Year 4, Semester 1- EDU 4101

Educational Studies

The Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar

Ministry of Education

Year 4 Semester1

EDU4101

Educational Studies

Student Teacher Textbook

2 Student Teacher Textbook
 Year 4, Semester 1- EDU 4101
Educational Studies

PREFACE
The Myanmar Ministry of Education developed the four-year Education Degree College
Curriculum, in line with the pre-service teacher education reform as specified in the
National Education Strategic Plan (NESP) 2016-2021.

The Myanmar Education Degree College Curriculum consists of several components:

the curriculum framework, syllabi, Student Teacher Textbooks, and Teacher Educator
Guides. This curriculum for the four-year Education Degree College programme was
designed and structured to align with the Basic Education Curriculum and to equip
student teachers with the competencies needed to teach effectively in Myanmar’s
primary and middle school classrooms. It is based on a Teacher Competency Standards
Framework (TCSF) which articulates the expectations for what a teacher should know
and be able to do in the classroom.

The curriculum follows a spiral curriculum approach which means that throughout the
four years, student teachers return to familiar concepts, each time deepening their
knowledge and understanding. To achieve this, the four-year Education Degree College
programme is divided into two cycles. The first cycle (Years 1 and 2) is repeated at a
deeper level in the second cycle (Years 3 and 4) to enable student teachers to return to
ideas, experiment with them, and share with their peers a wider range of practices in the
classroom, with the option to follow up on specific aspects of their teaching at a deeper
level.

The curriculum structure provides an integrated approach where teaching of subject

knowledge and understanding educational theories are learnt through a supportive
learning process of relevant preparation and practical application and experience. The
focus is, therefore, not just on subject content, but also on the skills and attitudes needed
to effectively apply their knowledge, skills, and attitudes in teaching and learning
situations, with specific age groups. As the focus is on all components of a ‘competency’
– knowledge, skills, attitudes and their effective application – it is referred to as a
competency-based curriculum.

Accordingly, a competency-based curriculum is learner-centred and adaptive to the

changing needs of students, teachers, and society. Where new concepts are learnt, they
are then applied and reflected on:

1. Learn (plan what and how to teach);

2. Apply (practise teaching and learning behaviours);
3. Reflect (evaluate teaching practice).
Beyond the Education Degree College coursework, it is intended that student teacher
graduates will be able to take and apply this cycle of ‘learn, apply, and reflect’ to their
own teaching to effectively facilitate the learning and development of Myanmar’s next
generation.

Student Teacher Textbook

Year 4, Semester 1- EDU 4101
Educational Studies

The Myanmar Education Degree College Curriculum was developed by a curriculum

core team, which is a Ministry of Education-appointed team of Myanmar Education
Degree College teacher educators supported by the Ministry of Education, resource
persons from the Universities of Education, University for the Development of National
Races of the Union and a team of national experts. Overall guidance of the work was
provided by the Department of Teacher Education, Ministry of Education.

The curriculum development was also supported by the Strengthening Pre-Service

Teacher Education in Myanmar project, with technical assistance from the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and financial
contributions from Australia, Finland, UK Governments and Ministry of Education in
Myanmar.

TABLE OF CONTENT

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S
PREFACE..........................................................................................................................i
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................iii
HOW TO USE THIS TEXTBOOK..............................................................................vii
Unit 1. Educational Studies: Assuring Understanding..............................................1
1.1. Solving Educational Issues....................................................................................4
1.1.1. Major issues in education at the K-12 Level..............................................4
1.1.2. Examples of solving issues: 5 emerging trends in education....................5
1.1.3. Challenges facing public schools and challenges facing education
technology today...................................................................................................10
Review Questions.................................................................................................12
1.2. Educational Leadership.......................................................................................13
1.2.1. Different types of educational leadership................................................13
1.2.2. In depth study on transformational leadership.......................................20
1.2.3. Roles and responsibilities of a good leader in education........................23
1.2.4. The top 10 qualities of great educational leaders....................................26
Review Questions.................................................................................................29
1.3. Teacher Leadership.............................................................................................30
1.3.1. Key teacher leadership skills.....................................................................30
1.3.2. How to improve teacher leadership skills................................................33
Review Questions.................................................................................................36
1.4. Educational Management...................................................................................37
1.4.1. Educational management: meaning, nature and scope..........................38
1.4.2. Functions of educational management.....................................................41
Review Questions.................................................................................................45
1.5. Education and Social Change.............................................................................46
1.5.1. Types, and features of social change........................................................46
1.5.2. Factors responsible for social change.......................................................49
1.5.3. Relationship between education and social change................................52
1.5.4. How teachers can promote social change in the classroom....................55
Review Questions.................................................................................................58
Unit Summary.................................................................................................................59
Key messages...............................................................................................................59

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Unit reflection.............................................................................................................60
Further reading..........................................................................................................61
Unit 2. Pedagogical Theory and Practice..................................................................64
2.1. Assuring Understanding of Technological, Pedagogical and Content Knowledge
(TPACK)...............................................................................................................67
2.1.1. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and technological pedagogical
content knowledge (PCK & TPACK)................................................................67
2.1.2. Technological Integration across the Curriculum..................................76
Review Questions.................................................................................................79
2.2. Assuring Understanding of Inquiry-based Learning.......................................80
2.2.1. Inquiry-based Learning models and skills development........................80
2.2.2. Problem-based Learning in the middle school........................................87
Review Questions.................................................................................................94
2.3. Assuring Understanding of Learner Development and Diversity..................95
2.3.1. Lifespan development................................................................................95
2.3.2 Culturally responsive pedagogy...............................................................104
Review Questions...............................................................................................110
Unit summary...............................................................................................................111
Key messages.............................................................................................................111
Unit reflection...........................................................................................................112
Further reading........................................................................................................112
Unit 3. Strategies for Effective Learning................................................................114
3.1. Critical and Creative Thinking........................................................................116
3.1.1. Developing critical thinking in middle school.......................................116
3.1.2. Developing creative thinking in middle school......................................124
Review Questions...............................................................................................127
3.2. Blended learning and cooperative learning....................................................128
3.2.1. Blended learning in middle school..........................................................128
3.2.2. Cooperative learning environment in middle school............................136
Review Questions...............................................................................................140
3.3. Mastery Learning and Self-regulated Learning.............................................141
3.3.1. Mastery learning in middle school.........................................................141
3.3.2. Self-regulated learning in middle school................................................148
Review Questions...............................................................................................151

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3.4. Practicing in Virtual Environment..................................................................152

3.4.1. Virtual learning environment.................................................................152
Review Questions...............................................................................................156
Unit Summary...............................................................................................................157
Key messages.............................................................................................................157
Unit reflection...........................................................................................................158
Further Reading.......................................................................................................158
Unit 4. Planning and Preparation............................................................................161
4.1. Evidence-Informed Planning............................................................................164
4.1.1. Planning, teaching, assessment and review cycle..................................164
Review Questions...............................................................................................168
4.2. Curriculum Elements and Constructive Alignment......................................169
4.2.1. Basic education curriculum structure and elements............................169
4.2.2. Constructive alignment............................................................................179
Review Questions...............................................................................................185
4.3. Lesson Planning.................................................................................................186
4.3.1. Pedagogical models..................................................................................186
4.3.2. Differentiation of teaching and learning................................................192
4.3.3. Assessment and evaluation......................................................................198
Review Questions...............................................................................................208
4.4. Modification of Lesson Planning......................................................................209
4.4.1. Modifying the existing lesson plan..........................................................209
Review Questions...............................................................................................214
Unit Summary...............................................................................................................215
Key messages.............................................................................................................215
Unit reflection...........................................................................................................215
Further reading........................................................................................................216
Unit 5. Educational Psychology...............................................................................218
5.1. Assuring Understanding of Educational Psychology.....................................220
5.1.1. Applying educational psychology in teaching and learning.................220
5.1.2. Theories of learning and implications for teaching..............................222
Review Questions...............................................................................................227
5.2. Mental Health and Adjustment........................................................................228

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5.2.1. Mental health and implications for teaching and learning..................228

5.2.2 Adjustment in teaching and learning......................................................232
Review Questions...............................................................................................242
5.3. Personality..........................................................................................................243
5.3.1. Nature and characteristics of personality..............................................243
5.3.2. Types of personality.................................................................................245
5.3.3. Personality Traits.....................................................................................247
Review Questions...............................................................................................249
5.4. Guidance and Counseling.................................................................................250
5.4.1. The importance of guidance and counseling in teaching and learning
..............................................................................................................................250
5.4.2. Strategies and principles of guidance.....................................................253
5.4.3. Types and principles of counseling.........................................................256
5.4.4. Counseling techniques in school.............................................................260
Review Questions...............................................................................................262
Unit Summary...............................................................................................................263
Key messages.............................................................................................................263
Unit reflection...........................................................................................................264
Further reading........................................................................................................264
Glossary.........................................................................................................................266
Bibliography..................................................................................................................272
Annexes..........................................................................................................................278
Annex 1: The Problem with Plastic Bags...............................................................278
Annex 2: Year 3 Lesson Plan Template.................................................................280
Annex 3: Year 4 Lesson Plan Template.................................................................282

