous carpeting layer being placed.
 For Primer Seals and Bitumen Surface Treatments the aggregate must be spread and
rolled into bitumen immediately after spraying, preferably rolling should be by multi
tyre rollers.
 No dense bituminous surfacing can occur until both the job mix formula and the trial
sections have been approved.
 Thereafter all asphalt work is required to follow the approved Job Mix formula and
the procedures established by the approved trials.
 Each day dense bituminous surfacing is laid, three Marshall specimens should be
prepared and tested (STP 10.9.10.10). Samples to be collected from either the plant or
the laid mat, as directed by the Engineer. Samples should also be taken each day to
determine the mix composition (Extraction of bitumen test and grading, STP 10.4.72).
 All equipment proposed to be used by the Contractor requires to be in good condition
and operated by competent and experienced operatives.
 Dense bituminous surfacing must be thoroughly compacted as soon as the material
will support the roller without undue displacement or cracking. Excess use of water
on the roller drums is to be avoid as this cools the asphalt mat.
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  The surface of the mixture after compaction must be close and tight, and free from
dragging cracks. Any mixture that is defective should be removed and replaced with
fresh hot material, which should be compacted immediately.
 After final rolling, samples should be cut from areas of bituminous surfacing for
density and thickness measurement at 50m intervals. Where samples have been taken,
fresh material must be placed and thoroughly compacted.

11.2.2 Bituminous Prime Coat

A bituminous prime coat is a thin layer of bitumen sprayed on to a prepared road base. Either
MC 30 or MC 70 cut back bitumen should be used, which should be sprayed within the
temperature range included in Table 11.1. The prime coat will normally be sprayed from a
spray bar at the rear of a bitumen distributor, as shown in fig 11.2, at the rate given in the
Contract Documents. Alternatively the rate can be directed by the Engineer.

It is important that the entire surface is uniformly covered and so prior to starting any
spraying the nozzles in the spray bar need to be checked to ensure they are working. Also the
spray bar should be at the correct height, h, and be parallel to the road surface see Figure 9 so
that each point of the road is sprayed from three separate jets. As an alternative and only
generally on small projects the contractor can propose equipment and methods (including
labour intensive methods).

No further bituminous layers must be applied until the prime coat has dried, this should occur
within 48 hours.

11.2.3 Bituminous Tack Coat

A tack coat is normally applied to make the road surface sticky prior to dense bituminous
surfacing or carpeting being placed.

To ensure this occurs the tack coat should therefore only be sprayed immediately before the
carpeting is placed.

The tack coat will normally be applied by bitumen distributor unless labour intensive
methods are agreed. The tack coat material requires to be uniformly distributed over the
surface without streaking.

11.2.4 Primer Seal

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A primer seal consists of pea gravel material rolled into a cut back bitumen, which has been
sprayed on to a prepared surface. The Pea gravel should be graded so that 100% of the
material falls within the size range of 2.4 mm to 6.3 mm. The Pea-gravel must be free from
any organic matter or clay and should be completely dust free.

The procedure to be followed is:

 Cut back bitumen is sprayed on the prepared surface
 Screened pea gravel aggregate spread to provide a dense uniform cover one stone
thick.
 The aggregate to be rolled into the bitumen immediately using a rubber tyred roller
for at least 4 passes before the road is opened to traffic.

11.3 Bituminous Surface Treatment

This surfacing consists of nominal single size aggregate rolled into a bitumen layer, which
has been sprayed on to a prepared surface. This is often known as a single surface dressing.
The procedure can be repeated using a smaller single size stone rolled into the gaps to
promote a good interlock between the layers, this is known as a double surface dressing.

The aggregate requires to be hard, crushed stone or crushed gravel of uniform quality. This
should be free from any dust and contain no vegetable matter and should not be flaky or
elongated. The aggregate must not be used until it appears dry as water prevents bitumen
adhering effectively to the aggregate.

The rates of bitumen and aggregates may be specified in the contract documents, but these
are normally established from site trials. The bitumen layer will generally be sprayed using a
bitumen distributor using the same method but for small areas hand spraying equipment is
used. The bitumen should generally be either RC 800 or RC 3000 cut back bitumen or rapid
setting emulsion at the appropriate temperature.

Immediately after the bitumen is sprayed the aggregate should be spread uniformly using a
mechanical aggregate spreader. At this stage the surface requires to be inspected and further
aggregate should be placed in any insufficiently covered areas by using the spreader or
covering by hand methods.

Immediately after spreading, the aggregate requires to be rolled, preferably with one or more
pneumatic tyred rollers. The rolling must be continued, for as long as is necessary to ensure
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the aggregate is firmly embedded into the bitumen. If tyred rollers are not available steel
wheeled rollers may be permitted.

However, in this case the finished surface must be checked to ensure that the aggregate is not
crushed and is being fully embedded into the bitumen.

11.3.1 Dense Bituminous Surfacing (Asphalt)

A dense Bituminous Surfacing consists of graded aggregates, including a filler, coated with
bitumen. The material is laid hot and is compacted to form a dense impervious layer. The
surfacing can either form the road surface or a seal coat can be laid on the asphalt.

11.3.2 Premix Bituminous Seal Coat (Manual Method)

A seal coat consists of generally fine graded aggregates coated with bitumen. This is placed
on newly laid bituminous carpeting or an existing bituminous surface, to seal the surface.
However, if well graded premixes, which have been properly controlled, have been placed a
seal coat may not be required.

The aggregates should consist of 6.3mm downgraded clean pea gravel free from any
vegetable matter. Where required to achieve the grading the aggregate should be mixed with
clean natural sand, which is non-plastic, and also contains no vegetable matter.

The Contractor must initially submit samples and produce a job mix formula. Thereafter the
construction should follow the methods detailed in the relevant sections above.

The completed surfacing after compaction should appear to be close and tight.

11.3.3 Brickwork
Only First class bricks, which have been soaked in water for at least three hours should be
used.

 Any cement mortar, which has taken initial set, must not be used.

11.3.4 Materials
Only first class bricks, which are regular and uniform in size and of good colour, should be
used. The bricks should also be free from flaws, cracks, or other blemishes.

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The cement mortar used must consist of a mixture of one part by weight of cement to two
parts of sand. The cement and sand should be mixed dry, and then the minimum water
necessary to produce a workable mixture should be added. In no case should the
water/cement ratio exceed 50% by weight.

Mortar, which has taken initial set, must not be used and the contractor must remove the
mortar from the site.

11.3.5 Construction Methods

Bricks must be soaked in water for at least three hours before use. The brickwork requires to
be constructed as shown on the Drawings, by properly supervised skilled masons and
workmen.

All face work bricks require to be specially selected regarding size, shape and edges. All
horizontal joints should be parallel and level. Vertical joints in alternate courses should be
directly over one another. Joint thickness should normally be 6 mm, and must not exceed 8
mm. All joints are to be properly dressed and pointed. The brickwork requires to be cured for
at least seven days. The same curing method as for concrete can be used.

12.0 Highway Drainage

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Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 To raise awareness of the importance of good design and ongoing effectiveness of
surface water drainage systems
 To give practical instruction in the design of surface and sub-soil drainage systems.
 Apply the acquired skills and knowledge to design of surface and sub-surface systems

Lesson content:
 Introduction to Highway Drainage
 Highway Drainage Requirements
 Effects of Improper Drainage
 Surface Drainage
 Sub-Surface Drainage
 Cross Drainage

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to Ghana Highway Authority to have an advance knowledge on drainage
systems in highway construction.
 A visit to a road construction firm to appreciate the construction of Highway
Drainage.

12.1 Introduction to Highway Drainage

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Highway drainage may be defined as the process of interception and removal of water from
over, under and the vicinity of the road surface. Road drainage is very important for safe and
efficient design of the road way and hence is an essential part of highway design and
construction. A part of rainwater falling on road surface and adjoining area is lost by
evaporation and percolation. The remaining water known as surface water, either remains on
the surface of the road and adjoining area, or flows away from it, depending upon the
topography and general slope of the area. Removal and diversion of this surface water from
highway and adjoining land is known as surface drainage. Due to percolation, if water table
does not rise near of the road sub-grade, it does not create any problem as it does not affect
the road sub-grade. If water table rises to the vicinity of road sub-grade, it requires to be
lowered as it will definitely affect road sub-grade. Measures adopted to lower the subsoil
water table are called sub surface drainage.

Some of the retained water which cannot be drained off by normal methods of drainage is
called held water and special measures have to be taking neither to drain it off nor keep it low
so that it may not affect the road sub-grade.

12.1.1 Highway Drainage Requirements

1. Surface water should not be allowed to remain standing on the road pavement and
shoulders. Measures should be taken to drains off this water, immediately.
2. The surface rain water from the adjoining area should not be allowed to come towards
the road surface. For this, general slope of the ground adjoining road should be made
slopping away from the road. This objective can be achieved by aligning road on
ridge.
3. Side drains should be of sufficient capacity and having sufficient longitudinal slope so
that it may drain of all the collected surface water, efficiently.
4. Surface water flowing across the road pavement should not develop cross ruts or
erosions on road surface and shoulders. For this, high embankment slopes should be
protected either by turfing or pitching.
5. Seepage water and other capillary waters should be drained off by suitable
underground drainage system.
6. Maximum level of underground water table should be maintained well below the sub-
grade level of the road. Underground water table should remain at least 1 m to 2 m
below the road sub-grade.

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 7. In water logged areas, special measures should be taken to keep down the harmful
salts.

12.1.2 Effects of Improper Drainage

One of the major causes of road failure is its improper drainage. Improper drainage of the
road causes destruction in the following ways:

a) Road surface if made of soil, gravel or water bound macadam, it will become soft and
losses strength.
b) The road sub-grade may be softened and its bearing capacity reduced.
c) Variation in moisture content in expensive soils causes variation in the volume of sub-
grade and thus causes failure of roads.
d) Failure of formation slopes is also attributed to poor drainage.
e) If rain water is not properly drained and allowed to flow along the road side for long
distances, slip and landslides may occur causing road failures.
f) Erosion of side slopes, side drains, and formation of gullies may result if proper
drainage conditions are not maintained.
g) Flexible pavement’s failure by formation of waves and corrugations is due to poor
drainage.
h) Continuous contact of water, with bituminous pavements causes failures due to
stripping of bitumen from aggregates like loosening or detachment of some of the
bituminous pavement layers and formation of pot holes.
i) Rigid pavement’s prime cause of failure in by mud pumping which occurs due to
water in fine sub-grade soil.
j) Excess moisture causes increase in weight and thus increase in stress and
simultaneous reduction in strength of the soil mass. This main reason of failure of
earth slopes and embankment foundation.
k) Erosion of soil from the top of un-surfaced roads and embankment slopes in also due
to surface water.

12.2 Surface Drainage

The problem of surface drainage is first tackled at the location survey stage. An ideal location
for a highway from drainage point of view is along the divides between large drainage areas.
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All the streams would then flow away from the highway and the drainage problem would be
reduced to tackling the water that falls within the roadway boundary only. Except in hilly
areas, where easy gradients are available along the mainstreams, location of a highway along
the streams involves construction of a large number of drainage structures at immense cost,
which, if possible should be carefully avoided. Construction of high embankments involves
erosion problems which require careful handling. This fact may also be taken into account
while locating a highway. Drainage is, thus one of the essential considerations for the
location of a highway.

12.2.1 Side Ditches for Surface Drainage

Side ditches are used along the roadway in cuts and on ground that is fairly level and
sometimes adjacent to embankments to prevent road water from flowing over cultivated or
otherwise improved land. These ditches are usually V-shaped or trapezoidal, the former being
generally preferred. However, the trapezoidal ditches have a higher capacity. The quantity of
water to be carried by a side ditch along a highway is the run-off from the area contributing
there to. Primarily this water comes from the portion of the road between the ditches and
from shoulders flanking the roadway surface. As a broad principle, it may be accepted that
for storms of short duration say of less than 15 minutes, about 75% of the water and that for
storms exceeding 15 minutes duration, all the water that falls on this area would run to the
ditches. Some more water might also reach the ditches from the adjoining lands sloping
towards the roadway. Rate of run-off of water from these lands would depend upon the type
of soil, type of vegetation and the slope of the land. All these items should be carefully
studied before arriving at the Design Discharge. For practical purposes, it may be assumed
that for storms lasting 40minutes or more a portion of water that falls on the adjoining lands
also comes to the ditches. The design of cross section whether V-shaped or trapezoidal
should be based upon these considerations. Side-ditches should preferably be lined if
financially feasible. The paving may consist of rubble masonry work, which is either laid dry
or the joints filled with grout. The stones should be 15 to 20 cm deep and at least 5 cm wide
for the purpose. This may be under-laid with a 10 cm layer of crushed rock or gravel, the
particles of which may range in size from 10 to 20 mm.

12.2.2 Intercepting Drains

Intercepting drains are used on natural slopes to prevent erosion of the cut-slopes in the hilly
areas. They are sometimes also used to relieve the side ditches of greater discharge than the
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one for which they are designed. The water from the intercepting drain is carried down to the
side ditch at specified points along spillways.

12.2.3 Ditch Checks

The primary function of a road side drainage ditch is to remove the surface water efficiently.
The ditch, therefore, should have adequate capacity to carry the peak rate of run-off
throughout the life of the roadway. This means that ditch should maintain it’s originally
designed cross-section and should neither erode nor silt up. For this purpose, the slopes of the
ditches are kept mild to protect the ditch against erosion grass may be grown in it. In hilly or
rolling areas, the longitudinal slopes along the ditches sometimes are large which induce high
velocities causing erosion of the bed and the sides of the ditches. In order, therefore, are used
to restrict the slopes. A ditch check is a solid barrier across the ditch with a fall of 25 to 30
cm. Water runs in the section between two consecutive ditch checks along a mild slope and
then drops through this fall. The spacing of the ditch checks depends upon the general
gradient of the ditch, the intervening gradient and the vertical drop available at the structure.

12.2.4 Kerbs and Gutters

Kerbs and gutters are essential for the city streets to drain off the water quickly and to
maintain the cleanliness required. Usually, a kerb and gutter combination is employed for the
purpose. It is cast in concrete as one piece though kerb and gutter combinations cut from
stones are also employed for the purpose. Concrete should have a compressive strength of
about 80 kg/cm2at 7days and about 200 kg/cm 2 at 28 days. The essential requirement of the
stones from which the kerb and gutter combinations are cut is that they should be free from
any laminations. Granite or any other hard stone may be used. The kerb and gutter
combination are fixed at the edge of the roadway and gullies are placed at suitable intervals.
The gutters slope towards gully from both sides and a longitudinal gradient of 1 in 100 to 1 in
120 is given to these. The water from the gutter flows through the grating into the gully and is
drained off through an outlet pipe to a water sewer, which takes the water away to a natural
water channel. Sometimes V-shaped shallow concrete gutters are used for concrete or other
high type of pavements. Such gutters do not create any traffic hazard. Sometimes, separate
kerb and gutters are employed for draining off water from the city streets.

12.2.5 Pipe Drains

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Pipe drains as water sewers are widely used for removing surface water and are sometimes
desirable for carrying the water along roadways when sufficient widths of right-of-way are
not available for suitable ditch construction. Vitrified clay sewer pipes and concrete sewer
pipes are the most suitable. Sewers properly designed and constructed in brick masonry are
also used for the purpose. In soils where settlement may occur, corrugated metal pipe is used.
All sections of corrugated metal pipe are connected with metallic bands.