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HOW TO USE THIS TEXTBOOK

Who will use this Educational Studies Student Teacher Textbook?
This textbook has been designed to guide you, as a student teacher, through Year 4 of
the Educational Studies learning area. Studying this textbook will extend the knowledge
and concepts of Educational Studies you have learned from Year 1 to Year 3. This
textbook also includes learning activities and additional resources to help you develop
the knowledge, skills, and attitudes you need to be an effective teacher in Myanmar. You
will use the textbook as a key resource in class; you can also use the textbook for
independent self-study.
While the content in the textbook is addressed to you, as the student teacher, it is also a
resource for your teacher educators, who will serve as your facilitators and mentors as
you develop key competence in Educational Studies. Throughout this module, you and
your teacher educators will work together, using this textbook as a tool for learning.
When and where does Educational Study take place?
A total of 140 teaching periods (70 teaching periods for each semester) are allotted for
Year 4 of the four-year Education Degree College program. Classes will be held on the
Education Degree College campus.
What is included in the Year 4 Educational Studies textbook?
The organization and content of Educational Studies Student Teacher Textbook align
with Educational Studies subject syllabus of the four-year Education Degree College
program.
Year 4 Educational Studies contains the following topics:
 Educational Studies: Assuring Understanding
 Pedagogical Theory and Practice
 Strategies for effective learning
 Planning and Preparation
 Educational Psychology
 Myanmar’s Education Reforms and Curriculum Agendas
 Educational Philosophy
 Educational Assessment
 Supportive and Safe Learning Environment
 Teacher Professionalism
For each unit, you will be working through learning activities, both individually and with
your peers and teacher educator, to deepen your knowledge, skills and attitudes on the

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topic. The Content Map for Year 4 Semester 1, below, highlights the expected learning
outcomes and time allocations for each unit in this textbook.

Table A. Educational Studies Content Map for Year 4 Semester 1

Units Sub-units Lessons Learning Outcomes TCSF Periods

1. Educational 1.1. Solving 1.1.1. Major  Identify and C 3.1 1

Studies: Educational Issues in discuss major D 2.1
Assuring Issues education at the issues in
Understanding K-12 Level Education at the
K-12 Level
1.1.2. Examples  Explain and C 3.1 1
of solving issues: discuss 5 D 2.1
5 emerging trends emerging trends
in education in education for
solving
educational issues
 Understand and
define
makerspace,
micro-credentials,
flipped classroom
and social-
emotional
learning
1.1.3. Challenges  Explain and A 2.2 1
facing public discuss 10 major
schools and challenges facing
challenges facing public schools
education  Explain and
technology today discuss the 7
greatest
challenges facing
education
technology today

1.2. Educational 1.2.1. Different  Define what A 3.1 1

Leadership types of educational A 3.2
educational leadership is C 1.1
leadership  Explain and
discuss different
types of
educational
leadership

1.2.2. In depth  Discuss the B 4.1 1

study on advantages of C 2.1
transformational transformational C 3.1
leadership leadership in D 2.1
education
 Explain the
difference

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between
transactional and
transformational
leadership in
schools
 List 5
characteristics of
a transformational
leader
 List
transformational
leadership
behaviors of
teachers
 Explain the
advantages of
transformational
leadership of
teachers
 Give examples on
transformational
leadership
behaviors of
teachers
1.2.3.Roles and  Explain and A 3.1 1
responsibilities of discuss roles and B 4.1
a good leader in responsibilities of C 1.1
education a good leader in C 2.1
education C 3.3
 Create a story of a
teacher who is a
good leader
1.2.4. The top 10  Explain and B 4.1 1
qualities of great discuss the top 10 C 1.1
educational qualities of great C 2.1
leaders educational C 3.3
leaders
1.3. Teacher 1.3.1. Key teacher  Define the B 4.1 1
Leadership leadership skills meaning of C 1.1
teacher leadership C 2.1
 Explain key C 3.3
leadership skills
 Demonstrate
teacher leadership
skills
1.3.2. How to  Discuss the ways B 4.1 1
improve teacher to improve D 1.1
leadership skills leadership skills D 2.1
 Name the
leadership skills
that match the

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Units Sub-units Lessons Learning Outcomes TCSF Periods

given activities

1.4. Educational 1.4.1. Educational  Differentiate the B 4.1 1

Management management: differences C 1.1
meaning, nature, between C 2.1
and scope educational C 3.3
leadership and
management
 Describe the
nature of
management;
 Explain the
meaning and
concept of
management
 Enumerate the
functions of
management
 Explain the
meaning of
educational
management
 Discuss the nature
and scope of
educational
management
 Explain the
objectives of
educational
management
1.4.2. Functions  Illustrate the C 1.1 1
of educational functions of C 2.1
management educational
management
1.5. Education 1.5.1. Types, and  Explain types and A 3.2 1
and Social features of social features of social B 4.1
Change change change C 3.1
 Explain and C 3.3
discuss the roles
of invention,
discovery, and
diffusion in social
change
1.5.2. Factors  Identify and A 3.2 1
responsible for explain the factors B 4.1
social change responsible for C 3.1
social change C 3.3
1.5.3.  Understand and A 3.2 1
Relationship discuss the B 4.1
between relationship C 3.1
education and between C 3.3
social change education and

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social change
 Describe and
discuss the
functions of
education in the
sphere of social
change
1.5.4. How  Understand and A 3.2 1
teachers can discuss how B 4.1
promote social teachers can C 3.1
change in the promote social C 3.3
classroom change in the
classroom
2. Pedagogical 2.1. Assuring 2.1.1.  Develop and A 2.2 2
Theory and Understanding Technological understanding of C 1.2
Practice of Integration across the TPACK D 1.1
Technological the Curriculum framework
Pedagogical  Compare between
Content Pedagogical
Knowledge Content
(TPACK) Knowledge
(PCK) and
Technological
Pedagogical
Content
Knowledge
(TPACK)
framework
2.1.2.  Outline the A 2.2 1
Technological opportunities for C 1.2
integration technological D 1.1
across the integration across
the primary
curriculum
school curriculum
given available
technologies in
Myanmar
 Choose suitable
PCK and TPACK
framework in
teaching learning
process
2.2. Assuring 2.2.1. Inquiry-  Analyze the core A 2.1 2
Understanding based Learning features of B 4.1
of Inquiry- models and skills inquiry-based C 1.1
based Learning development learning models C 2.1
 Demonstrate the
inquiry-based
learning models
in teaching
learning process

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Units Sub-units Lessons Learning Outcomes TCSF Periods

 Outline the good

practice principles
for facilitating
inquiry-based
learning in middle
school level
 Plan for construct
in inquiry-based
learning models
and skills
development
across the lesson
sequences
2.2.2. Problem-  Analyze the core A 2.1 2
features of B 4.1
based Learning in
problem-based D 3.1
the upper middle learning models
 Demonstrate the
school
problem-based
learning models
in teaching
learning process
 Outline the good
practice principles
for facilitating
problem-based
learning in middle
school level
 Plan for problem-
based learning
models and skills
development
across the lesson
sequences
2.3. Assuring 2.3.1. Lifespan  Reflect on core A 1.1 3
Understanding development ideas of A 5.2
of Learner foundational C 1.2
Development theories relating
and Diversity to students’
cognitive,
physical, social
and emotional
development in
middle school
level;
 Design classroom
practices to
increase
developmental
skills of students;
and
 Apply an

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understanding of
strategies to
extend the
development of
the students in
classroom
situation.
2.3.2. Culturally  Reflect on the A 1.1
responsive challenges of A 1.2
pedagogy teaching in A 3.2
culturally diverse A 5.2
classrooms; C 1.2
 Manage to C 3.3
promote diversity D 1.1
and
multiculturalism
in the classrooms;
and
 Outline strategies
for engaging
students to
culturally and
linguistically
diverse
classrooms.
3. Strategies for 3.1. Critical and 3.1.1. Developing  Discuss critical A 1.1 2
Effective Learning Creative critical thinking in thinking in middle A 1.2
Learning middle school school A 2.1
 Apply the B 1.2
appropriate C 1.2
critical thinking
strategies in
planning for
teaching and
learning in middle
school
3.1.2. Developing  Discuss creative A 1.1 2
creative thinking thinking in middle A 1.2
in middle school school A 2.1
 Apply the B 1.2
appropriate C 1.2
activities to
develop creative
thinking skills for
effective learning
in middle school
3.2. Blended 3.2.1. Blended  Examine the A1.1 2
Learning and learning in middle blended learning A1.2
Cooperative school in middle school A2.1
Learning  Plan the blended A 2.2
learning activities A 5.2

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that can be used B 1.2

effectively in the B 3.1
middle school B 3.2
C 1.2
C 3.2
3.2.2. Cooperative  Organize school, A 3.2 1
learning family and A 5.2
environment in community C 1.4
middle school partnerships for
the effective
learning
 Design how to
create the
cooperative
school culture for
teachers
3.3. Mastery 3.3.1. Mastery  Discuss and A2.1 2
Learning and learning in middle reflect on the B2.1
Self-regulated school concept of C1.2
Learning mastery learning C3.1
 Apply the
principles of
mastery learning
for effective
learning in middle
school
3.3.2. Self-  Apply the self- A 2.1 1
regulated learning regulated learning B 1.1
in middle school strategies in B 1.2
teaching learning B 1.3
process B 2.1
C 1.2
3.4. Practicing 3.4.1. Virtual  Reflect on the A 1.1 2
in Virtual learning concept of virtual A 1.2
Environment environment learning A 2.1
environment B 3.1
 Design virtual B 3.2
classroom for C 1.1
effective learning C 1.2
D 1.1
D 3.1
4. Planning and 4.1. Evidence- 4.1.1. Planning,  Revise the B 2.1 2
Preparation Informed teaching, practices at each B 2.2
Planning assessment and stage of the B 3.1
review cycle planning, D 1.1
teaching,
assessment and
review cycle
4.2. Curriculum 4.2.1. Basic  Reflect and A 2.1 2
Elements and education analyze middle A 2.2
Constructive curriculum school curriculum A 3.2
Alignment structure and structure and A 4.1

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Units Sub-units Lessons Learning Outcomes TCSF Periods

elements elements B 1.1

 Develop an
annual plan for
teaching, learning
and assessment to
support student
learning
4.2.2.  Explain how an A 2.1 2
Constructive annual plan for A 2.2
alignment teaching, learning A 3.2
and assessment is A 4.1
constructively B 1.1
aligned with C 1.2
middle school
curriculum
 Evaluate a
constructively
aligned teaching
and learning
sequence for a
lesson scenario
4.3. Lesson 4.3.1. Pedagogical  Develop a lesson A 5.1 2
Planning models plan using ITPR A 5.2
model B 1.1
 Evaluate a lesson B 1.3
plan using ITPR
model
4.3.2.  Reflect and B 1.3 2
Differentiation of compare middle C 1.2
teaching and school scenarios D 1.1
learning and explain
elements of a
lesson that have
been
differentiated
 Outline how
selected middle
school learning
activity can be
differentiated to
respond to diverse
student’s needs
and support
learning
4.3.3. Assessment  Use the whole A 4.1 2
and evaluation class and B 1.3
individual B 2.1
students’ profiles B 2.2
to plan a lesson D 1.1
for middle school
class

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Units Sub-units Lessons Learning Outcomes TCSF Periods

 Plan to assess
throughout the
learning and
teaching sequence
and review phase
of the middle
school lesson
 Develop the
frame for teacher
evaluation sheets
that are linked to
lesson elements
and selected
pedagogical
models
4.4. 4.4.1. Modifying  Construct the A 5.2 2
Modification of the existing lesson lesson planning to C 1.2
Lesson plan analyze the
Planning student profile
considerations
 Write the lesson
planning to
achieve the
objectives of
respective
subjects in terms
of students’
profile
considerations
5. Educational 5.1. Assuring 5.1.1. Applying  Reflect and A 5.2 1
Psychology Understanding educational analyze the B 1.2
of Educational psychology in conceptual C 1.2
Psychology teaching and understanding of
learning educational
psychology in
teaching and
learning
5.1.2. Theories of  Reflect on the key A 5.2 3
learning and principles of B 1.2
implications for learning theories B 1.3
teaching  Analysis the B 2.1
strengths and C 1.2
weakness of
learning theories
 Design a lesson
plan using
different learning
theories
5.2. Mental 5.2.1. Mental  Reflect on mental A 1.1 2
Health and health and health and B 1.2
Adjustment implications for strategies for B 2.1
teaching and supporting C 3.1

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learning students’ mental

health
 Discuss the
factors affecting
teachers’ mental
health
5.2.2. Adjustment  Explain the A 1.1 3
in teaching and conception of A 3.2
learning adjustment B 3.1
 Explain and B 3.2
discuss the C 1.2
different types of C 3.1
adjustment
mechanisms
 Identify and
provide an
example of the
characteristics of
well-adjusted and
maladjusted
students
 Apply the
strategies to help
maladjusted
students
5.3. Personality 5.3.1. Nature and  Discuss the A 1.1 1
characteristics of characteristics of A 3.2
personality personality C 1.2
 Identify the
personality
attributes
5.3.2. Types of  Clarify the A 1.1 1
personality different types of A 3.2
personality C 1.2
 Identify the
personality types
you possess
5.3.3. Personality  Explain and the A 1.1 1
traits importance of A 3.2
personality traits C 1.2
 Illustrate
personality trait
dimensions
5.4. Guidance 5.4.1. Importance  Define and A 1.2 1
and Counseling of guidance and provide the A 4.1
counseling in concepts of A 5.1
teaching and guidance and A 5.2
learning counseling with B 1.2
suitable examples C 1.2
 Explain and
discuss when

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Units Sub-units Lessons Learning Outcomes TCSF Periods

guidance and
counseling is
needed
 Describe different
types of guidance
5.4.2. Strategies  Demonstrate A 1.2 1
and principles of understanding the A 4.1
guidance strategies and A 5.1
principles of A 5.2
guidance B 1.2
C 1.2
5.4.3. Types and  Explain and A 1.2 1
principles of illustrate the types A 4.1
counseling and principles of A 5.1
counseling A 5.2
B 1.2
C 1.2
5.4.4. Counseling  Explain A 1.2 1
techniques in counseling A 4.1
school techniques in A 5.1
teaching and A 5.2
learning B 1.2
 Discuss the C 1.2
importance of
guidance and
counseling
program in
schools
Total number of periods 70

This module will prepare student teachers with the competencies required to teach
various learning areas and subjects through modeling the values and attitudes promoted
in the basic education curriculum for the types of citizens and society Myanmar
envisions to create. The overall objective of Educational Studies is to introduce student
teachers to the basic concepts of educational theory, educational technology, educational
management, educational psychology, educational test and measurement, and apply
them in the teaching learning process and in real life situation. Student teachers will
become aware of the educational trends (ancient to current), different philosophies,
learning theories, and pedagogies. They will also know the importance of developmental
milestones of the students in all domains. Student teachers will gain pedagogical
knowledge to be able to choose the best teaching methods for teaching based on
learners’ needs and learning situations. Moreover, they will be able to distinguish
characteristics of test, measurement, evaluation and assessment and apply them in the
teaching learning process. To educate student teachers to become effective professionals,
two elements in Educational Studies will be considered: i) the understanding of

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knowledge and its application situated in the disciplines of education such as psychology
and the history of education; and ii) critical reflection about the holistic development of
learners to help student teachers to develop positive attitudes, behavior and skills so to
develop professional attitudes and values.
The learning area outlines what student teachers in Education Degree Colleges will
explore in order to prepare them to be ready for teaching middle school students in Basic
Education Schools. It is important that teachers use educational knowledge and theory in
their professional lives appropriately. It further reassures the teaching as a valuable
profession, and the significance of middle school teachers in the learners’ development
and learning process in their lifespans. The disciplines of education will help inform
student teachers about their role as educators situated in the principles for the 21st
century.