12.2.6 Inlets, Catch Basins and Manholes

Inlets are the openings from gutters or ditches into pipe drains or culverts and are of various
types. Along a rural highway, it may simply be a V-shaped or straight concrete headwall with
or without a paved approach. Drop inlets are used where water has to be discharged into a
drain or a culvert at lower level. Catch basins and manholes are usually of circular shape and
are generally connected to the drop inlets of pipe drains. They are spaced 150 to 300meters
apart depending upon the individual design requirement and are meant for inspection.

12.3 Sub - Surface Drainage

Stability and strength of the road surface depends upon the strength of the sub grade. Sub-
grade is the foundation layer of the road whose strength largely depends upon its moisture
content. With increase in moisture content, the strength of the sub-grade decreases.
Variations in moisture content of sub-grade are caused by following:

a) See page of water from higher adjoining ground.

b) Penetration of moisture through the pavement.
c) Percolation of water from shoulders, pavement edges and soil formation slopes.
d) Rise or fall of underground water table.
e) Capillary rise of moisture in case of retentive type of soils.
f) Transfer of moisture vapour through soil.
The first three methods of entrance of moisture are concerned with free water, and last three
methods are connected with ground water. In the case of sub-surface drainage of the roads,
every effort should be made to reduce the change or variation in moisture content to
minimum. It is better if sub-grade is always kept dry, but in rainy season, some change in
moisture content if sub-grade is inevitable. It should be remembered that by provision of sub-
soil drainage, only gravitational water can be drained off, vapour water and capillary water
cannot de drained by this system.
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12.3.1 Sub-Surface Drainage Systems
If underground water table is more than 1.5 m below the sub-grade of the road, it does not
require any sub soil drainage. But if it is closer than this, the best remedy is to raise the road
formation to such a height that sub grade remains at least 1.2 m above the highest water table.
But if due to other consideration, it is not possible to increase the height of formation, and
sub-grade soil being drainable, deep side trenches should be constructed on both sides of the
road to lower the water table. These trenches are provided with drainpipes and filled at the
top by filter sand. The depth of trenches depends upon amount of lowering of water table,
lateral distance between trenches and type of sub-grade soil. If the sub-grade soil is of
retentive type, only side trench drains may not prove adequate, as at the centre of the
pavement lowering of water table may not take place up to the desired level. In that case,
transverse drains may have to be provided at suitable intervals along with the side
longitudinal drains. Transverse drains may be pipe drains or trapezoidal trench drains filled
with stone or rubble. Stone or rubble filled transverse drains are also called French or blind
drains. Transverse drains collect percolating water from the width of the pavement and
discharge it into the side drains. Transverse pipe drains are given a little slope towards the
side drains. The filter material surrounds the transverse trenches and the top of these trenches
is filled with graded rubble, the bigger size rubble being nearer the pipe. The diameter of the
lateral pipe drain may be 10 cm and that of longitudinal pipe drain 20 cm or even more
according to the requirements. The cross drains are placed staggered in plan, in the
herringbone fashion.

12.3.2 Control on See Page Flow

Where surface of the ground and impervious embedded below it are sloping towards the road,
the seepage flow is likely to reach road sub-grade and affect its strength characteristics. If the
seepage level reaches a depth less than60 cm to 90 cm from the road sub-grade, it should be
intercepted to keep seepage line at a safe depth below road sub-grade.

12.3.3 Control on Capillary Rise

If capillary rising water in very near to sub-grade of the road and is likely to affect its
strength, steps should be taken to arrest the capillary rise of water. In the case of seepage,
arresting of capillary rise is more useful than lowering the water table. In fact lowering of

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underground water table is only economical method when sub-grade soil is of permeable
type. In case of sub-grade having retentive type of soil, drainage is very difficult and costly
and checking its rise by capillary cut-off’s proves more economical. Capillary cut-off’s can
be of three types as follows:

a) Provision of a granular layer of suitable thickness or of sand blanket.

b) Provision of impermeable layer of bituminous material.
c) Heavy duty tar felt, polythene envelop, are the other measures which can be adopted.
During the construction of embankment, a granular layer of suitable thickness is inserted
between the sub-grade and highest level of water table. Thickness of granular layer should be
such that capillary rise of water remains within this layer. If this layer is too thin, it is likely
that capillary rising water may rise above this layer and affect the road sub-grade.

In second method, in place of granular layer, an impermeable layer generally of bituminous

material is inserted to arrest the capillary rise. 50% straight rum bitumen 80/100 grade with
50% diesel oil at the rate 1kg/m2 is used for this layer.

12.4 Cross Drainage

12.4.1 Cross Drainage Works
When a stream or river happens to cross the road alignment, facilities for cross drainage have
to be provided. When road alignment gets away from the ridge line, the rain water on the area
in circled by ridge and road alignment has to be passed from one side of the road to the other
lower side. At the point of crossing, masonry structure known as cross drainage work or
drainage structure has to be constructed. The commonly used cross drainage structure is the
culverts and small bridges. When linear water way between the inside faces of abutments of
drainage structure is less than 6m, it is called a culvert. When linear water way exceeds 3m,
the cross drainage work is called a bridge. Thus culvert is just a small bridge. Across small
streams, culverts are constructed but in case of large streams or rivers, bridges are
constructed. Slab culvert, Box culvert, Arch culvert and Pipe culvert are the usual types of
culverts most commonly used for cross drainage works.

 Pipe Culverts
When the stream carries low discharge and is having high embankment, pipe culverts are
considered more suitable. Pipe is laid slightly inclined. For ease in inspection minimum
diameter of pipe should be 75 cm. There should be at least 90 cm cover of soil so that traffic

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load transmitted on pipe is of small intensity and also without vibrations. Pipes may be made
of stone ware, concrete, etc. Pipes should be laid on 15 cm cement concrete bedding. A
protective rubble apron should be provided in sandy or clay beds

 Slab Culvert
These culverts have masonry abutments with stone slab over them. In localities where stone
is easily available, these culverts are mostly used. These culverts are mostly used up to about
2 m span. Where stone patties are not available, Rein-concrete slabs are used. Rein-concrete
slabs are designed as simply supported slabs. Span of rein-concrete slab may be about 3 m.

 Box Culvert
These culverts are constructed where the nature of the soil below the foundation is not
suitable for individual footing under piers and abutments. It is a monolithic rectangular
drainage structure. The size of the rectangular passage should not be less than 60cm X 60 cm
for easy cleaning of debris. Short span box culverts can be precast.

 Arch Culvert
This culvert is preferred under the conditions where high fillings are involved and there are
heavier loadings on the culvert. Arches may be built from brick, or stone masonry, or plain
cement concrete. Span of each arch should be kept less than 3 m.

Selection of culvert to be used is done on the basis of availability of construction materials

and economic considerations.

13.0 Bituminous Materials

Lesson objectives:
 Explain the procedure involved in the manufacture and curing of asphalt cement.

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  Select suitable asphalt cement for highway construction.
 Conduct test on asphalt cement both in the laboratory and on the field.

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Types of Bituminous Materials Used in Pavement Construction
 Conventional Tests on Asphalt Cements and Their Significance
 Effects of Properties of Asphalt Binders on the Performance of Asphalt Pavements
 Effects of Hardening Characteristics of Asphalt

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to a road construction site to appreciate the manufacture, laying and
compaction of bitumen on highway pavement.
 A seminar on an ongoing road construction by a practicing road engineer on;
o The tests conducted on bitumen to determine its suitability for the highway
construction.
o Conditions under which asphalt is laid.

13.1 Introduction
The term bituminous material is generally used to denote substances in which
bitumen is present or from which it can be derived. Bitumen is defined as an

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amorphous, black or dark- colored, (solid, semi-solid, or viscous) cementitious
substance, composed principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons, and
soluble in carbon di-sulphide. For civil engineering applications, bituminous
materials include primarily asphalts and tars. Asphalts may occur in nature (natural
asphalts) or may be obtained from petroleum processing (petroleum asphalts). Tars
do not occur in nature and are obtained as condensates in the processing of coal,
petroleum, oil-shale, wood or other organic materials. Pitch is formed when a tar is
partially distilled so that the volatile constituents have evaporated off from it.
Bituminous mixtures are generally used to denote the combinations of bituminous
materials (as binders), aggregates and additives.

13.2 Types of Bituminous Materials Used in Pavement Construction

Asphalt cement is an asphalt which has been specially refined as to quality and
consistency for direct use in the construction of asphalt pavements. An asphalt
cement has to be heated to an appropriate high temperature in order to be fluid
enough to be mixed and placed.

Cutback asphalt is a liquid asphalt which is a blend of asphalt and petroleum

solvents (such as gasoline and kerosene). A cutback asphalt can be mixed and
placed with little or no application of heat. After a cutback asphalt is applied and
exposed to the atmosphere, the solvent will gradually evaporate, leaving the asphalt
cement to perform its function as a binder.

Emulsified asphalt (or asphalt emulsion) is an emulsion of asphalt cement and

water that contains a small amount of emulsifying agent. In a normal emulsified
asphalt, the asphalt cement is in the form of minute globules in suspension in
water. An emulsified asphalt can be mixed and applied without any application of
heat. After an asphalt emulsion is applied, sufficient time is required for the
emulsion to break and the water to evaporate to leave the asphalt cement to
perform its function as a binder. In an inverted emulsified asphalt, minute globules
of water are in suspension in a liquid asphalt, which is usually a cutback asphalt.
Inverted asphalt emulsions are seldom used in pavement applications.

13.3 Conventional Tests on Asphalt Cements and Their Significance

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In this section, the purpose and significance of the commonly-used tests on asphalt
cements are described. Readers may refer to the appropriate standard test methods
for detailed description of the test procedures.

13.3.1 Penetration Test

The penetration test is one of the oldest and most commonly-used tests on asphalt
cements or residues from distillation of asphalt cutbacks or emulsions. The
standardized procedure for this test can be found in ASTM D5 [ASTM, 2001]. It is
an empirical test which measures the consistency (hardness) of an asphalt at a
specified test condition. In the standard test condition, a standard needle of a total
load of 100 g is applied to the surface of an asphalt sample at a temperature of 25
°C for 5 seconds. The amount of penetration of the needle at the end of 5 seconds is
measured in units of 0.1 mm (or penetration unit). A softer asphalt will have a
higher penetration, while a harder asphalt will have a lower penetration. Other test
conditions which have been used include (1) 0 °C, 200 g, 60 sec., and (2) 46 °C, 50
g, 5 sec.

The penetration test can be used to designate grades of asphalt cement, and to
measure changes in hardness due to age hardening or changes in temperature.

13.3.2 Flash Point Test

The flash point test determines the temperature to which an asphalt can be safely
heated in the presence of an open flame. The test is performed by heating an
asphalt sample in an open cup at a specified rate and determining the temperature
at which a small flame passing over the surface of the cup will cause the vapours
from the asphalt sample temporarily to ignite or flash. The commonly-used flash
point test methods include (1) the Cleveland Open Cup (ASTM D92) and (2) Tag
Open Cup (ASTM D1310). The Cleveland Open-Cup method is used on asphalt
cements or asphalts with relatively higher flash points, while the Tag Open- Cup
method is used on cutback asphalts or asphalts with flash points of less than 79 °C.
Minimum flash point requirements are included in the specifications for asphalt
cements for safety reasons. Flash point tests can also be used to detect
contaminating materials such as gasoline or kerosine in an asphalt cement.
Contamination of an asphalt cement by such materials can be indicated by a
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substantial drop in flash point. When the flash point test is used to detect
contaminating materials, the Pensky-Martens Closed Tester method (ASTM D93),
which tends to give more indicative results, is normally used. In recent years, the
flash point test results have been related to the hardening potential of asphalt. An
asphalt with a high flash point is more likely to have a lower hardening potential in
the field.

13.3.3 Solubility Test

Asphalt consists primarily of bitumen’s, which are high-molecular-weight
hydrocarbons soluble in carbon disulphide. The bitumen content of a bituminous
material is measured by means of its solubility in carbon disulphide. In the standard
test for bitumen content (ASTM D4), a small sample of about 2 g of the asphalt is
dissolved in 100 ml of carbon disulphide and the solution is filtered through a
filtering mat in a filtering crucible. The material retained on the filter is then dried
and weighed, and used to calculate the bitumen content as a percentage of the
weight of the original asphalt.

Due to the extreme flammability of carbon disulphide, solubility in

trichloroethylene, rather than solubility in carbon disulphide, is usually used in
asphalt cement specifications. The standard solubility test using trichloroethylene is
designated as ASTM D 2042. The solubility test is used to detect contamination in
asphalt cement. Specifications for asphalt cements normally require a minimum
solubility in trichloroethylene of 99.0 percent. Unfortunately, trichloroethylene has
been identified as a carcinogen and contributing to the depletion of the earth’s
ozone layer. The use of trichloroethylene will most likely be banned in the near
future. There is a need to use a less hazardous and non-chlorinated solvent for this
purpose. Results of several investigations have indicated that the solvent n-Propyl
Bromide appears to be a feasible alternative to trichloroethylene for use in this
application.

13.3.4 Ductility Test

The ductility test (ASTM D113) measures the distance a standard asphalt sample
will stretch without breaking under a standard testing condition (5 cm/min at 25
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°C). It is generally considered that an asphalt with a very low ductility will have
poor adhesive properties and thus poor performance in service. Specifications for
asphalt cements normally contain requirements for minimum ductility.

13.3.5 Viscosity Tests

The viscosity test measures the viscosity of an asphalt. Both the viscosity test and
the penetration test measure the consistency of an asphalt at some specified
temperatures and are used to designate grades of asphalts. The advantage of using
the viscosity test as compared with the penetration test is that the viscosity test
measures a fundamental physical property rather than an empirical value.

Viscosity is defined as the ratio between the applied shear stress and induced shear
rate of a fluid. The relationship between shear stress, shear rate and viscosity can
be expressed as:

Shear Rate = Shear Stress / Viscosity (1)

When shear rate is expressed in units of 1/sec. and shear stress in units of Pascal,
viscosity will be in units of Pascal-seconds. One Pascal-second is equal to 10
Poises. The lower the viscosity of an asphalt, the faster the asphalt will flow under
the same stress.

For a Newtonian fluid, the relationship between shear stress and shear rate is linear,
and thus the viscosity is constant at different shear rates or shear stress. However,
for a non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between shear stress and shear rate is
not linear, and thus the apparent viscosity will change as the shear rate or shear
stress changes. Asphalts tend to behave as slightly non-Newtonian fluids,
especially at lower temperatures. When different methods are used to measure the
viscosity of an asphalt, the test results might be significantly different, since the
different methods might be measuring the viscosity at different shear rates. It is
thus very important to indicate the test method used when viscosity results are
presented.

The most commonly-used viscosity test on asphalt cements is the Absolute

Viscosity Test by Vacuum Capillary Viscometer (ASTM D2171). The standard test
temperature is 60 °C. The absolute viscosity test measures the viscosity in units of

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Poise. The viscosity at 60 °C represents the viscosity of the asphalt at the maximum
temperature a pavement is likely to experience.

When the viscosity of an asphalt at a higher temperature (such as 135 °C) is to be

determined, the most commonly-used test is the Kinematic Viscosity Test (ASTM
D2170), which measures the kinematic viscosity in units of Stokes or centi-Stokes.
Kinematic viscosity is defined as:

Kinematic Viscosity = Viscosity / Density (2)

When viscosity is in units of Poise and density in units of g/cm3, the kinematic
viscosity will be in units of Stokes. To convert from kinematic viscosity (in units of
Stokes) to absolute viscosity (in units of Poises), one simply multiplies the number
of Stokes by the density in units of g/cm3. However, due to the fact that an asphalt
might be non-Newtonian and that the kinematic viscosity test and the absolute
viscosity test are run at different shear rates, conversion by this method will not
produce accurate results and can only serve as a rough estimation. The standard
temperature for the kinematic test on asphalt cement is 135 °C. The viscosity at 135
°C approximately represents the viscosity of the asphalt during mixing and
placement of a hot mix

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 13.3.6 Thin Film Oven and Rolling Thin Film Oven Tests
When an asphalt cement is used in the production of asphalt concrete, it has to be heated to
an elevated temperature and mixed with a heated aggregate. The hot asphalt mixture is then
hauled to the job site, placed and compacted. By the time the compacted asphalt concrete
cools down to the normal pavement temperature, significant hardening of the asphalt binder
has already taken place. The properties of the asphalt in service are significantly different
from those of the original asphalt.

Since the performance of the asphalt concrete in service depends on the properties of the
hardened asphalt binder in service rather than the properties of the original asphalt, the
properties of the hardened asphalt in service need to be determined and controlled.
The Thin Film Oven Test (TFOT) procedure (ASTM D1754) was developed to simulate the
effects of heating in a hot-mix plant operation on an asphalt cement. In the standard TFOT
procedure, the asphalt cement sample is poured into a flat-bottomed pan to a depth of about
1/8 inch (3.2 mm). The pan with the asphalt sample in it is then placed on a rotating shelf in
an oven and kept at a temperature of 163 °C for five hours. The properties of the asphalt
before and after the TFOT procedure are measured to determine the change in properties that
might be expected after a hot-mix plant operation.
The Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT) procedure (ASTM D2872) was developed for the
same purpose as the TFOT and designed to produce essentially the same effect as the TFOT
procedure on asphalt cement. The advantages of the RTFOT over the TFOT are that (1) a
larger number of samples can be tested at the same time, and (2) less time is required to
perform the test. In the standard RTFOT procedure, the asphalt cement sample is placed in a
specially-designed bottle, which is then placed on its side on a rotating shelf, in an oven kept
at 163 °C, and rolled continuously for 85 minutes. Once during each rotation, the opening of
the bottle passes an air jet, which provides fresh air to the asphalt in the bottle for increased
oxidation rate.
While the RTFOT and TFOT have generally worked well on pure asphalts, problems were
encountered when modified asphalts were used. Asphalts modified with crumb rubber and
SBR tended to spill out from the RTFOT bottles during the RTFOT process. When TFOT
was used on these modified binders, a thin skin tended to form on the surface of the modified
asphalt, which reduced the homogeneity and the aging of the samples. A feasible alternative
to the RTFOT and TFOT for use on modified asphalts appears to be the modified rotavapor

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 aging procedure. The rotavapor apparatus, which was originally used for recovery of asphalt
from solution (ASTM D5404), was modified to work as an aging device for asphalt. The
binder to be aged is placed in a rotating flask, which is immersed in a temperature-controlled
oil bath. An air pump is used to provide a controlled air flow to the flask. Different aging
effects can be produced by using different combinations of process temperature, process
duration and sample size. Using a process temperature of 163 °C, process duration of 165
minutes and a sample size of 200 g has been found to produce aging severity similar to that of
the RTFOT.

13.3.7 Ring & Ball Softening Point Test

The ring and ball softening point test (ASTM D36) measures the temperature at which an
asphalt reaches a certain softness. When an asphalt is at its softening point temperature, it has
approximately a penetration of 800 or an absolute viscosity of 13,000 poises. This conversion
is only approximate and can vary from one asphalt to another, due to the non-Newtonian
nature of asphalts and the different shear rates used by these different methods.
The softening point temperature can be used along with the penetration to determine the
temperature susceptibility of an asphalt. Temperature susceptibility of an asphalt is often
expressed as:

M = [log (p ) - log (p )]/ (t - t ) (3)

2 1 2 1
Where M = temperature susceptibility
t , t = temperatures in
1 2
°C p = penetration at t1
1
p = penetration at t2
2
Since an asphalt has approximately a penetration of 800 at the softening point temperature,
the softening point temperature can be used along with the penetration at 25 °C to determine
the temperature susceptibility as:
M = [log (pen at 25 °C) - log (800)]/ (25 - S.P. Temp.) (4)

The M computed in this manner can then be used to compute a Penetration Index (PI) as
follows:
PI = (20 - 500 M) / (1 + 50 M) (5)

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 The Penetration Index is an indicator of the temperature susceptibility of the asphalt. A high
PI indicates low temperature susceptibility. Normal asphalt cements have a PI between -2 and
+2. Asphalt cements with a PI of more than +2 are of low temperature susceptibility, while
those with a PI of less than -2 are of excessively high temperature susceptibility.

13.4 Effects of Properties of Asphalt Binders on the Performance of Asphalt Pavements

13.4.1 Effects of Viscoelastic Properties of Asphalt

When an asphalt concrete surface is cooled in winter time, stresses are induced in the asphalt concrete.
These stresses can be relieved by the flowing of the asphalt binder within the asphalt mixture. However,
if the viscosity of the asphalt binder is too high at this low temperature, the flow of the asphalt binder
may not be fast enough to relieve the high induced stresses. Consequently, low-temperature cracking may
occur. The viscosity of asphalt at which low-temperature cracking would occur is dependent on the
cooling rate of the pavement as well as the characteristics of the asphalt concrete. However, as a rough
prediction of low-temperature cracking, a limiting viscosity of 2 X 10 poises could be used.

If the viscosity of the asphalt binder at the lowest anticipated temperature is kept lower than this limiting
value, low-temperature cracking would be unlikely to occur.

Another critical condition of an asphalt concrete is at the highest pavement temperature, at which the
asphalt mixture is the weakest and most susceptible to plastic flow when stressed. When the other factors
are kept constant, an increase in the viscosity of the asphalt binder will increase the shear strength and
subsequently the resistance to plastic flow of the asphalt concrete. With respect to resistance to plastic
flow of the asphalt concrete, it is preferable to have a high asphalt viscosity at the highest anticipated
pavement temperature. Results by Goodrich (1988) indicates that a low tan δ value of the binder (as
obtained from the dynamic rheometer test) tends to correlate with a low creep compliance of the asphalt
mixture, which indicates high rutting resistance. Thus, a low tan δ value of the binder is desirable to
reduce rutting potential. The effectiveness of the mixing of asphalt cement and aggregate, and the
effectiveness of the placement and compaction of the hot asphalt mix are affected greatly by the viscosity
of the asphalt. The Asphalt Institute recommends that the mixing of asphalt cement and aggregate should
be done at a temperature where the viscosity of the asphalt is 1.7 ± 0.2 poises. Compaction should be
performed at a temperature where the viscosity of the asphalt cement is 2.8 ± 0.3 poises [Epps et al,
1983]. These viscosity ranges are only offered as guidelines. The actual optimum mixing and compaction
temperatures will depend on the characteristics of the mixture as well as the construction environment.
In the selection of a suitable asphalt cement to be used in a certain asphalt paving project, the main
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concerns are;
1. Whether the viscosity of the asphalt at the lowest anticipated service temperature would not be
low enough to avoid low-temperature cracking of the asphalt concrete.
2. Whether the viscosity of the asphalt at the highest anticipated temperature would be high enough
to resist rutting.
3. Whether the required temperatures for proper mixing and placement would not be too high.

13.4.2 Effects of Hardening Characteristics of Asphalt

An important factor that affects the durability of an asphalt concrete is the rate of hardening of the asphalt
binder. The causes of hardening of asphalt have been attributed to oxidation, loss of volatile oils, and
polymerization (changes in structure). Among all these possible factors, oxidation is generally considered
to be the prime cause of asphalt hardening.
The most severe hardening of asphalt occurs during the mixing process. The viscosity of the asphalt
binder immediately after the asphalt concrete is placed on the road is usually 2 to 4 times the viscosity of
the original asphalt cement. The asphalt binder continues to harden through service; its viscosity could
reach as high as 10 to 20 times the viscosity of the original asphalt cement. The rate of asphalt hardening
is dependent on asphalt composition, mixing temperature, air voids content, and climatic conditions. It
usually increases with increased mixing temperature, increased air voids content in the asphalt mix, and
increased service (air) temperature.

Excessive hardening of the asphalt binder will cause the asphalt concrete to be too brittle and low-
temperature cracking to occur. It may also cause the asphalt binder to partially lose its adhesion and
cohesion, and subsequently it may cause ravelling (progressive disintegration of pavement material and
separation of aggregates from it) in the asphalt concrete.

A certain amount of hardening of the asphalt binder during the mixing process is usually expected and
designed for. If an asphalt binder has not hardened sufficiently during the mixing process (due to low
mixing temperature or the peculiar nature of the asphalt), the asphalt binder may be too soft at placement.
This may cause the asphalt mix to be difficult to compact (tender mix) and to have a low resistance to
rutting in service. If the tenderness of an asphalt concrete disappears within a few weeks after
construction, the problem is most likely caused by slow setting asphalt. This type of asphalt requires an
excessive amount of time to "set up" after they are heated up and returned to normal ambient
temperature. Asphalts containing less than 10 percent asphaltenes appear to have a greater probability of

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producing slow-setting asphalt mixtures. Asphaltenes are the high molecular weight fraction of asphalt
which can be separated from the other asphalt fractions by dissolving an asphalt in a specified solvent
(such as n-heptane as used in the ASTM D4124 Methods for Separation of Asphalt into Four Fractions).
The asphaltenes, which are insoluble in the solvent, would be precipitated out in this method.

13.4.3 Types and Grades of Cutback Asphalts

Cutback asphalts are classified into three main types on the basis of the relative speed of evaporation of
the solvents in them. A Rapid-Curing (RC) cutback asphalt is composed of an asphalt cement and a
solvent of a volatility similar to that of naphtha or gasoline, which evaporates at a fast speed. A Medium-
Curing (MC) cutback asphalt contains a solvent of a volatility similar to that of kerosine, which
evaporates at a medium speed. Slow-Curing (SC) cutback asphalt contains an oil of relatively low
volatility.
Within each type, cutback asphalts are graded by kinematic viscosity at 60 °C. It is designated by the type
followed by the lower limit of the kinematic viscosity at 60 °C in units of centi-stokes (cSt). The upper
limit for the viscosity is twice its lower limit. For example, an "RC-70" designates a rapid-curing cutback
asphalt with a kinematic viscosity at 60 °C ranging between 70 and 140cSt, while an "SC-800"
designates a slow-curing cutback asphalt with a viscosity ranging between 800 and 1600cSt. The
standard specifications for SC, MC and RC cutback asphalts can be found in ASTM Designation D2026,
D2027 and D2028, respectively.

13.4.4 Types and Grades of Emulsified Asphalts

Emulsified asphalts (or asphalt emulsions) are divided into three major kinds, namely anionic, cationic
and non-ionic, on the basis of the electrical charges of the asphalt particles in the emulsion. An anionic
asphalt emulsion has negatively-charged asphalt particles, and is usually more suitable for use with
calcareous aggregates, which tend to have positive surface charges. A cationic asphalt emulsion has
positively charged asphalt particles, and is usually more suitable for use with siliceous aggregates, which
tend to have negative surface charges. A non-ionic asphalt emulsion contains asphalt particles that are
electrically neutral. Non-ionic asphalt emulsions are not used in pavement applications.

Asphalt emulsions are further classified into three main types on the basis of how quickly the suspended
asphalt particles revert to asphalt cement. The three types are Rapid-setting (RS), Medium-Setting (MS)
and Slow-Setting (SS). An RS emulsion is designed to demulsify (to break away from the emulsion form
such that asphalt particles are no longer in suspension) upon contact with an aggregate, and thus has little
or no ability to mix with an aggregate. It is best used in spraying applications where mixing is not
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required but fast setting is desirable. An MS emulsion is designed to have good mixing characteristics
with coarse aggregates and to demulsify after proper mixing. It is suitable for applications where mixing
with coarse aggregate is required. An SS emulsion is designed to be very stable in the emulsion form, and
is suitable for use where good flowing characteristics are desired or where mixing with fine aggregates
are required. The three types of cationic asphalt emulsions are denoted as CRS, CMS and CSS. The
absence of the letter "C" in front of the emulsion type denotes an anionic type.
Two other standard types of anionic asphalt emulsions available are High-Float Rapid Setting (HFRS)
and High-Float Medium Setting (HFMS). This type of asphalt emulsion contains an asphalt cement
which has a Bingham plastic characteristic (resistant to flow at low stress level). This flow property of the
asphalt permits a thicker film coating on an aggregate without danger of runoff.

Within each type, asphalt emulsions are graded by the viscosity of the emulsion and the hardness of the
asphalt cement. The lower viscosity grade is designated by a number "1" and the higher viscosity grade is
designated by a number "2", which is placed after the emulsion type. A letter "h" that follows the number
"1" or "2" designates that a harder asphalt cement is used. For example, an "RS-1" designates a rapid-
setting anionic type with a relatively low

viscosity. An "HFMS-2h" designates a high-float medium setting anionic type having a relatively higher
viscosity and containing a hard base asphalt. A "CSS-1h" designates a slow- setting cationic type having
a relatively lower viscosity and containing hard base asphalt. Standard specifications for anionic and
cationic emulsified asphalts can be found in ASTM Designations D977, and D2397, respectively.

Table 13.1 Requirements for 60/70 and 85/100 penetration asphalt cements

Test Penetration Grade

60/70 85/100
Min Max Min Max
Penetration at 25 °C, 0.1mm 60 70 85 100
Flash point (Cleveland open 232 - 232 -
cup), °C
Ductility at 25 °C, cm 100 - 100 -
Solubility in 99.0 - 99.0 -
trichloroethylene, %

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 Retained penetration after 52 - 47 -
TFOT, %
Ductility at 25 °C after 50 - 75 -
TFOT, cm

Source: ASTM 2004. ASTM D 946 Standard Specification for Penetration-Graded Asphalt Cement for
Use in Pavement Construction, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.03, 2004, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.

Penetration Test determines the hardness of Bitumen by measuring the depth ( in tenths of a mm) to
which a standard, and loaded needle will vertically penetrate in 5 seconds, a sample of Bitumen
maintained at a temperature of 25 deg C ( 77deg F). Hence the softer the bitumen, the greater will be its
number of penetration units. (80/100, 60/70, 40/50).

Table 13.2 Requirements for AR-4000 and AR-8000 asphalt cements

Test on Residue from RTFOT Viscosity Grade

AR-4000 AR-8000
Absolute Viscosity at 60 °C, poises 4000±1000 8000±2000
Kinematic Viscosity at 135 °C, min., cSt 275 400
Penetration at 25 °C, min., 0.1mm 25 20
% of original penetration, min. 45 50
Ductility at 25 °C, min., cm 75 75
Test on Flash point (Cleveland open 227 232
Original cup), min., °C
Asphalt Solubility in 99.0 99.0
trichloroethylene, min., %

Source: ASTM 2004. ASTM D 3381 Standard Specification for Viscosity-Graded Asphalt Cement for
Use in Pavement Construction, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.03, 2004, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.

Viscosity is measured in poise (cm-g-s = dyne-second/cm 2, named after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille).
The lower the number of poises, the lower the viscosity and thus the more easily a substance flows. Thus,

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AC-5 (viscosity is 500 ± 100 poise at 60° C (140° F)) is less viscous than AC-40 (viscosity is 4000 ± 800
poise at 60° C (140° F)).