Learning outcomes for student teachers for Educational Studies

This module aims to prepare student teachers to be ready to facilitate middle school
students’ learning by being able to:
 Build a strong foundation on the basic concepts of educational theories,
psychology, and pedagogies, and facilitate how these concepts can be applied in
diverse teaching-learning situations towards becoming well-prepared, efficient
and quality teachers;
 Apply the competencies gained around Educational Studies learning area in their
teaching practice to effectively support their students’ learning process to achieve
the learning objectives across different learning areas and subjects.
The content of this textbook is based on the Myanmar Teacher Competency Standard
Framework (TCSF), which articulates the expectations for what you should know
and be able to do in the classroom. The teacher competencies in focus for the
Educational Studies modules include the followings:

Table B. Teacher competencies in focus: Year 4 Educational Studies

Competency Minimum requirements Indicators

standard
A 1.1.1 Give examples of how the
A 1: Know how A 1.1 Demonstrate
students’ cognitive, physical, social,
understanding of how

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Competency Minimum requirements Indicators

standard
emotional and moral development may
students learn students learn relevant to
affect their learning
their age and developmental
stage A 1.1.2 Prepare learning activities to
align with students' level of cognitive,
linguistic, social, emotional and physical
development

A 1.2 Demonstrate A 1.2.1 Identify various teaching

understanding of how methods to help students with different
different teaching methods backgrounds (gender, ethnicity, culture)
can meet students’ individual and abilities, including special learning
needs needs, learn better

A 2: Know A 2.1 Demonstrate A 2.1.1 Plan learning experiences that

appropriate use understanding of appropriate provide opportunities for student
of educational use of a variety of teaching interaction, inquiry, problem-solving and
creativity
technologies and learning strategies and
resources A 2.1.2 Use teaching methods, strategies
and materials as specified in the
textbooks and additional low-cost support
materials to support student learning

A 2.2 Demonstrate A 2.2.1 Describe the function and

understanding of appropriate purpose of online and offline educational
use of Information and tools and materials to support the
teaching and learning process
Communication Technology
(ICT) in teaching and A 2.2.2 Evaluate and match available
learning online and offline ICT tools and materials
to curriculum content and pedagogical
strategies, including online and offline
ICTs
A 2.2.3 Describe and demonstrate the
understanding of basic concepts and
principles of media and information
literacy

A 3: Know how A 3.2 Demonstrate respect A 3.2.1 Give examples of inclusive

to communicate for the social, linguistic, and communication to support all students’
well with cultural diversity of the participation and engagement in
students and students and their classroom activities
their families communities
A 3.2.2 Be aware of social and cultural
background of parents, community elders

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Competency Minimum requirements Indicators

standard

and leaders when interacting with them

A 4: Know the A 4.1 Demonstrate A 4.1.1 Describe key concepts, content,

curriculum understanding of the learning objectives and outcomes of the
structure, content and lower secondary curriculum for the
expected learning outcomes subjects and grade level/s taught
of the basic education
A 4.1.2 Prepare lesson plans reflecting
curriculum
the requirements of the curriculum and
include relevant teaching and learning
activities and materials
A 4.1.3 Describe the assessment
principles underpinning the lower
secondary curriculum

A 5: Know the A 5.1 Demonstrate A 5.1.3 Link key concepts, principles and
subject content understanding of the subject theories to real life applications to build
matter to teach the assigned discipline specific foundations and skills
subject/s for the specified for different classes and grade levels
grade level/s taught

A 5.2 Demonstrate A 5.2.1 Describe ways to contextualise

understanding of how to vary learning activities for the age, language,
delivery of subject content to ability and culture of students to develop
meet students’ learning understanding of subject related
needs and the learning principles, ideas and concepts
context
A 5.2.2 Explain how lessons are
contextualised to include localised
information and examples related to the
subject content, concepts and themes

B 1: Teach B 1.1 Demonstrate capacity B 1.1.1 Use different ways to explain the
curriculum to teach subject-related subject matter, related ideas and concepts
content using concepts and content clearly to meet a range of learning abilities and
various teaching and engagingly intended learning outcomes
strategies
B 1.1.2 Select instructional material to
link learning with students’ prior
knowledge, interests, daily life and local
needs
B1.1.3 Encourage students’ awareness of
their own ideas to build new
understanding

B 1.2 Demonstrate capacity B 1.2.1 Use teaching methods and

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Competency Minimum requirements Indicators

standard

to apply educational learning strategies appropriate for the

technologies and different class – culture, size and type
strategies for teaching and
B 1.2.2 Use knowledge of literacy and
learning
numeracy instructional strategies to
support development of subject matter
literacy
B 1.2.3 Create opportunities for students
to investigate subject-related content and
concepts through practical activities

B 1.3 Demonstrate good B 1.3.1 Plan and structure lesson to

lesson planning and ensure all of the lesson time is used
preparation in line with effectively
students’ learning ability and
B 1.3.2 Provide lesson introductions to
experience
link new learning to prior learning, to
engage students’ interest and to motivate
them in learning
B 1.3.3 Prepare focused and sequential
learning experiences that integrate
learning areas and are responsive to
students’ interests and experience
B 1.3.4 Use questioning techniques and
examples to introduce and illustrate
concepts to be learnt

B 2: Assess, B 2.1 Demonstrate capacity B 2.1.1 Use assessment techniques as

monitor and to monitor and assess student part of lessons to support students to
report on learning achieve learning outcomes
students’
B 2.1.2 Use assessment information to
learning
plan lessons
B 2.1.3 Use questioning and discussion
techniques to check students
understanding and provide feedback

B 2.2 Demonstrate capacity B 2.2.1 Record students learning progress

to keep detailed assessment accurately and consistently
records and use the
B 2.2.2 Use varied assessment practices
assessment information to
to monitor and record students’ learning
guide students’ learning
progress and inform further planning of
progress
the curriculum

B 3: Create a B 3.1 Demonstrate capacity B 3.1.1 Use space and classroom

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Competency Minimum requirements Indicators

standard

supportive and to create a safe and effective materials and resources to ensure
safe learning learning environment for all involvement of all students in learning
environment for students activities
students
B 3.1.2 Encourage students to interact
with each other and, to work both
independently and in teams
B 3.1.3 Model and promote good health
and safety practices to ensure students’
wellbeing and safety within the
classroom and school
B 3.1.4 Follow regulations regarding
health and safety (administration of
medication, CPR and First Aid training,
fire and disaster drills, abuse and neglect,
communicable disease)

B 3.2 Demonstrate strategies B 3.2.1 Create, explain, display and

for managing student enforce the agreed classroom rules and
behaviour procedures to ensure student health and
safety
B 3.2.2 Encourage students to interact
with each other with mutual respect and
safety
B 3.2.3 Learn to know each student’s
background and needs and interact
regularly with all students
B 3.2.4 Encourage well-adjusted
behaviour of students by collaborative
teamwork and independent learning

B 4: Work B 4.1 Demonstrate strategies B 4.1.2 Describe strategies to promote

together with for working together with parents’ involvement in their child’s
other teachers, other teachers, parents, and learning at school, at home and in the
parents, and the local community to community
community improve the learning
B 4.1.3 Seek colleagues’ perspectives in
environment for students
attempting to respond to learning issues
and accept feedback positively

C 1: Service to C 1.1 Demonstrate values C 1.1.1 Comply with professional codes

profession and attitudes consistent with of conduct, rules and regulations in line
Myanmar’s tradition of with the five traditional responsibilities
perceiving teachers as role

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Competency Minimum requirements Indicators

standard

models of the Myanmar teacher

C 1.1.2 Consistently express positive
attitudes, values and behaviours,
consistent with what is expected of
teachers by students, colleagues, parents
and communities

C 1.2 Demonstrate C 1.2.1 Identify theories and concepts

understanding of the that inform underpin approaches to
underlying ideas that teaching and learning
influence one’s practice as a
C 1.2.2 Describes own approach to
professional teacher
teaching and learning

C 1.3 Demonstrate C 1.3.1 Show interest in and take time to

understanding of the possible learn about the students’ culture,
effect of local culture and language and community
context on student
participation in school

C 1.4 Demonstrate C 1.4.1 Use school supplies and

responsibility and resources appropriately
accountability for the use of
education resources

C 2: Service to C 2.1 Demonstrate C 2.1.1 Contribute actively to a range of

community commitment to serving the school and community activities
leadership school and community as a
C 2.1.2 Demonstrate model behaviour as
professional member of the
a teacher serving and working in school
teaching profession
and community responsibly and
accountably

C 3: Promote C 3.1 Demonstrate a high C 3.1.1 Show awareness of the right to

quality and regard for each student’s education of every child and a
equity in right to education and treat commitment to nurturing the potential in
education for all all students equitably each student
students
C 3.1.2 Recognise the different social
situations and background of students
and treat all students equally

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Competency Minimum requirements Indicators

standard

C 3.2 Demonstrate respect C 3.2.1 Organise the classroom to

for diversity of students and encourage all students’ participation in
the belief that all students the lesson content, activities and
can learn according to their interactions with the teacher
capacities

C 3.3 Demonstrate capacity C 3.3.1 Integrate concepts of

to build students’ sustainability, equality, justice and the
understanding of different rights and responsibilities of students into
cultures and global class and school activities
citizenship

D 1: Reflect on D 1.1 Regularly reflect on D 1.1.1 Use evidence of student learning

own teaching own teaching practice and to reflect on the impact of own teaching
practice its impact on student practice
learning
D 1.1.2 Use information from a variety
of sources to improve teaching practice
and student learning
D 1.1.3 Regularly reflect on a wide range
of actions and experiences to identify
areas for own continuous professional
development as a teacher

D 2: Engage with D 2.1 Improve own teaching D 2.1.1 Discuss teaching practices with
colleagues in practice through learning supervisors and colleagues, and willingly
improving from other teachers and seek constructive feedback
teaching practice professional development
D 2.1.2 Participate in professional
opportunities
development activities related to
identified goals for improving practice
D 2.1.3 Establish goals for own
professional development as a teacher
D 2.1.4 Participate in professional
activities conducted by school clusters
and recognised professional associations

D 3: Participate D 3.1 Demonstrate D 3.1.1 Identify relevant professional

in professional understanding of the learning material to improve own
learning to importance of inquiry and practice
improve research‐based learning to
D 3.1.2 Search and analyse online or
teaching practice improve teaching practice
offline information on current trends and
research-based practices in primary
education and for specific subjects taught

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Competency Minimum requirements Indicators

standard

to improve one’s own content knowledge

and teaching practice

Source: Ministry of Education, Teacher Competency Standards Framework (TCSF), 2020,

pp.109-140.