Table 13.3 Examples of Super-pave Performance Graded Binder Specification

Performance Grade PG -52 -16 PG -52 - 46 PG -64 - 22

Average 7-Day Maximum 52 52 64
Pavement Design Temperature,
°C
Minimum Pavement Design -16 -46 -22
Temperature, °C
Original Binder
Flash Point Temperature, 230
Minimum, °C
Viscosity: Maximum, 3 Pa⋅s 135
Test Temperature, °C
Dynamic Shear @ 10 rad/s : 52 52 64
*
G /sinδ, Minimum, 1.00 kPa
Test Temperature, °C
Rolling Thin Film Oven Residue
Mass Loss, Maximum, % 1.00
Dynamic Shear @ 10 rad/s : 52 52 64
*
G /sinδ, Minimum, 2.20 kPa
Test Temperature, °C
Pressure Aging Vessel Residue
PAV Aging Temperature, °C 90 100 100
Dynamic Shear @ 10 rad/s : 22 7 25
*
G sinδ, Maximum, 5000 kPa
Test Temperature, °C

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 Creep Stiffness @ 60 s : -6 -36 -12
S, Maximum, 300 MPa
m-value, Minimum, 0.30
Test Temperature, °C
Direct Tension @ 1.0 mm/min : -6 -36 -12
Failure Strain, Minimum, 1.0%
Test Temperature, °C

Source: AASHTO 2004. AASHTO Designation M320-03 Standard Specification for Performance Graded Asphalt
Binder, Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, Washington, D.C.
Superpave performance grading (PG) is based on the idea that hot mix asphalt (HMA) binder’s properties should be
related to the conditions under which it is used. For asphalt binders, this involves expected climatic conditions as
well as aging considerations. Therefore, the PG system uses a common battery of tests (as the older penetration and
viscosity grading systems do) but specifies that a particular asphalt binder must pass these tests at specific
temperatures that are dependent upon the specific climatic conditions in the area of use.
14.0 Asphalt Mix Design

Lesson objectives:

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to;

 Select the right material for asphalt mix design.

 Understand the design and control method for Asphalt Mix Design

Lesson content:

 Introduction
 Materials
 Design and Control Method
 Acceptance Design Standards
 Mixing Plant and Procedure

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to a road construction site to appreciate the manufacture, laying and compaction of bitumen on
highway pavement.
 A seminar on an ongoing road construction by a practicing road engineer on;
o The tests conducted on bitumen to determine its suitability for the highway construction.
o Conditions under which bitumen is laid.

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14.1 Introduction

Asphalt shall be a composite mixture of coarse and fine aggregate, mineral filler and bituminous binder
proportioned and combined in an approved mixing plant to meet the requirements of this specification.

14.2 Materials

 Coarse Aggregates
The coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone particles retained on the 4.75mm sieve and shall have two (2)
crushed faces. It shall be clean, hard, angular, durable and free of laminated particles, clay or clay balls or
aggregations of fine materials, soil and vegetable matter.

The coarse aggregate properties shall conform to Table 4.4 herein.

Table 14.1 Coarse aggregate properties

Property Acceptance Limits Test

Flakiness Index 35% maximum Test AS1141-15
Wet Strength (10% Fines) 150 kN minimum AS1141-22
Test
Los Angeles Abrasion 30% maximum Test AS1141-23

Polished Aggregate Friction 45 minimum Test AS1141-40 and

Value (Wearing Courses) AS1141-42

 Fine Aggregate
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The fine fraction shall consist of all particles passing the 4.75mm sieve. It shall consist of natural sand and/or
manufactured material from crushed stone. It shall be clean, hard, durable, moderately sharp and free from clay
soil, organic or vegetable matter or aggregations of fine material.

14.2.1 Mineral Filler

Filler shall consist of natural sand particles and/or crushed rock or crushed gravel particles and/or mineral filler
(added filler) of particle size smaller than 0.075mm. The voids in dry compacted filler shall be not less than 38%.

14.1.2 Binder
The bitumen shall be residual bitumen of Class 170 or Class 320, as nominated, complying with AS2008. The class
of bitumen used shall depend on the mix type shown in Table 3 and shall be as follows:

• Type 1 mix – Class 170 or Class 320;

• Type 2 mix – Class 170 or Class 320 may be used for Access Streets or Collector Streets in residential and
rural residential precincts defined on Standard Drawings 59201 and 59203. Elsewhere, Class 320 shall be used;

• Type 3 and 4 mixes – Class 320.

14.3 Colour
The use of colouring agents in asphalt surfacing is not encouraged and any intended use shall be approved in
writing by the Superintendent.

14.3.1 Design and Control Method

The Marshall method of design and testing shall be used for the quality and compaction control of the mixture.

14.3.2 Acceptance Design Standards

The mixture shall, when compacted by 50 blows each end of specimen, satisfy the requirements in Table 4.4 herein.

Table 14.2 Accepted design standard

Marshall Test Parameter Type 1 & 2 Mixes Type 3 & 4 Mixes

Min. Max. Min. Max.

Stability of mixes 4 kN - 5 kN -

AS2891

Flow of mixes AS2891 2mm 4mm 2mm 4mm

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Air voids in Laboratory 2% 5% 3% 7%
compacted mix

14.3.3 Mixing Plant and Procedure

Mixing shall be undertaken in an approved batch, continuous or drum type manufacturing plant, in accordance with
the requirement of AS2150.

The plant shall be the subject of a current license issued by the Division of Noise Abatement and Air Pollution
Control of the Department of Environment and Heritage, and shall be operated at all times so that the requirements
of the Clean Air Act are met.

The Contractor shall maintain and operate a NATA registered laboratory at or near the mixing plant so as to ensure
complete control over the paving mixture produced. Facilities shall be provided to enable the Superintendent to
take samples of the mix or raw materials at any time.

14.3.4 Pavement Preparation

Asphalt surfacing shall not be commenced until the underlying pavement (either new pavement or existing asphalt
surface) has been inspected and approved by the Superintendent.

14.3.5 Existing Surfaces

The pavement shall be thoroughly cleaned, by brooming or other approved means. All foreign matter adhering to
the pavement shall be removed before any tack coating or asphalt spreading is carried out.

14.3.6 New Work

The pavement shall be dampened and then thoroughly broomed and any foreign material remaining on the
pavement after brooming shall be removed by other means before any application of primer. The soil aggregate or
crushed rock pavement should show a clean, coarse, tight, stony surface.

14.3.7 Joining New Work to Existing Work

Existing asphalt pavements shall be trimmed back to provide the following:

i) A vertical surface at the joint line against which the new asphalt is to be placed.

ii) A longitudinal taper such that the minimum layer thickness is not less than the depth of the new asphalt
surfacing.

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iii) Where a new asphalt surface is to butt to an existing surface, the existing surface shall be saw cut to provide
a vertical face that is even in alignment. The joint is to be sealed with an approved bituminous crack sealant to
prevent moisture ingress and protect the joint.

14.3.8 Priming
A primer or primer seal coat shall be applied to new work before any asphalt surfacing is carried out. Priming shall
be carried out at least 48 hours before the asphalt is applied.

The selection of the type, rate and temperature of application of the primer or primer seal shall take into
consideration:

• The permeability and absorption characteristics of the pavement.

• The type of material used in the pavement.
• The condition of the pavement surface.
• Whether or not the pavement will be open to traffic after priming.
• The period of time before application of asphalt surfacing.
The primer used shall satisfy the requirements of AS2157. Application rates for primer shall comply with Table 4.5
herein.

Table 14.3 Requirements in the use of primer

Type of Surface Suitable Primer Grade Application Rate

Low Porosity – extremely hard and AMC 00 or AMC 0 0.5 – 1.0 l/m2
dense after (low viscosity primers)
compaction; ring when struck with a
heavy implement
Medium Porosity – gravels with sandy AMC 0 or AMC 1 0.5 – 1.0 l/m2
silt binders, sound somewhat ‘drummy’ (medium viscosity
when struck with a heavy implement primers)
when compacted and dry
High Porosity – weak from textured AMC 1 or AMC 2 0.8 – 1.4 l/m2
appearance resultant from a deficiency (high viscosity primers)
of binding.
Priming shall not be carried out if:

 The pavement is wet;

 Rain threatens;

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  The pavement or ambient temperature is less than 15oC.

Traffic shall not be permitted on the primed surface during the curing period unless a cover coat of coarse sand or
fine screenings has been applied concurrently with the primer application and rolled into the surface. The
application rate in Table 4 herein shall be increased by 0.21/m2 in such a case and the surface shall be broomed
prior to application of asphalt surfacing.

Proper attention shall be given to ensuring that the edges (particularly along kerb and channel) are adequately
primed to ensure bonding.

If the placing of asphalt is unduly delayed or the primed surface contaminated in any way the Superintendent may
direct the application of a tack coat to all or part of the area.

Any overspray onto kerb and channel, medians, gully pits, etc. shall be removed prior to the commencement of the
defects liability period.

14.3.9 Tack Coat

A tack coat shall be sprayed on the existing surface for resurfacing work. It is not required on a new primer or
primer seal coat unless ordered by the Superintendent. The whole of the area to be sheeted with asphalt shall be
lightly and evenly tack-coated with a fine spray of approved bitumen emulsion. The application shall be equivalent
to 0.3 – 0.5 litres of bitumen emulsion per square metre. Dilution with water may be required to facilitate spraying
and permit uniform application.

The tack coat shall be allowed to 'break' (water separating from the bitumen) before the asphaltic surfacing is
spread. Care must be taken to ensure that the longitudinal edges are adequately tack coated to secure satisfactory
bonding along the edges.

All care shall be taken to prevent overspray onto kerb and channel or median kerbs. Any such overspray shall be
removed prior to the commencement of the defects liability period.

14.3.10 Transport
The mixed material shall be discharged into motor trucks, the bodies of which have been lightly coated with
limewater or soap solution, or other approved coating agent to permit easy discharge. The complete load shall be
coated with heavy canvas (or equivalent) to minimize loss of heat during transit and prevent wetting by rain.

Where mixed material is to be transported in cold conditions, the Superintendent may direct that the bodies of all
trucks be suitably insulated.
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Each truck shall be fitted with an approved type of adjustable tailgate to allow proper control of the mix during
discharge into the spreading device. All trucks shall be so arranged that there is minimal delay in the discharge of
the load into the spreader.

Smaller capacity trucks may be used where surfacing work has to be carried out using small paving machines (i.e.
footpaths or small constrained areas). The Superintendent may, at the Superintendent's absolute discretion, reject
any load that has cooled in the truck to below 130˚C.

When backing trucks against the spreader, care shall be taken not to jar the spreader out of its proper alignment.
Delivery of the mix shall be at the uniform rate within the capacity of the spreading and compacting equipment.
Transport shall be as expeditious as possible to minimize cooling of the mixture.

Unless approval is given by the Superintendent to other means of measurement, all truckloads of mix shall be
weighed upon a certified weighbridge.

Unless approval is given otherwise by the Superintendent, laying shall only be carried out in daylight hours and
delivery of asphalt to the Site shall be arranged accordingly. The last truck load on the job must arrive not later than
one hour before sunset.

15.0 Design of the surface dressing

Lesson objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
 Understand the Basic Parameters to be considered in Design of Surface Dressings
 Be able to select a Type of surface Dressing for particular road.

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Types of surface dressing
 Surface Dressing Operations
 Basic Parameters to be considered in Design of Surface Dressings
 Selection of Type of Dressing
 Binders Used in Surface Dressing
 Construction Equipment Used in Surface Treatment

Practical Lessons/Exercise:

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  A visit to a road construction firm to witness and appreciate the preparation and construction of surface
dressing for highway construction.
 A seminar on an ongoing road construction by a practicing road engineer on;
o Design of Surface Dressings for the highway construction.
o Selection of Type of Dressing

15.1 Introduction
Surface dressing is a simple, highly effective and inexpensive road surface treatment if adequate care is taken in the
planning and execution of the work. The process is used throughout the world for surfacing both medium and
lightly trafficked roads, and also as a maintenance treatment for roads of all kinds.

Surface dressing comprises a thin film of binder, generally bitumen or tar, which is sprayed onto the road surface
and then covered with a layer of stone chippings. The thin film of binder acts as a waterproofing seal preventing the
entry of surface water into the road structure. The stone chippings protect this film of binder from damage by
vehicle tyres, and form a durable, skid-resistant and dust-free wearing surface. In some circumstances the process
may be repeated to provide double or triple layers of chippings.

Surface dressing is a very effective maintenance technique which is capable of greatly extending the life of a
structurally sound road pavement if the process is undertaken at the optimum time. Under certain circumstances
surface dressing may also retard the rate of failure of a structurally inadequate road pavement by preventing the
ingress of water and thus preserving the inherent strength of the pavement layers and the subgrade.

In addition to its maintenance role, surface dressing can provide an effective and economical running surface for
newly constructed road pavements. Existing roads with bituminous surfacing, carrying in excess of 1000
vehicles/lane/day, have been successfully surfaced with multiple surface dressings. For sealing new roadbeds traffic
flows of up to 500 vehicles/lane/day are more appropriate, although this can be higher if the road base is very stable
or if a triple seal is used. A correctly designed and constructed surface dressing should last at least 5 years before

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resealing with another surface dressing becomes necessary. If traffic growth over a period of several years
necessitates a more substantial surfacing or increased pavement thickness, a bituminous overlay can be laid over
the original surface dressing when the need arises.

The success of a surface dressing depends primarily on the adhesion of the chippings to the road surface, hence
both the chippings and the road surface must be clean and free from dust during the surface dressing process.
Inappropriate specifications, poor materials, and bad workmanship, can also drastically reduce the service life of a
surface dressing.

This Road Note is a general guide to the design and construction of surface dressings in tropical and sub-tropical
environments and draws attention to some of the more common mistakes that are made. It provides a framework on
which the engineer can base more specific decisions made to suit particular local conditions thereby producing cost
effective results. It also contains brief descriptions of certain other types of surface treatment.

15.2 Types of surface dressing

Surface dressings can be constructed in a number of ways to suit site conditions. The common types of dressing are
illustrated in Figure 15.1.

1. Single surface dressing

When applied as a maintenance operation to an existing bituminous road surface a single surface dressing can
fulfill the functions required of maintenance re-seal, namely waterproofing the road surface, arresting deterioration,
and restoring skid resistance. A single surface dressing would not normally be used on a new road base because of
the risk that the film of bitumen will not give complete coverage. It is also particularly important to minimize the
need for future maintenance and a double dressing should be considerably more durable than a single dressing.
However, a 'racked-in' dressing may be suitable for use on a new road base which has a tightly knit surface because
of the heavier applications of binder which is used with this type of single dressing.

2. Double surface dressing

Double surface dressings are robust and should be used when:

 A new road base is surface dressed.

 Extra 'cover' is required on an existing bituminous road surface because of its condition (e.g. when the
surface is slightly cracked or patched).
 There is a requirement to maximise durability and minimise the frequency of maintenance and resealing
operations.

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The quality of a double surface dressing will be greatly enhanced if traffic is allowed to run on the first dressing for
a minimum period of 2-3 weeks (and preferably longer) before the second dressing is applied. This allows the
chippings of the first dressing to adopt a stable interlocking mosaic which provides a firm foundation for the second
dressing. However, traffic and animals may cause contamination of the surface with mud or soil during this period
and this must be thoroughly swept off before the second dressing is applied. Such cleaning is sometimes difficult to
achieve and the early application of the second seal to prevent such contamination may give a better result.