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How do I use this textbook?

You can use this textbook both for your own self-study and as an in-class resource for
learning activities facilitated by your teacher educator. Each unit in the textbook
includes:

Expected learning outcomes: These are listed at the beginning of each

unit and at the beginning of each lesson. The expected learning
outcomes indicate what you should know and be able to do by the end
of the lesson or unit.

Competencies gained: This list of the selected Teacher Competency

Standards Framework (TCSF) competencies are what you should know
and be able to do by the end of the lesson or unit as a beginning
teacher.
Learning content: The learning content for each unit is broken down
into sub-units and lessons that cover subject content knowledge that is
important for teachers to know.
Learning activities: The learning activities included in the textbook
are activities that you can do to strengthen and deepen your knowledge
and understanding of a topic. Your teacher educator will also facilitate
learning activities during class. These may be individual, partner, small
group or whole class activities designed to help you achieve the
learning outcomes for each lesson.

Review questions: You can use the sub-unit review questions to test
your own understanding of the sub-unit content or to help you study for
an exam.

Key messages: At the end of the unit, under Unit Summary, there is a
brief summary of the main points of the unit to help you review and
remember the most important information.

Unit reflection: Taking the time to deliberately think about, or reflect,

on what you have learnt will help you remember and apply that
learning, and make connections with other subject areas and real-life.
Each unit ends with some suggestions on how you can reflect and
follow-up on what you have learnt in the unit.

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Further reading: Each unit lists suggestions of additional resources on

the topic. You can look these up in the library, on the interest, or in
your Education Degree College’s e-library to learn more about the
topic.

Key terms: Important words or concepts from the Unit, that are
highlighted in the beginning of each Unit.

At the end of this textbook, you will find a Glossary with the definitions of these key
words found throughout the textbook that might be new to you. These words are listed in
alphabetical order. You will also find a list of all the Bibliography, which are the
original sources of information used throughout the textbook.

Remember your teacher educator is there to help facilitate your learning in this module.
If there is material you do not understand in the textbook, be sure to ask your teacher
educator, or your classmates, for help. As a student teacher, you are part of a community
of collaborative learning within your Education Degree College as you work – together
with your peers and guided by your teacher educators – to earn your teaching
qualification.

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Unit 1. Educational Studies: Assuring Understanding

Educational Studies is an interdisciplinary field that employs qualitative, quantitative,
and mixed methodologies to examine and address educational research, policy, theory,
pedagogy, and related practices. Students who pursue course work in Educational
Studies develop richly informed perspectives on the role of education in society. They
go on to become leaders in a wide-range of fields.
As you have studied Educational Studies for three years, it can be assumed that you have
understood the nature and the importance of this subject fairly well.
After completing the fourth year Education Degree College, you will be employed as
middle school teachers in designated schools. Therefore, you have to extend your
educational studies on concepts, strategies, and skills in order to apply in your career
work.
In this unit you will learn solving education issues, educational leadership, teacher
leadership, educational management, and education and social change.

Expected Learning Outcomes

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By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 identify and discuss major issues in Education at the K-12 Level;

 explain and discuss 5 emerging trends in education for solving educational issues;
 understand and define makerspace, micro-credentials, flipped classroom and
social-emotional learning;
 explain and discuss 10 major challenges facing public schools;
 explain and discuss the 7 greatest challenges facing education technology today;
 define what educational leadership is;
 explain and discuss different types of educational leadership;
 discuss the advantages of transformational leadership in education;
 explain the difference between transactional and transformational leadership in
schools;
 list 5 characteristics of a transformational leader;
 list transformational leadership behaviors of teachers
 explain the advantages of transformational leadership of teachers;
 give examples on transformational leadership behaviors of teachers;
 explain and discuss roles and responsibilities of a good leader in education;
 create a story of a teacher who is a good leader;
 explain and discuss the top 10 qualities of great educational leaders;
 define the meaning of teacher leadership;
 explain key leadership skills;
 demonstrate teacher leadership skills;
 discuss the ways to improve leadership skills;
 name the leadership skills that match the given activities;
 differentiate the differences between educational leadership and management;
 describe the nature of management;
 explain the meaning and concept of management;
 enumerate the functions of management;
 explain the meaning of educational management;
 discuss the nature and scope of educational management;
 explain the objectives of educational management;
 illustrate the functions of educational management;
 explain types and features of social change;
 explain and discuss the roles of invention, discovery and diffusion in social
change;
 identify and explain the factors responsible for social change;
 understand and discuss the relationship between education and social change; and
 describe and discuss the functions of education in the sphere of social change.
 understand and discuss how teachers can promote social change in the classroom
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Competencies gained

 A 2.2 Demonstrate appropriate use of Information and Communication

Technology (ICT) in teaching and learning
 A 3.1 Demonstrate understanding of the role and expected duties of teacher
in Myanmar
 A 3.2 Demonstrate respect for the social, linguistic and cultural diversity of
the students and their communities
 B 4.1 Demonstrate strategies for working together with other teachers,
parents and the local community to improve the learning environment for
students
 C 1.1 Demonstrate values and attitudes consistent with Myanmar’s tradition
of perceiving teachers as role models
 C 2.1 Demonstrate commitment to serve the school and community as a
professional member of the teaching profession
 C 3.1 Demonstrate a high regard for each student’s right to education and
treat all students fairly
 C 3.3 Demonstrate capacity to build students’ understanding of different
culture and global citizenship
 D 1.1 Use evidence of students’ learning to reflect on own teaching practice
 D 2.1 Improve own teaching practice through learning from other teachers
and professional development opportunities

Key Terms

Authoritarian leadership, democratic leadership, emotional leadership, flipped

classroom, makerspace, micro-credential, servant leadership, social change,
transformational leadership, transactional leadership.

1.1.

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1.1. Solving Educational Issues

Issues in education are big topics of discussion within policy makers, educators and
among the general public. The current education system is based by a wide range of
challenges. Everyone agrees that providing high-quality education for our citizens is a
worthy ideal. However, there are many diverse viewpoints about how that should be
accomplished.
Understanding education issues is important for teachers, students and parents. By being
well-informed, you can contribute valuable input to the discussion. You can also make
better decisions about what will support or what plans will make for your future.
This sub-unit provides detailed information on many of today’s most relevant primary,
middle school level, and high school level education issues at the K-12 levels, examples
of solving issues, challenges facing public schools and challenges facing education
technology today.

1.1.1. Major issues in education at the K-12 Level

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 identify and discuss major issues in education at the K-12 level.

10 Major issues in education: As the world transitions to a knowledge economy, K-12

education faces several challenges. These include the need to improve student learning
and the relevance of the curriculum, increase access to education, apply new
understandings of human learning, and adapt to new technologies and an ever-increasing
body of knowledge.
The most common issues in education are shown in Box 1.1.
Box 1.1. Major issues in education
1. Government funding for education
2. School safety
3. Disciplinary policies
4. Technology in education
5. Common Core
6. Standardized testing
7. Teacher salaries
8. Bullying
9. Poverty

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10. Class size

Learning activity 1: Group discussion – Major issues in education at the K-12

level

The purpose of this activity for you is to describe the issues in education at the K-12
level.
Form groups of five members each. Discuss in your group the issues you heard from
others (teachers, principals, administrators, parents, community members, etc.) about K-
12 implementation.

1.1.2. Examples of solving issues: 5 emerging trends in education

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain and discuss 5 emerging trends in education for solving educational
issues; and
 understand and define makerspace, micro-credentials, flipped classroom and
social-emotional learning.