Figure 15.1 Type of surface dressings

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Sand may sometimes be used as an alternative to chippings for the second dressing. Although it cannot contribute
to the overall thickness of the surfacing, the combination of binder and sand provides a useful grouting medium for
the chippings of the first seal and helps to hold them in place more firmly when they are poorly shaped. A slurry
seal may also be used for the same purpose.

3. Triple surface dressings

A triple surface dressing (not illustrated in Figure 1) may be used to advantage where a new road is expected to
carry high traffic volumes from the outset. The application of a small chipping in the third seal will reduce noise
generated by traffic and the additional binder will ensure a longer maintenance-free service life.

4. Racked-in surface dressing

This system is recommended for use where traffic is particularly heavy or fast (TRL, 1996). A heavy single
application of binder is made and a layer of large chippings is spread to give approximately 90 per cent coverage.
This is followed immediately by the application of smaller chippings which should ‘lock-in' the larger aggregate
and form a stable mosaic. The amount of bitumen used is more than would be used with a single seal but less than
for a double seal. The main advantages of the racked-in surface dressing are:

a) Less risk of dislodged large chippings.

b) Early stability through good mechanical interlock.
c) Good surface texture.

15.2.1 Other types of surface dressing

'Sandwich' surface dressings are principally used on existing binder rich surfaces and sometimes on gradients to
reduce the tendency for the binder to flow down the slope.

'Pad coats' are used where the hardness of the existing road surface allows very little embedment of the first layer
of chippings, such as on a newly constructed cement stabilized road base or a dense crushed rock base. A first layer
of nominal 6mm chippings will adhere well to the hard surface and will provide a 'key' for larger l0mm or l4mm
chippings in the second layer of the dressing.

15.2.1.1 Chippings for surface dressings

The selection of chipping sizes is based on the volume of commercial vehicles having unladen weights of more
than 1.5 tonnes and the hardness of the existing pavement. Ideally, chippings used for surface dressing should be
single sized, cubical in shape, clean and free from dust, strong, durable, and not susceptible to polishing under the

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action of traffic. In practice the chippings available usually fall short of this ideal but it is recommended that
chippings used for surface dressing should comply with the requirements of BS 63: Part 2 (1987) for the nominal
size of chipping selected by the engineer. In this standard, some control of shape is ensured by the limits set for the
flakiness index for each nominal size (except 6mm).

Samples of the chippings should be tested for grading, flakiness index, and aggregate crushing value and, when
appropriate, the polished stone value and aggregate abrasion value. Sampling and testing should be in accordance
with the methods described in British Standard BS 812 (1985, 1989a, 1989b 1990a, 1990b).

Specifications for maximum aggregate crushing value (ACV) for surface dressing chippings typically lie in the
range 20 to 35. For lightly trafficked roads the higher value is likely to be adequate but on more heavily trafficked
roads a maximum ACV of 20 is recommended.

The polished stone value (PSV) of the chippings is important if the primary purpose of the surface dressing is to
restore or enhance the skid resistance of the road surface. The PSV required in a particular situation is related to the
nature of the road site and the speed and intensity of the traffic. The resistance to skidding is also dependent upon
the macro texture of the surface which, in turn, is affected by the durability of the exposed aggregate. This property
is measured by the aggregate abrasion value (AAV).

The nominal sizes of chippings normally used for surface dressing are 6, 10, 14 and 20 mm. Flaky chippings are
those with a thickness (smallest dimension) less than 0.6 of their nominal size. The proportion of flaky chippings
clearly affects the average thickness of a single layer of the chippings, and it is for this reason the concept of the
'average least dimension' (ALD) of chippings was introduced.

In effect, the ALD is the average thickness of a single layer of chippings when they have bedded down into their
final interlocked positions. The amount of binder required to retain a layer of chippings is thus related to the ALD
of the chippings rather than to their nominal size. This is discussed further in Section 5 where guidance is given on
the selection of the appropriate nominal size of chipping and the effect of flakiness on surface dressing design.

The most critical period for a surface dressing occurs immediately after the chippings have been spread on the
binder film. At this stage the chippings have yet to become an interlocking mosaic and are held in place solely by
the adhesion of the binder film. Dusty chippings can seriously impede adhesion and can cause immediate failure of
the dressing.

The effect of dust can sometimes be mitigated by dampening them prior to spreading them on the road. The
chippings dry out quickly in contact with the binder and, when a cutback bitumen or emulsion is used, good
adhesion develops more rapidly than when the coating of dust is dry.
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Most aggregates have a preferential attraction for water rather than for bitumen. Hence if heavy rain occurs within
the first few hours when adhesion has not fully developed, loss of chippings under the action of traffic is possible.
Where wet weather damage is considered to be a severe risk, or the immersion tray test, shows that the chippings
have poor affinity with bitumen, an adhesion agent should be used. An adhesion agent can be added to the binder
or, used in a dilute solution to pre-coat the chippings.

However, the additional cost of the adhesion agent will be wasted if proper care and attention is not given to all
other aspects of the surface dressing process.

15.1.2 Surface Dressing Operations

The main steps of a surface dressing operation are as follows.

1. Identify roads to be dressed

2. Repair damages on the existing road surface
3. Evaluate the road by assessing the traffic, roundabouts, sharp bends, traffic lights, steep hills-etc
4. Design the dressing
5. Decide the materials to be used
6. Contract administration
7. Plan method of implementation
8. Site preparation
9. Traffic control and execution
10. Aftercare
 Recording
 Inspection of work
 Investigation

15.3 Basic Parameters to be considered in Design of Surface Dressings

Design of a surface dressing is the very important part of the surface dressing in order to determine the quantity of
binder, bitumen emulsion and the quantity of the aggregate.

Different parameters must be determined for different aspects of the design.

These aspects are

1. Selection of type of surface dressing
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 2. Selection of type of component materials
3. Calculation of the rate of spread of binder, which is further subdivided into
i. Basic design based on information about the site
ii. Adjustment when properties of the component materials known and
iii. Local adjustments along the site with changes in conditions
Some parameters are needed for more than one aspect of the design. When considering type of the binder, its rate of
spread has to be considered. Therefore the parameters can be grouped into the following classes.

1. Parameters for selecting the type of dressing together with the stage 1 binder, based on information about
the site
 road hardness
 total traffic and traffic speed
 road layout
 radius of curvature
 junction or crossing
 Parameters for selecting the general surface condition
 component materials

15.3.1 Selection of Type of Dressing

15.3.1.1 Sections with in a site
The type of dressing can be varied even within a site depending on traffic condition and also on the condition of the
road. For instance it is preferred to provide less binder content for a section of high traffic. And also when the road
section is highly deteriorated generally more binder is required. In this regard the site can be divided longitudinally
or transversely. However the sections shall not be too short for the adjustments of the construction equipment.

15.3.1.2 Type of dressing for a section

The types of surface dressing available were discussed in a preceding section. The choice of an appropriate surface
dressing is dependent upon several factors.

However the use of a modified binder depends on the severity of the traffic stresses at the site which warrants a
modified binder.

15.3.1.3 Rationalization of dressing types for a site

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A detailed surface dressing design should be carried out for each identified section. However it is impractical to
change the design within a site very often. Therefore, it is required to identify the most suitable dressing type for
the entire site by considering the following constraints:

The constraints are

1. The changes should be more towards the robust type.
2. No change should be too extreme
3. The changes may be allowed in the detailed design that section

15.4 Binders Used in Surface Dressing

15.4.1 Binder types
The commonly used binder types are as follows:
1. Bitumen emulsion
2. Cutback bitumen
3. Penetration grade bitumen
Of these, bitumen emulsion and cutback bitumen are the preferred binder types. Surface dressing binder types are
also classified in terms of their viscosity.

Higher viscosity binders are preferred for roads having high traffic flow. In Sri Lanka about some years back
bitumen was used for surface dressings. However with the increase in production of bitumen emulsion hot bitumen
as partially replaced and at present almost all the surface dressings are done with CRS-2 and hot bitumen is rarely
used.

The rate of spread of binder should not vary more than 10% both longitudinally and transversely. Localized factors
which were discussed earlier in this report are also to be considered in determining the rate of flow.

Adhesion promoters can improve the wetting properties and promote the development of adhesion between the
aggregate and the binder. Adhesion is particularly important in the case of heavy traffic. However excessive
additions of the adhesion promoter can change the viscosity of the binder.

15.4.2 Selection of binder

The correct choice of the binder for surface dressing is critical. The binder must
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 1. be capable of being sprayed,
2. Wet the surface of the road in a continuous film,
3. Not run off a cambered road or form pools of the binder local depressions
4. Wet and adhere to the aggregate at road temperature
5. be strong enough to resist traffic forces and hold the aggregate
6. Sufficiently flexible at the working temperature
7. Resist premature weathering and hardening
15.4.3 Construction Equipment Used in Surface Treatment
 Asphalt distributor
This is the most important equipment in surface treatment and it is mainly used to spray the binder uniformly on the
surface at a specified rate regardless of changes in grade or direction of movement. The distributor consists of a
truck mounted insulated tank with appropriate controls for setting the rate at which asphalt is applied. The tank
normally contains some type of oil burning system to maintain asphalt temperature to assure the required
application rate. There is a system of spray bars at the back of the tank through which the binder is sprayed onto the
surface. Normally the width of the spray bar is between 2m to 8m. The spraying is done under a designated
pressure.

A hand spray gun is also attached to most of the distributors in order to provide a manual spraying facility where
the machine is inaccessible and position of the spray bar can be changed accordingly and the tanks of capacity
varies from 800 to 5500 gallons are available each equipped with full circulation system including the spray bars in
order to prevent solidification.

The most common failure associated with this machine is streaking. Alternated, narrow, longitudinal areas of
excessive and then insufficient amounts of asphalt characterize streaking. Streaking is caused by one or more of the
following conditions: clogged distributor nozzles, improper pump pressure, and interference of sprayed asphalt
from adjacent nozzles, or improper spray bar height. It is important to check that the nozzles are not damaged.
Improper openings may result in distortion of the spray fan. The manufacture's recommendations should be
followed when the nozzle size is selected. It is also essential to set the height of the spray bar. If it is too high, wind
distortion may be the result and if it is too low, an incorrect overlap may result cause a non-uniform spray on the
road.

Best result is achieved with an exact coverage, but triple coverage can sometimes be used with 4-inch nozzle
spacing.

 Aggregate spreaders

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The function of the aggregate spread is to apply a uniform aggregate cover at a specified rate over the freshly
sprayed binder film. There are three types of machines available.

1. Tailgate Spreader
2. Mechanical Spreader
3. Mechanical Self-Propelled Spreader
The spread may vary in width from 3 to 4.5 m, and the flow of aggregate is controlled individually by means of
gates that can be opened and closed by the operator. The calibration and adjustment of all types of aggregate
spreaders should be made according to manufacturer’s instructions and operating manuals.

Following additional steps can be used to ensure good result:

1. A tachometer used as an aid in maintaining uniform spreader- speed has proved to be highly successful.

2. Marking off the length that each truckload of aggregate should cover can closely control distribution rates. A
quick check can also be done using a spreader box.

 Rollers
It is essential that the aggregate be embedded in the binder film to prevent loss through traffic abrasion. Although a
slight embedment takes place due to gravity as the aggregate drops from the spreader onto the binder film, the
major portion of the embedment takes place due to the rolling process.

Normally pneumatic tired rollers are used on surface treatments. The resilient tires on this type of roller force the
aggregate firmly into the binder without crushing the particles. It has been found that steel wheeled roller has a
tendency to bridge slight depressions in the pavement, as such causing some of the aggregate to be improperly
embedded (TRRL road note 39 4t h edition, 1997). Degradation of aggregate can take place on the road surface due
to crushing of aggregate under the steel roller.

 Auxiliary equipment
a. Power broom
It is essential to apply the surface treatment on a cleaned surface. Therefore, a power broom is used to remove dust
and debris from the existing road pavement. Cleaning equipment must be in top operating condition before the job
starts.

b. Blowers
It is possible to use blowers for the purpose of cleaning whenever a power broom is not available at the site. Further
there should be enough of equipment and material available at the site to ensure the continuous work at the site.

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Frequent stop and start work will lead variations of the rates of aggregate and binder spreading and hence create
variations in riding quality along the road surface.

c. Water Bouser
A water bouser is also required to wash the road pavement if clay has been adhered on to the road surface.

16.0 Overlay Construction: Asphalt Concrete Overlay

Lesson objectives:
 Understand the concept of Asphalt Concrete Overlay
 Able to Design and construct overlays

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Design and construction of overlays
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  Tips for Successful Practice

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to various transport agencies / operators / operatives in the metropolis and conduct a study on
Asphalt Concrete Overlay.

 A visit to a road construction firm to appreciate the construction of Asphalt Concrete Overlay for highway
project.

16.1 Introduction
Asphalt concrete over is a paving method of applying a new layer of asphalt to a deteriorating surface. Asphalt
overlays are extremely useful as routine maintenance/pavement preservation tool. One of the appealing factors for
overlays is that they generally are more economical. Asphalt concrete overlays have become so common for
pavement preservation and rehabilitation that their use has become standard practices by many agencies. These
overlays are accepted practices owing to their numerous advantages. The overlays;
 Provide long services life when placed on structurally sound pavement.
 Provide a good riding surface.
 Are easily maintained and recyclable.
 Reduce noise at the tire pavement interface when fine graded mixtures are used.
 Maintain grade and slope geometry with little environmental impacts.
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Little consensus exist on exactly what constitutes the asphalt concrete overlay. What some agencies may specify as
a minimum layer thickness, others refer to as a maximum layer thickness for surface courses.

16.2 Design and construction of overlays

Materials, mix design requirements and construction procedures may have significant effect on the overlay.

16.2.1 Materials Selection

16.2.1.1 Slabs on Grade/Pavements
 Concrete
The cement content of the BCO concrete must be high enough to ensure that the available paste is sufficient to
achieve bond at the interface, which eliminates the need for a bonding agent, and to meet strength and permeability
requirements. Reduced paste requirements may be met by using well-graded aggregates. Some specifications
mandate minimum cement content, e.g. 390 kg/m3 for normal overlay concrete and 490 kg/m3 for dense overlay
concrete. Lower levels of cement are desirable to reduce cost, reduce heat of hydration and reduce shrinkage.
Reduced cost and reduced heat of hydration may also be accomplished by using fly ash as cement replacement; the
addition of fly ash also has the advantages of improving durability and, in many cases, ultimate strength. The
water-cement ratio is determined by strength and durability (permeability) requirements. Generally, a water-cement
ratio of 0.40 will provide good durability and strength. One specification requires a water-cement ratio of 0.40 for
normal overlay concrete and 0.32 for dense overlay concrete. Aggregates should be selected for workability;
aggregates should also have adequate durability for the intended application. The paste requirement may be
reduced by improving overall aggregate gradation as suggested by Shilstone and Crouch. Shilstone suggests
incorporating an intermediate aggregate, and this may be particularly helpful when using steel fibers. Admixtures
will often include air entraining agent, which will help workability and improve freezing and thawing resistance.
The use of fly ash may require greater dosages of air entraining agent to achieve the same percentage of entrained
air. High range water reducers are often specified, and the amount should be based on trial batches. The addition or
retarders in hot weather helps to preserve workability until the concrete can be placed and finished without
affecting strength development.