What are the forces that will shape education in the years to come? Some of the new
trends in education are: maker learning, moving away from letter grades, the rise of
micro-credentials, flipped classrooms and social-emotional learning.

1) Maker learning

Box 1.2. Makerspace

A makerspace is a destination where students – sometimes alongside staff, parents, and

mentors – can create, problem solve, and develop skills, talents, thinking, and mental
rigor.1

The maker movement is rapidly gaining traction in K-12 schools across America. Maker
learning is based on the idea that you will engage students in learning by encouraging
interest-driven problem solving and hands-on activities (i.e., learning by doing). In
collaborative spaces, students identify problems, dream up inventions, make prototypes,
and keep tinkering until they develop something that makes sense. It's a do-it-yourself

1
Preddy, Leslie B. (2013). School library makerspaces: Grades 6-12. Sep 16, 2022

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educational approach that focuses on iterative trial and error and views failure as an
opportunity to refine and improve.

Figure 1.1. Makerspace for creative learning2

Maker education focuses on learning rather than teaching. Students follow their interests
and test their own solutions. For example, that might mean creating a video game,
building a rocket, designing historical costumes, or 3D-printing an irrigation system for
a garden. It can involve high-tech equipment, but it doesn't have to. Repurposing
whatever materials are on hand is an important ideal of the maker philosophy.
2) Moving away from letter grades
Many education advocates believe that the traditional student assessment models place
too much emphasis on standardization and testing. They feel that traditional grading
models do not sufficiently measure many of the most prized skills in the 21st-century
workforce, such as problem-solving, self-advocacy, and creativity. As a result, a
growing number of schools are replacing A-F letter grades with new assessment
systems.
Instead of letter grades, report cards may feature phrases like "partially meets the
standard" or "exceeds the standard." Some schools also include portfolios, capstone
projects, or other demonstrations of student learning.
3)

2
Credit: Thingangyun Education Degree College

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3) The rise of micro-credentials

Box 1.3. Micro-credentials
What is micro-credential? Micro-credentials certify the learning outcomes of short-
term learning experiences, for example a short course or training. They offer a flexible,
targeted way to help people develop the knowledge, skills and competences they need
for their personal and professional development.3
Micro-credentials, also known as digital badges or nanodegrees, are mini qualifications
that demonstrate a student's knowledge or skills in a given area. Unlike traditional
college degrees that require studying a range of different subjects over a multi-year span,
micro-credentials are earned through short, targeted education focused on specific skills
in particular fields. They tend to be inexpensive (sometimes even free) and are typically
taken online.
4) Flipped classrooms
Box 1.4. Flipped classrooms
What is a flipped classroom? Flipped Classroom is a teaching strategy that reverses
the traditional learning environment by delivering instructional content, outside of the
classroom. It moves activities like projects, assignments, home works, etc. into the
class.4
(F.L.I.P) – It is the abbreviation of the four pillars namely, Flexible Environment,
Learning Culture, Intentional Content and Professional Educator.
A growing number of schools are embracing the notion of flipped learning. It's an
instructional approach that reverses the traditional model of the teacher giving a lecture
in front of the class, then sending students home to work through assignments that
enhance their understanding of the concepts. In flipped learning, students watch lecture
videos or read relevant course content on their own before class. Class time is devoted to
expanding on the material through group discussions and collaborative learning projects
(i.e., doing what was traditionally meant as homework). The instructor is there to guide
students when questions or problems arise.
Provided that all students have access to the appropriate technology and are motivated to
prepare for each class session, flipped learning can bring a wide range of benefits. For
example, it allows students to control their own learning by watching lecture videos at

3
Gabriel, Mariya. (2020). A European approach to micro-credentials. December 2020. Retrieved from
https://education.ec.europa>node
4
Ummer, Shahaziya. (2017). Flipped Classroom, ppt. April 12 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/ShahaziyaUmmer/flipped-classroomppt

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their own pace; they can pause, jot down questions, or re-watch parts they find
confusing. The model also encourages students to learn from each other and explore
subjects more deeply.

Figure 1.2. Traditional vs. Flipped classroom5

Flipped learning is becoming widespread in all education levels, but it is especially
prevalent at the college level.
5) Social-emotional learning

Figure 1.3. Social-emotional learning (SEL)6

(Credit: Newport News Public Schools)

5
Lambda Solutions. (2016). Blended Learning vs. Flipped Classroom: Choose the Right One for Remote
Training In 2022. May 4 2016. Retrieved from https://www.lambdasolutions.net/blog/difference-between-
blended-learning-flipped-classrooms
6
Ibid.

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Social Emotional Learning (SEL) is the process through which children and adults
acquire and effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to
understand and manage emotions, and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for
others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions. 7
Research has shown that such skills play a key role in reducing anti-social behavior.

Learning activity 2. Matching - Solving educational issues

The purpose of this activity for you is to relate the emerging trends for solving
educational issues to existing practices in Myanmar.
Draw the lines that match the solution methods (emerging trends) in Column A with the
relevant practices in Column B.
Table 1.1. Emerging trends and existing practices in Myanmar

Column A - Emerging Column B – Practices in Myanmar

trends
 Global English Course
 Folding paper figures using papers (or colored papers) from old
books that are no longer in use.
Maker learning  Do lots of partner activities such as talk to each other, listen to
each other, complement each other, ask each other questions,
etc.
 Creating a garden using a recyclable materials and wastes
Moving away from letter  The students watch videos in the class with the guidance of the
grades teacher and get individual support and attention if needed.
 Diploma in English Language Teaching Methodology (Dip in
ELTM)
 Allow for talk time
The role of micro-  Middle school teacher Daw Cho Cho describes her assessment
credentials upon students with phrases such as “partially meets the
standards” or “exceeds standard.”
 At home the students will watch pre-recorded videos of topics
 Set up a calm-down corner
Flipped classrooms  Education Degree College curriculum program includes
portfolios, projects, or other demonstrations of student learning.
 In the classroom the students will have peer discussions,
presentations and debates.
Social-emotional  Online Economic Course
learning  Nurture a culture of kindness
 TEFL certification

7
Newport News Public Schools. (n.d.) Social Emotional Learning. Retrieved from
https://sbo.nn.k12.va.us/sel/

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1.1.3. Challenges facing public schools and challenges facing education

technology today

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain and discuss 10 major challenges facing public schools; and
 explain and discuss the 7 greatest challenges facing educational technology
today.

10 Major challenges facing public schools

Few would argue that the state of our education system has plenty of room for
improvement. However, developing a plan to take schools in the right direction is easier
said than done. The first challenge lies in identifying underlying problems keeping
students from learning today. This challenge, in part, is due to the fact that the problems
may change considerably depending on who is labelling them, whether it is students,
parents, educators or lawmakers. Consider the following list of 10 major challenges
currently facing public schools, based on the perspective of many involved in the world
of education today.8

Box 1.5. 10 major challenges facing public schools

1. Classroom size 6. Student attitudes and behaviours
2. Poverty 7. No child left behind
3. Family factors 8. Parent involvement
4. Technology 9. Student health
5. Bullying 10. Funding

The 7 greatest challenges facing educational technology today

Educational technology is a major part of the 21st-century learning experience. When
incorporated properly in the classroom, tools such as computers, video conferencing, and
even artificial intelligence can be used to supplement children’s education, provide
support to students with disabilities, and have a wide variety of additional applications
and benefits.
However, implementing education technology in the classroom is not always done
smoothly or successfully. Many teachers and administrators face obstacles that prevent

8
Chen, Grace. (2022). 10 Major Challenges Facing Public Schools, Public School Review, May 18,
2022. Retrieved from https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/10-major-challenges-facing-public-
schools

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them from sourcing, installing, and using technology that they can use to enrich their
students’ educations. Read on to learn about the top seven challenges facing the adoption
and use of education technology today.
Box 1.6. The seven greatest challenges facing educational technology today
1. Budget limitations
2. Lack of professional training
3. Poor network infrastructure
4. Resistance to change
5. No systems in place to utilize technology in curriculum
6. Unreliable devices and software
7. Administrators don’t see the need for more technology

Learning activity 3: Group discussion – Challenges in education

The purpose of this activity for you is to mention and discuss the challenges you
have experienced in your college and the challenges related to using technology in your
learning.
Divide the class into 4 Groups A, B, C and D. Groups A and B should discuss the
challenges you faced in your Education Degree College. Groups C and D should discuss
the challenges in using technology in your learning. Share your group’s discussions with
the class with examples.
Table 1.2. Challenges, experienced in Education Degree College (Group A & B)

Challenges, faced in your college Examples

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Table 1.3. Challenges in using technology in your learning (Group C & D)

Challenges in using technology Examples

Review Questions

Question 1: How has the development of technology affected learning?