 Reinforcement
Steel reinforcing and steel and synthetic fibers have been used as reinforcement. Steel reinforcing has been used in
the form of tied bars and welded mats. Steel fibers have been used successfully in overlays to control cracks and to
minimize drying shrinkage cracking. Normal steel fiber contents for steel fiber reinforced concrete are normally in

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the range of 1 to 2% by volume. The amount of fibers required to achieve the desired result will depend on the type
of fiber based on its bond characteristics.
Synthetic fibers should be used at a minimum of 0.25% by volume; however, significant benefits have been
obtained by using up to 1% volume.

16.2.1.2 Mixture formulation

Mixing of asphalt and aggregate is accomplished in one of several ways.
 Hot-mix asphalt concrete: this is produced by heating the asphalt binder to decrease its viscosity and drying
the aggregate to remove moisture from its prior to mixing.
 Warm-mix asphalt concrete: this produced by adding either zeolites, waxes, asphalt emulsion or sometimes
even water to the asphalt binder prior to mixing.
 Cut-back asphalt concrete: is a form of cold mix asphalt produced by dissolving the binder in kerosene or
another lighter fraction of petroleum prior to mixing.
 Mastic asphalt concrete: this is produced by heating hard grade blown bitumen in a green cooker until it has
become a viscous liquid after which the aggregate mix is then added.
 Cold-mix asphalt concrete: this is produced by emulsifying the asphalt in water with soap prior to mixing
with the aggregate.

16.2.2 Tips for Successful Practice

 Select the right candidate
 Condition of existing structure is critical
 Target resurfacing before structural failure
 Adequate tack coat is critical
 Avoid coarse mixes with low AC
 Avoid <1 in for turn lanes and intersections
 Avoid placement rate that is too thin

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17.0 Slurry Seal:
Lesson Objective:
At the end of the lesson, students should:
 Understand the concept of Slurry Seal
 Be able to select the right material for Slurry Seal

Lesson Content:
 Introduction
 Materials
 Design Criteria
 Recommended Performance Guidelines

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to various transport agencies / operators / operatives in the metropolis and conduct a study on Slurry
Seal

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17.1 Introduction
Slurry seal is a mixture of well-graded fine aggregate, mineral filler, asphalt emulsion and water applied to a
pavement as a surface treatment. It protects the existing surface from moisture intrusion, fills surface voids, cracks
and minor depressions in the pavement, retards further oxidization of the existing pavement, provides a skid
resistant surface and extends the service life of the existing pavement.
A slurry seal is used as an economical maintenance treatment. A slurry seal can be placed on an existing road that
is starting to show some distresses. Slurry seals are ideally suited for the following:
 Correct minor surface imperfections
 To enrich a dry, weathered or oxidized surface.
 To prevent moisture and air from penetrating through the existing surface.
 To develop a skid resistant surface or improve the existing surface condition.

17.2 Materials
 Asphalt Emulsions:
A number of different types of asphalt emulsion can be used in slurry seals. The proper emulsion to be used has to
be determined by running compatibility tests between the emulsion and the aggregate to be used. The most
common emulsions used are SS-1h, CSS-1h, or CQS1-h with CQS1-h being the predominate one.
 Mix Aggregate:
The type of mix aggregate used in slurry seals must meet certain requirements of shape, size, cleanliness and
gradation. The asphalt emulsion to be used and the aggregate must be compatible to ensure the asphalt-aggregate
bond is effective. There are three accepted gradations for the aggregate to meet;
Type 1 – used on lower volume roads, parking areas or shoulders. Type 2 – most
widely used gradation on moderate trafficked roads Type 3 – used on higher volume
roads such arterial streets

Further information on the gradations can be found in the Basic Asphalt Emulsion Manual.
 Mineral Fillers:

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A small amount of additive may be added to the mixture to aid in controlling the break time and the setting of the
slurry. Mineral fillers such as Portland cement, hydrated lime or fly ash may be added to aid in stabilizing and
setting the slurry seal.
 Water:
Water is used to aid in mixing and coating and controlling the consistency of the slurry seal. It should be potable
and compatible with the mix.

17.3 Design Criteria

When designing a slurry seal a number of factors have to be examined and assessed to ensure a proper surface will
be placed that will perform for its service life. The following factors can have a tremendous effect on the
performance of a slurry seal; traffic, aggregate shape, existing surface and compatibility. If these factors are
addressed the chances of a good slurry seal being placed are greatly increased.

 Traffic: The type and quantity of traffic will have a large effect on the amount of asphalt emulsion to be
used as well as the gradation of the aggregate.
 Aggregate Shape: The overall shape of the mix aggregate can influence the quantity of aggregate as
well as the amount of asphalt emulsion to be used. The angularity of the aggregate will affect the
performance of the finished seal.
 Existing surface: The texture and condition of the existing road surface will affect the aggregate type,
quantity and emulsion rate.
 Compatibility: If these factors are taken into consideration in designing the slurry seal then the chances
of a successful seal are greatly improved. By blending all the materials in the proper proportions a semi-
fluid, homogeneous slurry will be produced.

17.4 Recommended Performance Guidelines

In order to construct a proper well designed slurry seal the following guidelines should be followed:
 Design a slurry seal with aggregate to be used on job.
 Use a hard durable screenings.
 Ensure compatibility of aggregate and emulsion
 Ensure a homogeneous condition of the mix.
 Calibrate and inspect all equipment.
 Follow proper construction techniques.
 Use traffic control to protect seal.
 Work only in weather suitable for placing slurry seal.
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18.0 Fog Seal:
Lesson Objective:
At the end of the lesson, students should:
 Understand the concept of Fog Seal
 Be able to select the right material for Fog Seal

Lesson Content:
 Introduction
 Materials
 Design Criteria
 Recommended Performance Guidelines

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Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to various transport agencies / operators / operatives in the metropolis and conduct a study on Fog
Seal

18.1 Introduction
A fog seal consists of a single light application of a dilute asphalt emulsion on an existing road surface. A fog seal
is used as an economical maintenance treatment. A fog seal is placed on an existing road that is starting to show
some distresses. Fog seals are ideally suited for the following:
 To enrich and seal a surface.
 To seal minor cracks in the existing surface.
 To prevent raveling in the existing surface.
 Improves Aggregate Retention
 Helps Prevent Water Intrusion
 Reduces Binder Aging
 Provides Black Roadway Surface
 Increases Visibility for Pavement Marking
 Suppresses Dust and Loose Aggregate

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18.2 Materials
18.2.1 Asphalt Emulsions:
A number of different types and grades of asphalt emulsion can be used in fog seals. The proper emulsion to be
used has to be determined by running compatibility tests between the emulsion and the aggregate to be used.
Typically the most common emulsions used are SS-1, SS-1h, CSS-1, CSS-1h, MS-1 and HFMS-1. Typically the
SS and CSS emulsions are diluted 50/50 with water and the medium setting grades are diluted 50/50 by the
emulsion manufacturer.

18.2 Design Criteria

When designing a fog seal a number of factors have to be examined and assessed to ensure a proper surface will be
placed that will perform for its service life. The following factors can have a tremendous effect on the performance
of a fog seal; traffic, aggregate shape, existing surface and residual asphalt content. If these factors are addressed
the chances of a good fog seal being placed are greatly increased.
 Traffic: The type and quantity of traffic will have a large effect on the amount of asphalt emulsion to be
used as well as the emulsion type.
 Aggregate Shape: If an aggregate is needed to enhance surface friction then a sharp clean sand would be
required.
 Existing surface: The texture and condition of the existing road surface will affect the aggregate if needed,
quantity and spray rate. A dry porous road surface may need a higher quantity of emulsion.
 Asphalt Residual in the Emulsion: The quantity of asphalt residual in the emulsion can affect the quantity
of emulsion needed. The lower the residual the higher the quantity of asphalt emulsion needed.

If these factors are taken into consideration in designing the fog seal then the chances of a successful seal are
greatly improved. Typically a fog seal would require an emulsion application rate of 0.45 – 0.70 l/m² and a sand
cover aggregate quantity of 3 - 6 kg/m² if needed.

18.3 Recommended Performance Guidelines

In order to construct a proper well designed fog seal the following guidelines should be followed:

 Evaluate road surface

 Design a fog seal with aggregate to be used on job if needed.
 Use clean sand.
 Ensure compatibility of aggregate and emulsion
 Calibrate and inspect all equipment.
 Follow proper construction techniques.
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  Use traffic control to protect seal.
 Work only in weather suitable for type and grade of emulsion being used.

19.0 Highway Project Management

Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should:
 Understand the concept and need of Highway Project Management
 Able to Monitoring and Control Highway Project.
 Able to minimize risk at any Highway Project.

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Need for Project Management
 Project Planning
 Organizational Framework
 Monitoring and Control
 Risk Management
 Human Resources management

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to various transport agencies / operators / operatives in the metropolis and conduct a study on;

1. Project Planning
2. Organizational Framework

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 3. Monitoring and Control
4. Risk Management
5. Human Resources management

19.1 Introduction
Any activity undertaken involves time and resources, and has an intended outcome. An activity could be
construction of a physical infrastructure such as, a highway, a bridge, a building, other forms of infrastructure; and
major and minor maintenance works related to such physical infrastructure. In order to achieve the desired outcome
it is essential that the entire activity is undertaken in a professional manner and that it is completed within the
allocated time and budget. It is also essential that the entire process and the outcome have minimal social and
environmental impact, and the stakeholders impacted by it are consult.
The management of a project right from its inception to completion can be called Project Management. In every
project there are deliverables. Davidson defines deliverables as “Something of value generated by a project
management team as scheduled, to be offered to an authorizing party, a reviewing committee, client constituent, or
other concerned party, often taking the form of a plan, report, prescribed procedure, product, or service”.
The one who coordinates all activities and is accountable for it is called the Project Manager.
A Project manager is defined as “An individual who has the responsibility for overseeing all aspects of the day-to-
day activities in pursuit of a project goal, including coordinating staff, allocating resources, managing the budget,
and coordinating overall efforts to achieve a specific desired result”

19.2 Need for Project Management

Every project has a specific goal or objective to achieve. In order to achieve that objective there have to be several
input parameters and processes to realize the end result. All these activities will require coordination and
optimization to produce the desired outcome within time and budget with least (and agreed) social and
environmental impact. Hence there is a need to manage all activities of a project.

19.3 Components of Project Management

The broad components of project management include:
1. Project Planning

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 2. Organizational Framework
3. Monitoring and Control
4. Risk Management
5. Human Resources management

19.3.1 Project Planning

Project management texts often focus on general application of tools and techniques to be used in project planning
presenting detailed descriptions of project planning techniques such as, work breakdown structures (WBSs),
network techniques, modeling, simulation, and line of balance scheduling. In this section an explanation of the
context and rationale behind planning is presented. This is followed by a brief outline of how to plan so that project
managers can create their own plans. To learn more about the techniques and their nuances the project management
and construction planning texts should be consulted. Planning is a thoughtful exercise and software packages
primarily assist in the administration of data processing and presentation or communication of planning data. They
can be used as valuable templates providing checklists to develop plans.
Project management involves the organization and structuring of project activities from inception to completion.
Activities could be the construction of infrastructure such as highways and bridges or major and minor maintenance
activities related to constructing such infrastructure. The entire project and involved activities must be handled in a
professional manner and completed within deadlines and budget. In addition, minimizing social and environmental
impacts is essential to successful project management.

Fig 19.1: A typical life cycle of a highway project

19.3.2 Organizational Framework
For any project to be effective, to deliver its intended outcomes efficiently and effectively it is desirable that
individuals have clear responsibilities and accountabilities. All have to operate within an efficient organizational

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framework. Various activities such as, technical, financial, human resource management, procurement, contract
management, monitoring and control, reporting etc. must operate within this framework.
The organizational structure for the project is the framework under which people work to achieve the most efficient
operation for the project. The primary kinds of organizational structures are: Functional, Matrix, Pure Projects, and
a Combination of the above.
The functional (traditional) organizational structure has clear lines of operation based on the tasks or functions the
groups perform. It has its advantages and constraints. Such structures are generally practiced in large organizations

19.3.2.1 Advantages of the traditional organization:

 Easier budgeting and cost control
 Better technical control
 Flexibility in the use of human resource and a broad base to work with
 Continuity in the functional disciplines: policies, procedures, and lines of responsibility are easily defined
and understandable
 Control over personnel as each employee has only one person to report to
 Communication channels vertical and well established
 Quick reaction capacity.

19.3.2.2 Disadvantages of the traditional organization:

 No one individual directly responsible for the total project
 Does not provide the project-oriented emphasis necessary to accomplish the project tasks
 Coordination becomes complex and additional lead lime is required for approvals and decisions
 Decisions normally favor the strongest functional group
 No customer focal point
 Response to customer needs is slow
 Difficulty in pinpointing responsibility
 Motivation and innovation are decreased
 Ideas tend to be functionally oriented with little regard for ongoing projects.

The matrix organization structure is more flexible in its operation, where individuals are drawn from line operations
to work on a given project, which is managed by the project manager. Such a structure provides considerable
flexibility and optimizes human resource.

Advantages of a pure matrix organizational form:

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  The project manager maintains maximum project control (through the line managers) over all resources,
including cost and personnel
 Policies and procedures can be set-up independently for each project, provided that they do not contradict
company policies and procedures
 Project manager has the authority to commit company resources, provided that scheduling does not cause
conflicts with other projects
 Rapid responses are possible to change, conflict resolution and project needs (as technology or schedule)
 The functional organizations exist primarily as support for the project
 Each person returns after project completion
 By sharing key personnel, project cost can be minimized
 Strong technical base and complex problems can be addressed
 Conflicts are minimal
 Better balance among time, cost, and performance.

Disadvantages of a pure matrix organizational form:

 Multidimensional information and workflow
 Dual reporting
 Continuously changing priorities
 Management goals different from project goals
 Potential for conflict
 Difficulty in monitoring and control
 Functional managers may be biased according to their own set of priorities
 Balance of powers between functional and project organizations must be watched
 Balance of time, cost, and performance must be monitored.

A pure project structure is generally used for large projects where individuals are drawn from large organizations
and are assigned to the projects for the duration of the project, say, 2 to 3 years.
Therefore, during the processes of setting up the plan the Project Manager has to make decisions as to what kind of
type of Project structure, which would be best, suited to achieve the outcomes of the project.

19.3.3 Monitoring and Control

The need for monitoring is clearly necessary. An action that follows a plan should be evaluated during its operation
to check if it is indeed going according to plan and what the consequences of not going to plan may be. Further,
plans are constantly passing their use-by date because circumstances change.

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Assumptions made are found to be inappropriate or not matching the reality of a situation. Initial plans may be of
poor quality and need to be fine-tuned as better information becomes available. Plans are not predictions of the
future; nobody knows exactly what the future holds. So monitoring and recalibration of plans are essential to good
project management. Monitoring also provides the necessary feedback to improve learning and experience and so it
is not wasted effort but a value-adding activity.
In this section five tools used for monitoring using networks, bar charts, trend graphs, “S” curves, and Earned
Value are illustrated. These show how they can be used to communicate progress and illustrate progress
implications.
Monitoring a program first requires undertaking a survey of completed work and assessing progress on work under
way using the program as a point of reference. The program could be derived using any of the previously
mentioned techniques. One can compare progress achieved against the anticipated progress by the progress check
(monitoring) date on the charts; this date is often referred to as the project status date or “time-now” date. One can
then see from monitoring information, which activities are on schedule, ahead of schedule, and behind schedule.
One can also infer from monitoring information what trends are developing and from one’s own knowledge of the
logic of the plan (particularly where a clear method statement exists or when those undertaking direct supervision
have been well briefed regarding the planning assumptions) if these trends are important or not .