Question 2: How can technology help learning?

Question 3: Can online learning replace traditional schools? Why? / Why not?

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1.2. Educational Leadership

Educational leadership is the process of enlisting and directing the talents and energies
of teachers, pupils and parents towards achieving common educational objectives. The
term is often used equally with school leadership in the United States and has suppressed
educational management in the United Kingdom.9
In general, leadership is focused on vision, motivation, the future, and the teams and
people in school. Management provides systems and processes essential to the smooth
day-to-day running of the school. Both leadership and management are essential for
successful school development.
Examples of leadership in education include working with colleagues as a mentor or
coach, working on a school level as a department chair or multi-classroom support, or on
a system level supporting building initiatives or broader policy work.
In this sub-unit, you will study different types of educational leadership,
transformational leadership, roles and responsibilities of a good leader in education and
the top 10 qualities of great educational leaders.

1.2.1. Different types of educational leadership10

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 define what educational leadership is; and
 explain and discuss different types of educational leadership.
Although there are many more types of leadership than what is listed below, these are
some of the most commonly found types in school leadership.While each of these styles
has its good points, there is a wide berth of variation, and in fact, transformational
leadership is truly an amalgamation of the best attributes of the others.

9
Mahalat, Sabar. (2022). Educational Leadership and Management. Retrieved from
https://www.ilkogretimonline.org>fulltext
10
Lynch, Matthew (Dr.). (n.d.). Four Major Types of Educational Leadership – Integrity Coaching
Educational Leadership and Management https://www.integritycoaching.co.uk>blog>qualities>types-
leadership-style/

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Box 1.7. Types of educational leadership

 Authoritarian Leadership
 Democratic Leadership
 Servant leadership
 Transactional leadership
 Emotional leadership
 Transformational leadership

1. Authoritarian leadership
An authoritarian leader rules with an iron fist and keeps very close control over the
workforce they lead. Rules and penalties are strictly enforced. This type is most effective
in areas such as the military, where management is essential and there is little room for
error. An authoritarian leader makes decisions, usually on their own. While this is a type
used in school leadership, it is probably the least effective.

Figure 1.4. Authoritarian leadership (Credit: Shutterstock)

2. Democratic leadership
The democratic leadership style differs significantly from the authoritarian type.
Democratic leadership is often viewed as one of the most effective leadership types
because subordinates are involved in the decision-making process. People usually
appreciate a democratic leader because they feel their opinions are valued and important.

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Figure 1.5. Democratic leadership (Credit: Ricotta Trivia)

3. Servant leadership
Servant leadership is a philosophy with the goal of developing school leaders who serve
others, practice care and humility. It is a heart posture by which school leaders lead and
serve their school through honouring and serving their staff and students.11
While traditional leadership generally involves the accumulation and exercise of power
by one at the “top of the pyramid,” servant leadership is different. The servant-leader
shares power, puts the needs of others first and helps people develop and perform as
highly as possible.12

Figure 1.6. Servant leadership (Credit: Investopedia)

Example of the servant leadership is this: Administrators are always walking the halls,
but instead of walking alone, ask a teacher to join them. On these walks, they informally
talks with a teacher, and through this, they listen. As they listen, they focus on teachers’
needs and goals because helping others pursue their goals is at the heart of being a
servant leader.

11
The Wellspring Foundation for Education. (n.d.). What is Servant Leadership? Retrieved from
https://thewellspringfoundation.org>resources>servant...
12
Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership. (n.d.). What is Servant Leadership. Retrieved from
https://www.greenleaf.org>what-is-servant-leadership

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4. Transactional leadership
Transactional leadership, also known as managerial leadership, is a leadership style
where leaders rely on rewards and punishments to achieve optimal job performance from
their subordinates.13
Transactional leadership focuses on the leader-follower relationship. It is commonly
used in education in the relationship between instructors and students. Students are
required to complete projects, assignment, or tests and if they perform well, they will be
awarded good marks or the ability to pass.

Figure 1.7. Transactional leadership (Credit: Vantage Circle Blog)

Transactional leadership examples include: Athletic team coaches who issue instructions
and motivate their players by promoting rewards after winning a game.
5. Emotional leadership
Emotional leadership is a process that leaders use to influence their followers to pursue a
common goal. Emotional leadership, also referred to as emotional intelligence of
emotional quotient is the ability of certain people to realize their emotions, as well as
those of others, differentiate them, label them, and readily manage or adjust depending
on the situation or environment. Besides, they may apply the capability to help those
affected by awkward feelings, therefore, making them feel at peace.
Where transactional leadership was concerned primarily with the exchange of goods and
services, emotional leadership is concerned with the feelings and motivations of
followers. It takes the focus completely to the other side of the spectrum – demanding
that leaders be emotionally intelligent themselves and then to motivate through the use
of that emotional intelligence.14

13
Lutkevich, Ben. (n.d.). Transactional Leadership. Retrieved from
https://www.techtarget.com/searchcio/definition/transactional-leadership#:
14
Lynch, Matthew (Dr.). (n.d.). Four Major Types of Educational Leadership. op. cit.

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Emotional leadership and transformational leadership have a great deal in common with
each other. With emotional leadership, the leader taps into their emotional centre in
order to find the path to guiding their followers. People sometimes argue that
transformational leadership requires that same level of influence over emotions, however
there is a fundamental difference in the two in that transformational leadership is by
necessity a rational process rather than an emotional one.

Figure 1.8. Emotional intelligence is important for effective leadership

(Credit: The Management Centre)
6. Transformational leadership
Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that causes change in
individuals and social systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive change
in the followers with the end goal of developing followers into leaders.15
In education, transformational leadership is a model that educators – deans, principals,
professors, teachers – can use to lead by example. It places a high value on creating
community bonds, encouraging both students and educators to greater levels of
achievement.16

15
Jaafari, Fatmah Hussein. (2019). Transformational Leadership. International Journal of Development
Research. Vol. 09, Issue 05, pp. 27617 ~ 27621, May 2019. ISSN: 2230-9926. Retrieved from
https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issue-pdf/15884_0.pdf
16
Fontein, Dara. (2022) Your Guide to Transformational Leadership in Education. Retrieved from
https://thoughtexchange.com>Blog

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Figure 1.9. Transformational leadership (Credit: Slide Model)

Learning activity 1: Reflection – Types of leadership

The purpose of this activity for you is to know the types of leadership and its’

Divide the class into five groups. First, thoroughly study the different types of leadership
mentioned above. You have encountered many teachers in your education college and
practicum school. Discuss within your group and fill the teachers' behavior you have
experienced in the appropriate rows in the table below. Do not mention who that teacher
is. You have to fill at least 3 example behaviors for each type.
Table 1.4. Types of leadership and teachers’ behavior

Types of Leadership Teachers’ Behavior

Authoritarian Leadership 1.
2.
3.
…….

Democratic Leadership 1.
2.
3.
…….

Servant Leadership 1.
2.
3.
…….

Transactional Leadership 1.
2.

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3.
…….

Emotional Leadership 1.
2.
3.
…….

Transformational Leadership 1.
2.
3.
…….

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1.2.2. In depth study on transformational leadership

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss the advantages of transformational leadership in education;
 explain the difference between transactional and transformational leadership in
schools;
 list 5 characteristics of a transformational leader;
 list transformational leadership behaviors of teachers
 explain the advantages of transformational leadership of teachers; and
 give examples on transformational leadership behaviors of teachers.

What are the advantages of transformative leadership in education?

Transformational leadership will improve schools, change teachers' classroom practicies,
enhances quality of teaching, student learning and achievement and student engagement
as learning outcome. According to many authors, transformational approach proved to
be very useful for educational organization. Studies in the area of school leadership point
to the benefits of transformational leadership.
The benefits of transformational leadership style of teachers comprise in empowering
and increasing student motivation, enhance learning and engagement of students,
experiencing success, improving students' performance and achievement, developing
quality of relations in classroom etc.17
Transformational leadership style focus on creating a positive school climate for all
participants in educational process which would make the school a “better place for
living and learning”. Transformational leadership is very substantial for schools to move
forward.18
Box 1.8. Difference between transactional and transformational leadership in
schools
Transactional leaders react based on their followers’ performance and efforts with
immediate rewards for the observed behaviors, and transformational leaders enlighten
followers on the importance of the results and support them.

17
Jovanovica, Dragana . & Ciric, Marina. (n.d.). Benefits of Transformational Leadership in the Context
of Education. Retrieved from https://www.europeanproceedings.com>article
18
Ibid.