19.3.4 Risk Management

The role of and need for risk management in project management and project planning has been briefly outlined
earlier in this chapter. Robert Chapman is one of many leaders who have been studying this area in construction
management risk for decades. He describes the overall process of risk management as being composed of risk
analysis and risk management. Chapman and Ward identify problems with the term risk as being focused on things
that can go wrong and essentially having a perception of being confined to bad (potential) events. They prefer to
focus on the term uncertainly as being more encompassing because it acknowledges a lack of knowledge and
certainly regarding the feared events. This makes sense because once the word risk is raised in many quarters there
is an expectation that there must be a plan to counter the risk despite the value of intelligence or knowledge that
underpins its identification.
Everyone is aware that, there is a constant risk that one could die from a range of events every second of our lives.
It would be undesirable to have a risk management plan to attempt to meet all conceivable eventualities because
then one would spend entire lives in fear and unproductive planning. Similarly, in project management there is a
limit to the value of worrying about identifiable risks because often it is the unexpected that can have the most
devastating effect. In contractual terms these are referred to force majeure or act of God — occuring once in a 100
year: storm, earthquake, terrorist attack, etc. Recognizing that uncertainly is a problem for planning is a positive

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step because it encourages one to remain flexible instead of being fixed upon risk management plans as providing
an antidote.
Flexibility of action to counter problems is the best antidote to uncertainty as was stressed earlier in this chapter.
This is also reliant upon efforts to reduce ignorance (or lack of knowledge) through a process of a combination of
synthesis of existing knowledge and projecting and manipulating that knowledge to test hypotheses of how it may
apply to unknown or uncertain situations. Indeed, that it was simulation is all about. It models a situation based
upon firm assumptions and then introduces a range of possible variants some more likely to happen than others.
The value of this exercise is not so much the mechanical exploration of case and effects of what may be billions of
potential combinations of risks but the ability to discern a pattern. This pattern making and matching developed
through investigating the sensitivity of one factor to an outcome develops a level of tacit knowledge that can later
be deployed that is difficult to appreciate at the time. However, simulation exercises are time consuming and high-
level intellect expensive and so, any way of narrowing the possible range of variables and characteristics to model,
the easier the task becomes. Elements of the risk management approach and its methodology does help to identify
key potential problems that can be investigated using simulation and other similar tools.
While one can and should be prepared to respect uncertainty one can take steps to reduce the levels of uncertainty
through what is broadly understood as risk management processes.

19.3.5 Human Resources Management

Successful completion of any project depends on several factors. These include information technology, technical
skills people possess and the management of human resources. People on the job play an important role to the
success of the projects. It is essential to have good teamwork, leadership skills, staff motivation, delegation, conflict
resolution, etc. for the success of the projects. Project managers of major civil engineering and other projects should
have well-developed skills in human resources management as in the end a well-motivated team with satisfied staff
is a key ingredient in the success of projects.
Human behavior is one of the important factors to be considered by the project managers in the decision making
process. Issues such as, teamwork and leadership style greatly influence the types and quality of decisions made by
the project manager.

Since one of the important elements to the success of the project is decision making the type of decision making
largely depends on the style of leadership of the project manager. A leader is primarily one that best marries the
goals of the project to the goals of individuals. There are several stages of decision making from autocratic where
the manager takes all the decisions himself or herself to a pure democratic form where the manager gives the
problem to the team and allows them to take the decision.
The project manager must possess the skills to use a style appropriate to the decision he or she is going to make.

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As every individual is different the project manager should have well-developed skills to identify when to use the
directive behavior and when to use the supportive behavior for individuals to achieve the best outcome. Therefore,
the manager will have to choose when to use delegating, supporting, coaching, or directing style with various
individuals.

20.0 Methods of Procuring Works

Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should:
 Understand the concept of work procurement
 Understand the conditions of contract of any procured works.

Lesson content:
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  Introduction
 Procurement Options
 Procedure for work procurement
 Conditions of Contract

Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A seminar on Procedure for work procurement and Conditions of Contract by an engineer from Ghana
highway Authority, Department of Urban roads or Department of Feeder roads.

20.1 Introduction
According to Encarta dictionary 2009, to procure means to acquire something or obtain something especially by
effort. The process of acquiring something has different approaches or methods, hence in the construction sense,
procuring has different methods to it.
Procurement is the name or term used to describe all activities undertaken by the client in seeking to bring about
the construction of, or the refurbishment of a building. The simplest definition according to Nagy, Kiss and
Hornyak described procurement as the merging of activities undertaken by the clients to obtain a building.
When a client wishes to choose any type of procurement method for realizing his project, his major concerns are;
 To finish the project on time.
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  The coat of the project
 The performance or quality in relation to both design and construction

20.2 Procurement Options

There are four main procurement options, they are as follows
 Traditional method
 Design and build method
 Management contracting method
 Public private partnership (PPP) method

a) Traditional method
This method is the oldest in the construction industry. The major feature is that the design process is separate from
construction. It also requires full documentation before the contractor can be invited to tender. It involves the steps
design, bid and build.
 Features of the tradition system
 Contractor is appointed by competitive tendering.
 Designs should be fully prepared ahead of time before tendering procedure and actual constructions can
begin.
 The client has control over design
 The duration of the project tends to be very long because of separate sequential design and construction.
 The cost is known ahead of time and there maybe need for adjustments as provided for in the contract.
 The client appoints a consultant to administer the contract on his behalf and to advice on aspects associated
with design, progress and stage payments which must be paid by the client.

b) Design and build method

In this method, the contractor is responsible for undertaking both the design and construction of the work in
return for a lump sum price. To arrive at a choice of contractor, contractors are required to develop a design to a
certain level, prepare a tender figure and submit the whole package which is termed a proposal to be evaluated
to meet the satisfaction of the client. Evaluation of tenders in this case is usually difficult because the
contractors are not working with one stage. Tenders should be informed of the criteria to be used and whether
price is likely to be a prime factor.

 Features of design and build

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  The contractor is often appointed by two stage tendering i.e the competitive element and quality is
preserved.
 Valuation and payments are solely in the hands of the contractor.
 It is an obligation to complete the project with the contract period, however, the client may accept a later
date to account for delays resulting from reasons listed in the contract.
 The client can introduce changes to the design at the design stage, but once the contract has been awarded,
he has no direct control over the development of the design details.

c) Management procurement method.

This method of procurement is based upon the client appointing a consultant who will prepare project drawings and
specification. Consequent upon this, a management contractor is the selected by a process of tender and interviews.
The management contractor will not carry out construction work. Payments are made to the management contractor
on the basis of the cost of the work package plus the agreed fee. There is less price certainty on the outset, because
construction tends to start ahead of completion of all design stages and at a point when many of the works package
are yet to be tendered for. This often means that adjustment will be made to the design and specification of the
project later in the programme to keep the project with budget. However the overall process of design and
construction tends to be shorter than either the traditional or design and build method.

d) Public private partnership

This procurement method refers to the collaboration between public and private sectors in order to achieve
financing, management or maintenance of a project. Public private partnership describes a government service or
private business venture which is funded and operated through a partnership of government and one or more
private sector companies. Public and private sectors may cooperate in the following sectors;
 Transport
 Waste management Education
 Water supply and energy Safety
 Health

PPP project is not different from the other procurement forms. It is financing of the project that is different.
Responsibilities of the various sectors;
The private sector:
 Is responsible to provide the whole or part of the project financing.
 Is responsible for the risk that are relate to the construction of the project. Designs the
project

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  Manages and operates the facility
 Returns the project the public after completion the contract period.

The public sector;

 Assess the proposal of the private sector
 Supports the construction of the project
 Proceeds with payment to the private sector
 Determines the drawing, technical, operational and financial requirement of the project.

20.3 Procedure for work procurement

The process for procuring works includes six main phases:
 Advertisement and Notification,
 Preparing and Issuing The Bidding Document,
 Bid Preparation and Submission,
 Bid Opening,
 Bid Evaluation, and
 Contract Award.

Advertisement and Notification

Invitation for Bids shall be advertised on the website as well as in newspaper of general circulation an
internationally known and freely accessible website in English.

Preparing and Issuing the Bidding Document

The Employer is responsible for preparing and issuing the Bidding Document for a specific contract. The Bidding
Document shall be prepared by the Employer based on the appropriate SBD. The Employer shall prepare the
Bidding Document using the published version of the SBD without suppressing or adding text to the sections of the
document that must be used without modification, which are Section 1 (Instructions to Bidders) and Section 7
(General Conditions of Contract). All information and data particular to each individual bidding process must be
provided by the Employer in the following sections of the Bidding Document:
 Section 2 Bid Data Sheet
 Section 3 Evaluation and Qualification Criteria
 Section 4 Bidding Forms
 Section 5 Eligible Countries
 Section 6 Employer’s Requirements
 Section 8 Particular Conditions of Contract

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  Section 9 Contract Forms

Bid Preparation and Submission

The Bidder is solely responsible for the preparation and submission of its Bid. During this stage, the Employer
shall;
Promptly respond to requests for clarifications from Bidders and amend the Bidding Document as needed;
Amend the Bidding Document only with prior approval.

Bid Opening
The Employer is responsible for the Bid Opening, which is a critical event in the bidding process. The Employer
shall appoint experienced staff to conduct the Bid Opening, as inappropriate procedures at Bid Opening are usually
irreversible and may require cancellation of the bidding process with consequent delays and waste of resources.
The Employer, in observance of best practices, shall perform the following checks:
 Conduct the Bid Opening strictly following the procedures as specified in the Instructions to Bidders for all
Bids received not later than the date and time of the bid submission deadline. The term “Bid Opening”
should be understood in the context of the ITB because, as provided in the ITB, a Bid for which a Bid
Withdrawal or Bid Substitution notice was received on time shall not be opened, but returned unopened to
the Bidder. The sequence in which Bids are handled, opened, and recorded is crucial.
 Ensure that all Bids that were received on time are accounted for, before starting the Bid Opening, as Bids
that are not opened and read out at Bid Opening shall not be considered further.
 Not reject any Bid at Bid Opening, except for late bids received after the date and time of the bid
submission deadline. Technically, late bids should not reach the Bid Opening, but in certain cases a Bidder
may attempt to submit its bid at the Bid Opening place after the deadline. This late bid shall also not be
considered.
 Examine the Bids at Bid Opening in accordance with the provisions of the Instructions to Bidders. The
Employer shall, however, verify at Bid Opening the validity of the documentation such as Power of
Attorney or other acceptable equivalent document as specified in the Instructions to Bidders, confirming the
validity of a bid modification, bid withdrawal, or bid substitution, because a withdrawn or substituted Bid
shall not be opened and consequently not read out and, therefore, shall not be considered by the Employer.
Similarly, a bid modification shall be opened, read out, and recorded to modify a Bid that was received on
time.

Bid Evaluation and Contract Award

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The Employer is responsible for bid evaluation and contract award. The Employer shall appoint experienced staff
to conduct the evaluation of the Bids. Mistakes committed at bid evaluation may later prompt complaints from
Bidders, requiring reevaluation of the Bids, with consequent delays and waste of resources. The Employer, in
observance of best practices, shall
 Keep the bid evaluation process strictly confidential;
 Reject any attempts or pressures to distort the outcome of the evaluation, including fraud and corruption;
and
 Strictly apply only and all of the evaluation and qualification criteria specified in the Bidding Document.

20.4 Conditions of Contract

Contracts are common in the business world. A contract is a verbal or written agreement between two or more
parties to execute a work (project) to its completion with a legal binding and under a seal.
The general conditions of contract defines the terms under which the work is to be undertaken, the relationship
between the employer, the engineer and the contractor, the powers of engineer, the terms of payment, collateral
warranties and performance bond. They cover matters dealing with the quality of the work, cost, time, nominated
suppliers and subcontractor’s insurance, fluctuation and VAT.

20.4.1 Why the conditions?

The purpose is to attempt to clarify the rights and responsibilities of the various parties in the event of dispute
arising.
Examples of conditions of contract includes; The Government of Ghana Conditions of Contract
i. The FIDIC Conditions of Contract
ii. The JCT (Joint Contract Tribunal) Conditions of Contract
iii. World Bank Condition of Contract
iv. ADB Condition of Contract

NB: The condition of contract varies with each type of contract and it always have an appendix and sometimes a
tender form attached to it.

20.4.2 Duties and Responsibilities of Engineer’s Representative (ER)

1. He shall be the contractor’s project superintendent.
2. He shall review the progress schedule prepared by the contractor.
3. He shall review the contractors pay applications to confirm that the percentage of work completed,
measurement of unit priced work in place and verification of materials in storage are reasonable.

20.4.3 Duties and Responsibilities of the Contractor

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 1. He is responsible for the day to day oversight of a construction site.
2. He is responsible for the quality of all works performed on site.
3. He must ensure that suitable welfare facilities are provided for workers under their control.

20.4.4 Duties and Responsibilities of employees

1. They must be honest
2. They must work with reasonable care and skills
3. They must carry out and follow orders of their employer.
4. They must disclose wrongdoing

21.0 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Lesson objectives:
The main objective is to provide a broad understanding of the need for Environmental impact assessment in any
development projects and plans in our societies.

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

 Define and state the purpose of Environmental Impact Assessment.
 Specify the benefit of EIA.
 Know the key steps in the EIA process

Lesson content:
 Introduction
 Definition of (EIA)
 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process
 Benefits of the EIA Process
 Stages of the EIA Process
 Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
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Practical Lessons/Exercise:
 A visit to Ghana Highway Authority to have an advance knowledge on the EIA process involved in
highway construction.
 A visit to Environmental Protection Agency to have an advance knowledge on the environmental policies
involved in highway construction.

21.1 Introduction
Highway development enhances mobility and is critical to the economic growth of a community and a country as a
whole. Unfortunately, inappropriately planned, designed, and constructed highways can aggravate the conditions of
the poor, and harm the natural and socio-economic environment. The common adverse impacts of highway
development include damage of natural landscape, habitat and bio-diversity, destruction of cultural and social
structure of affected communities, creation of air and water pollution, and generation of noise and vibration.
To minimize adverse environmental and socio-economic impacts, highway infrastructure must be built to a high
quality and maintained to a high standard. This can be achieved by integrating environmental considerations into
highway development planning, design, and construction.

21.2 Definition of (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) can broadly be defined as a study of the effects of a proposed project,
plan or program on the environment.

21.1.2 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process

The environmental impact assessment (EIA) process is an interdisciplinary and multistep procedure to ensure that
environmental considerations are included in decisions regarding projects that may impact the environment. Simply
defined, the EIA process helps identify the possible environmental effects of a proposed activity and how those
impacts can be mitigated.

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The purpose of the EIA process is to inform decision-makers and the public of the environmental consequences of
implementing a proposed project. The EIA document itself is a technical tool that identifies, predicts, and analyzes
impacts on the physical environment, as well as social, cultural, and health impacts. If the EIA process is
successful, it identifies alternatives and mitigation measures to reduce the environmental impact of a proposed
project. The EIA process also serves an important procedural role in the overall decision-making process by
promoting transparency and public involvement.

It is important to note that the EIA process does not guarantee that a project will be modified or rejected if the
process reveals that there will be serious environmental impacts. In some countries, a decision-maker may, in fact,
choose the most environmentally-harmful alternative, as long as the consequences are disclosed in the EIA. In other
words, the EIA process ensures an informed decision, but not necessarily an environmentally beneficial decision.

21.1.2.1 Benefits of the EIA Process

1. Potentially screens out environmentally-unsound projects
2. Proposes modified designs to reduce environmental impacts
3. Identifies feasible alternatives
4. Predicts significant adverse impacts
5. Identifies mitigation measures to reduce, offset, or eliminate major impacts
6. Engages and informs potentially affected communities and individuals
7. Influences decision-making and the development of terms and conditions

21.1.2.2 Who Prepares an EIA?

Depending on the EIA system, responsibility for producing an EIA will be assigned to one of two parties: (1) the
government agency or ministry, or (2) the project proponent. If EIA laws permit, either party may opt to hire a
consultant to prepare the EIA or handle specific portions of the EIA process, such as public participation or
technical studies.

Some EIA laws recognize the inherent conflict of interest produced when a mining company or other project
proponent hires a consultant to prepare an EIA. Using a consultant carries the risk that the document will be biased
in favor of proceeding with the project. If a consultant is hired by the mining company, conflicts may arise if the
consultant believes it will receive future work if the project is approved or even indirect benefits from related
activities (e.g., consulting work for a port where ore will be exported). Some laws require consultants to be
registered with the government and/or professionally accredited in EIA preparation. In some instances, a consultant
may be required to file a statement disclosing any financial or other interest in the outcome of the project.

21.1.2.3 Stages of the EIA Process

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The first phase of an environmental assessment is called an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) and the
second is Environmental Impact Studies (EIS) or simply detailed EIA.

a) Initial Environmental Examination (lEE)

IEE is carried out to determine whether potentially adverse environmental effects are significant or whether
mitigation measures can be adopted to reduce or eliminate these adverse effects. The IEE contains a brief statement
of key environmental issues, based on readily available information, and is used in the early (pre-feasibility) phase
of project planning. The IEE also suggests whether in-depth studies are needed. When an IEE is able to provide a
definite solution to environmental problems, an EIA is not necessary. IEE also requires expert advice and technical
input from environmental specialists so that potential environmental problems can be clearly defined.

b) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

EIA is a procedure used to examine the environmental consequences or impacts, both beneficial and adverse, of a
proposed development project and to ensure that these effects are taken into account in project design. The EIA is
therefore based on predictions. These impacts can include all relevant aspects of the natural, social, economic and
human environment. The study therefore requires a multi-disciplinary approach and should be done very early at
the feasibility stage of a project. In other words, a project should be assessed for its environmental feasibility.

EIA should therefore be viewed as an integral part of the project planning process. Unlike the environmental audit
(EA), which is conducted on existing projects, the EIA is applied to new projects and the expansion aspects of
existing projects. The phases of an EIA from screening to follow-up are illustrated in Figure 21.1 below.

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Figure 21.1: Generalized EIA Process Flow-Chart

a) Screening

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EIA process kicks off with project screening. Screening is done to determine whether or not a proposal should be
subject to EIA and, if so, at what level of detail. Guidelines for whether or not an EIA is required are country
specific depending on the laws or norms in operation. Legislation often specifies the criteria for screening and full
EIA. Development banks also screen projects presented for financing to decide whether an EIA is required using
their set criteria.

The output of the screening process is often a document called an Initial Environmental Examination or
Evaluation (IEE) (Section 4.1). The main conclusion will be a classification of the project according to its likely
environmental sensitivity. This will determine whether an EIA is needed and if so, to what detail.

b) Scoping
The aim of EIA is not to carry out exhaustive studies on all environmental impacts for all projects. Scoping is used
to identify the key issues of concern at an early stage in the planning process. The results of scoping will determine
the scope, depth and terms of reference to be addressed within the Environmental statement. Scoping is done to:
 Identify concerns and issues for consideration in an EIA
 Ensure a relevant EIA
 Enable those responsible for an EIA study to properly brief the study team on the alternatives and on
impacts to be considered at different levels of analysis
 Determine the assessment methods to be used
 Identify all affected interests
 Provide an opportunity for public involvement in determining the factors to be assessed, and facilitate early
agreement on contentious issues
 Save time and money
 Establish terms of reference (TOR) for EIA study

Scoping should be an ongoing exercise throughout the course of the project. The following environmental tools can
be used in the scoping exercise

Checklists – Checklists are standard lists of the types of impacts associated with a particular type of project.
Checklists methods are primarily for organizing information or ensuring that no potential impact is overlooked.
They comprise list questions on features the project and environments impacts. They are generic in nature and are
used as aids in assessment.

Matrices - Matrix methods identify interactions between various project actions and environmental parameters and
components. They incorporate a list of project activities with a checklist of environmental components that might
be affected by these activities. A matrix of potential interactions is produced by combining these two lists (placing
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one on the vertical axis and the other on the horizontal axis). They should preferably cover both the construction
and the operation phases of the project, because sometimes, the former causes greater impacts than the latter.
However, matrices also have their disadvantages: they do not explicitly represent spatial or temporal
considerations, and they do not adequately address synergistic impacts.

Networks – these are cause effect flow diagrams used to help in tracing the web relationships that exist between
different activities associated with action and environmental system with which they interact. They are also
important in identifying direct and cumulative impacts. They are more complex and need expertise for their
effective use.

Consultations – with decision-makers, affected communities, environmental interest groups to ensure that all
potential impacts are detected. However there can be danger in this when excessive consultation is done and some
unjustifiable impacts included in the ToR.

c) Baseline data collection

The term "baseline" refers to the collection of background information on the biophysical, social and economic
settings proposed project area. Normally, information is obtained from secondary sources, or the acquisition of new
information through field samplings, interviews, surveys and consultations with the public. The task of collecting
baseline data starts right from the period of project inception; however, a majority of this task may be undertaken
during scoping and actual EIA.
Baseline data is collected for two main purposes
1. To provide a description of the current status and trends of environmental factors (e.g., air pollutant
concentrations) of the host area against which predicted changes can be compared and evaluated in terms of
significance, and
2. To provide a means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project has been initiated only baseline
data needed to assist prediction of the impacts contained in the ToR and scoping report should be collected.

d) Impact analysis and prediction

Predicting the magnitude of a development likely impacts and evaluating their significance is core of
environmental assessment process. Prediction should be based on the available environmental baseline of the
project area. Such predictions are described in quantitative or qualitative terms.

21.1.2.4 Considerations in impact prediction

Magnitude of Impact: This is defined by the severity of each potential impact and indicates whether the impact is
irreversible or, reversible and estimated potential rate of recovery. The magnitude of an impact cannot be
considered high if a major adverse impact can be mitigated.

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Extent of Impact: The spatial extent or the zone of influence of the impact should always be determined. An
impact can be site-specific or limited to the project area; a locally occurring impact within the locality of the
proposed project; a regional impact that may extend beyond the local area and a national impact affecting resources
on a national scale and sometimes trans-boundary impacts, which might be international.

Duration of Impact: Environmental impacts have a temporal dimension and needs to be considered in an EIA.
Impacts arising at different phases of the project cycle may need to be considered. An impact that generally lasts for
only three to nine years after project completion may be classified as short-term. An impact, which continues for 10
to 20 years, may be defined as medium-term, and impacts that last beyond 20 years are considered as long-term.

Significance of the Impact: This refers to the value or amount of the impact. Once an impact has been predicted,
its significance must be evaluated using an appropriate choice of criteria. The most important forms of criterion are:
 Specific legal requirements e.g. national laws, standards, international agreements and conventions,
relevant policies etc.
 Public views and complaints
 Threat to sensitive ecosystems and resources e.g. can lead to extinction of species and depletion of
resources, which can result, into conflicts.
 Geographical extent of the impact e.g. has trans- boundary implications.
 Cost of mitigation
 Duration (time period over which they will occur)
 Likelihood or probability of occurrence (very likely, unlikely, etc.)
 Reversibility of impact (natural recovery or aided by human intervention)
 Number (and characteristics) of people likely to be affected and their locations
 Cumulative impacts e.g. adding more impacts to existing ones.
 Uncertainty in prediction due to lack of accurate data or complex systems. Precautionary principle is
advocated in this scenario.

21.3.5 Impact prediction methodologies

Several techniques can be used in predicting the impacts. The choices should be appropriate to the circumstances.
These can be based on:
 Professional judgment with adequate reasoning and supporting data. This technique requires high
professional experience.
 Experiments or tests. These can be expensive.
 Past experience

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  Numerical calculations & mathematical models. These can require a lot of data and competency in
mathematical modelling without which hidden errors can arise
 Physical or visual analysis. Detailed description is needed to present the impact.
 Geographical information systems,
 Risk assessment, and
 Economic valuation of environmental impacts

e) Analysis of alternatives
Analysis of alternative is done to establish the preferred or most environmentally sound, financially feasible and
benign option for achieving project objectives.
The World Bank directives requires systematic comparison of proposed investment design in terms of site,
technology, processes etc in terms of their impacts and feasibility of their mitigation, capital, recurrent costs,
suitability under local conditions and institutional, training and monitoring requirements. For each alternative, the
environmental cost should be quantified to the extent possible and economic values attached where feasible, and
the basic for selected alternative stated. The analysis of alternative should include a NO PROJECT alternative.

f) Mitigation and impact management

Mitigation is done to avoid, minimize or offset predicted adverse impacts and, where appropriate, to incorporate
these into an environmental management plan or system. For each potential adverse impact the plan for its
mitigation at each stage of the project should be documented and costed, as this is very important in the selection of
the preferred alternative.

The objectives of mitigation therefore are to:

 find better alternatives and ways of doing things;
 enhance the environmental and social benefits of a project
 avoid, minimize or remedy adverse impacts; and
 ensure that residual adverse impacts are kept within acceptable levels

Table 21.1 Design of Mitigation Measures

Approach Examples
Avoid Change of route or site details, to avoid important ecological or
archaeological features
Replace Regenerate similar habitat of equivalent ecological value in different
location.
Reduce Filters, precipitators, noise barriers, dust, enclosures, visual screening,
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 wildlife corridors, and changed time of activities
Restore Site restoration after construction
Compensate Relocation of displaced communities, facilities for the affected
communities, financial compensation for the affected individuals etc.

g) Environmental Management Plan (EMP) & Environmental Monitoring

 Environmental Management Plan (EMP)
An Environmental Management Plan (EMP) is a detailed plan and schedule of measures necessary to minimize,
mitigate, etc. any potential environmental impacts identified by the EIA (World Bank 1999). Once the EIA the
significant impacts have been identified, it is necessary to prepare an Environmental Management Plan.

An EMP should consist of a set of mitigation, monitoring and institutional measures to be taken during the
implementation and operation of the proposed project to eliminate adverse environmental impacts, offset them or
reduce them to acceptable levels. The EMP should also include the actions needed to implement these measures,
including the following features:
 Mitigation based on the environmental impacts reported in the EIA, the EMP should describe with technical
details each mitigation measure.
 The EMP should then include monitoring objectives that specifies the type of monitoring activities that will
be linked to the mitigation measures. Specifically, the monitoring section of the EMP provides:
 A specific description, and technical details, of monitoring measures that includes the parameters to
be measured, the methods to be used, sampling locations, frequency of measurements, detection
limits (where appropriate), and definition of thresholds that will signal the need for corrective
actions;
 Monitoring and reporting procedures to ensure early detection of conditions that necessitate
particular mitigation measures and to furnish information on the progress and results of mitigation.
 The EMP should also provide a specific description of institutional arrangements i.e. who is responsible for
carrying out the mitigating and monitoring measures (for operation, supervision, enforcement, monitoring
of implementation, remedial action, financing, reporting, and staff training).
 Additionally, the EMP should include an estimate of the costs of the measures and activities recommended.
 It should consider compensatory measures if mitigation measures are not feasible or cost effective.
 EMP must be operative throughout the whole Project Cycle.
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  Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring is the systematic measurement of key environmental indicators over time within a
particular geographic area. Monitoring should focus on the most significant impacts identified in the EIA. Various
types of monitoring activity are currently in practice. The main types are briefly described below:

Baseline Monitoring: A survey should be conducted on basic environmental parameters in the area surrounding the
proposed project before construction begins. Subsequent monitoring can assess the changes in those parameters
over time against the baseline.

Impact Monitoring: The biophysical and socio-economical (including public health) parameters within the project
area, must be measured during the project construction and operational phases in order to detect environmental
changes, which may have occurred as a result of project implementation e.g. air emission, dust, noise, water
pollution etc.

Compliance Monitoring: This form of monitoring employs a periodic sampling method, or continuous recording
of specific environmental quality indicators or pollution levels to ensure project compliance with recommended
environmental protection standards.

Monitoring should be regular and performed over a long period of duration. Interruptions in monitoring may result
in generating insufficient data to draw accurate conclusion concerning project impact.

The main aim of EIA monitoring is to provide the information required to ensure that project implementation has
the least possible negative environmental impacts on the people and environment.

What to avoid in monitoring:

 Overestimation of data needed as this can lead to drowning in data without information.
 Under-estimation of time and cost for data analysis
 Weak coordination between the data collection with project time table and seasonal factors
 Ignoring requirements for baselines

21.3 Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

The final EIA report is referred to as an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Most national environmental laws
have specified what the content of EIS should have. Multilateral and bilateral financial institutions have also
defined what should be contained in an EIS. Ideally, the content of an EIS should have the following:
1. Executive Summary
2. Policy, Legal and Administrative Framework

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 3. Description of the environment
4. Description of the Proposed Project in detail
5. Significant Environmental Impacts
6. Socio-economic analysis of Project Impacts
7. Identification and Analysis of Alternatives
8. Mitigation Action/Mitigation Management Plan
9. Environmental Management Plan
10. Monitoring Program
11. Knowledge gaps
12. Public Involvement
13. List of References
14. Appendices including
 Reference documents, photographs, unpublished data
 Terms of Reference
 Consulting team composition
 Notes of Public Consultation sessions

 Decision making
At each stage of EIA, interim decisions are made. These decisions influence final decisions made about the EIA.
The EIS is submitted to designate authority for scrutiny before the final decision. The authority, together with
technical review panel determines the quality of EIS and gives the public further opportunity to comment. Based on
the outcome of the review, the designated authority or lending institution will accept, reject or make further
modifications to avoid future confrontation. If the EIS is accepted, an EIA license is issued and if otherwise,
additional studies or recommendations are made before issuance of a license. The decision making process should
be autonomous so that the outcome of the review is seen as fair enough. The duration of this process is usually set
in the EIA legal framework.

 Effective EIA follow-up

In practice, an EMP, which is submitted with the EIS report, should be used during implementation and operation
of the project. The link between EIA process and project implementation stage is often weak especially in

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developing countries. Despite this, they may still be no better than intentions unless an independent check is made
to ensure that the developer is acting as intended.
These weaknesses could be attributed to:
 Deficiencies in environmental management plans prepared during the EIA.
 Deficiencies in monitoring and enforcing compliance through use of legal instruments and financial
penalties (most EIAs end after environmental clearance has been received from the environmental
management authority).
 Timing of some projects especially in developing countries are implemented several years after the EIA and
the EMP. In such scenarios, an update of the EIA should be done and a new EMP developed.
ISO 14001:2004 and other Environmental Management Systems (EMS) can provide the link between the EIA and
environmental management requirements after the EIA (during project implementation, operation and
decommissioning).

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