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Box 1.9. Five characteristics of a Transformational leader

 Strong leadership ego
 Balanced risk-taking
 Collaboration among team members
 Creativity and autonomy
 Focus on scale and goal
Box 1.10. Transformational leadership behaviors of teachers
 Share best practices
 Build mentoring relationships
 Observe their peers
 Keep things fresh
 Model their subject’s usefulness
 Demonstrate caring beyond what they teach
Advantages of transformational leadership of teachers
 for the school:
 relates to the development of high-quality learning and teaching in
schools
 greater teacher commitment to school
 for teachers:
 higher satisfaction,
 higher collective efficacy, effectiveness of teaching,
 For students:
 affects positively the learning outcomes of students
 empowering and increasing student motivation,
 enhance learning and engagement of students,
 experiencing success,
 improving students' performance and achievement,
 developing quality of relations in classroom, etc.

Learning activity 2: Reflection on Year 3 Practicum – Transformational

leadership behaviors of teachers (examples)

The purpose of this activity for you is to provide examples of transformational

leadership behaviors.

Give behavior examples you have seen in your Year 3 practicum. You can use the table
below.

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Table 1.5. Transformational leadership behaviors and it’s Examples

Transformational Behavior examples

leadership behaviors
Share best practices

Build mentoring
relationships

Observe their peers

Keep things fresh

Model their subject’s

usefulness

Demonstrate caring beyond

what they teach

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1.2.3. Roles and responsibilities of a good leader in education

Not only the school principal but also teachers are leaders in school and a school’s
success significantly depends on the leaders. So, they need leadership qualities adapt to
whatever situation arises and to coach the students, lead the school activities and
students’ learning, and adopt a strategy. Some of these leadership qualities can be
learned, while others are character traits. This lesson describes the critical roles of a
leader to drive success. Let’s look at the roles and responsibilities of an effective leader.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain and discuss roles and responsibilities of a good leader in education; and
 create a story of a teacher who is a good leader.

Important roles and responsibilities of a good leader in education

 The Visionary - A good leader clearly demonstrates the expected behavior of the
team. A leader in this role is someone who is innovative and capable of creating
a shared vision, communicating it so powerfully that others join them on the
journey, and leveraging ideas and concepts from his team and combining them
into a concrete plan.
 Leader must be a strategist - Leaders must be strategic thinkers! Strategic
leaders achieve consistent results through disciplined planned processes. By
focusing on the most important priorities and creating systems that empower
people, effective leaders foster an environment in which people can collaborate
and translate vision into reality. They are open and ready to transform when
necessary, and adapt to technologies and trends that are appropriate for their
work.
 Establish communication - Create an organisational structure that includes
communication protocols. Team members must understand who they should
contact if they have questions or concerns. Face-to-face meetings are required to
discuss important issues or convey sensitive information.
 Effective role model - Demonstrating the behavior that is expected from the team
is necessary. Leaders who outburst of anger, demonstrate uncaring attitudes,
withhold information from the team, procrastinate on important decisions, or fail
to listen to their team members will not be as respected by the team and likely
will not be as successful in achieving their business goals.

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 Leader must be a talent advocator - A leader unleashes the potential of every

member of their team to improve performance, solve problems, and advance their
careers. Leadership entails viewing others as whole people with a body, mind,
heart, and spirit. Leaders in this role shift from telling and fixing to coaching and
developing others’ capability and leadership. He is more of a coach, he teaches
what he has learned, listens to their feedback and concerns, addresses problems
quickly, and makes himself available as needed.
 Leader must be an inspiration - A leader is an inspiration! He must inspire
others to work and to complete tasks to reach objectives. His motivation can gain
a sense of purpose and will be able to check off some of the goals and the
priorities that they set up.
 Setting an example - Leader may always not have a podium to speak but
sometimes he sets an example through his hard work, dedication and optimism.
When his subordinates see him meeting with professionals, making certain
invoices are paid, they know he is an example to live up to. His team members
watch him constantly, so he sets a good example.
Some of the other important roles of a leader are:
 Coach. A leader must be a coach who develops others to succeed in their roles
and prepare for future roles.
 Facilitator. A leader must be a facilitator who makes things easy for others to
boost productivity.
 Change agent. A leader must be an agent himself to guide and champion the
changes that subordinators envision and the ones that have been entrusted.
 Decision-maker. A leader must be a good decision maker when working with
less-than-perfect information or must make one that will be unpopular.
 Influencer. A leader must be an influencer who is constantly influencing others
in a positive way.
 Team player. A leader should be a team player.
 Delegator. Leaders can’t do it all. The best leaders delegate strategically to
ensure everything is done and to train their subordinators to take on bigger roles
in the organization.
 Listener. Leaders should be a good listener. In fact, the best leaders talk less,and
observe more.

Learning activity 3: Role-play – Roles of a leader

The purpose of this activity for you is to create a story of a teacher as a great
leader and act out their scenario.

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Divide the class into 5 groups. First, study the roles of a leader. Then visualize a teacher
as a great leader and create a story that highlights his/her actions. Assign roles and then
act out the story in the classroom. You can use the following table.
Table 1.6. Roles of a teacher and his/her actions
Roles of a teacher His / her Actions
Identify the situation Add details
(Select at least three)

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1.2.4. The top 10 qualities of great educational leaders19

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain and discuss the top 10 qualities of great educational leaders.
Qualities of great educational leaders

1. Innovative 6. Lifelong learner

2. Confident 7. Proactive
3. Collaborative 8. Motivational
4. Creative 9. Positive
5. Open-minded 10. Different

1. Innovative: An innovative leader is not afraid to implement new ideas and take
risks. Without the belief that failure is an essential component of real success, a
school can never reach its full potential.
2. Confident: Confidence is contagious. With the right amount of confidence leading a
school, staff and students are guaranteed to follow suit, inspired by the portrayal of
inner strength and fearlessness that says: “I can achieve anything.”
3. Collaborative: A great leader knows that success comes only through effective
collaboration. By including staff-members in decision-making, and confiding in
teachers for ideas, suggestions, and support, an idea can become a movement.
4. Creative: A creative mind sees the world differently. A great leader will imagine
new possibilities, and visualize new ideas in everything that they do. This inspires
others to think in the same way, building a school full of original thinkers,
visionaries, and leaders.
5. Open-minded: A great leader knows the importance of being open-minded,
allowing others to experiment with new methods, investing in new technology, and
developing a growth mindset. Building a team based on openness, students are
never denied an opportunity to excel.
6. Lifelong learner: Every great educational leader sees themselves as a lifelong
learner with a growth mindset. Leading by example, a lifelong learner encourages
learning in all aspects of life, as something fun, stimulating, and empowering.
7. Proactive: All leaders need to be proactive. Without waiting for things to get done,
a great leader will take control and make it happen. By getting staff-members on
19
Fishtree. (2015) The Top 10 Qualities of Great Educational Leaders. Retrieved from
https://www.fishertree.com/blog/the-top-10-qualities-of-great-educational

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board and building a combined attitude of pro-activeness, there’s no telling what

your school could achieve.
8. Motivational: As a role-model for both staff and students, an educational leader
needs that motivational attitude that drives change, difference, and optimism. This
encourages a school body to stretch towards every goal, giving 100% in every
single challenge.
9. Positive: A positive atmosphere tends to cling to the school walls, encouraging staff
and students to uphold this joyful ambiance at all costs. While an educational leader
does need to display strength and authority, this doesn’t have to come at the expense
of positivity. By instilling a positive school atmosphere, a brighter outlook will
prevail, no matter how dark the walls.
10. Different: A great leader knows that to create your own success, you need to first
discover what makes you unique. By promoting difference as something to be
celebrated, students are encouraged to stand out, be original, challenge convention,
and not to fear the judgement of others.

Learning activity 4: Individual work – Qualities of great educational leaders

The purpose of this activity for you is to understand and describe the qualities of a
great educational leader.
U Zaw Zaw is a great teacher. He has the following qualities:
1. He notices the little things
2. He sees beyond what the student can see
3. He listens more than he talks
4. He seeks out hard-to-reach students and face challenges
5. He is a great learner
6. He stays real
7. He seizes opportunities
In the table below, some scenes in the classroom are listed in the left column. In the
right column, write down U Zaw Zaw’s relevant quality.

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Table 1.7. Qualities of a great teacher U Zaw Zaw

Scenes in the classroom U Zaw Zaw’s quality

U Zaw Zaw spends more time with those students who can e.g., He seeks out hard-to-
be harder to reach. He greets them at the door and shows reach students and face
them that he is listening. challenges
As a teacher, U Zaw Zaw pays attention and be ready to
create a lesson out of something that might be ignored by
others. He takes extra time to explain the “why” behind
something a student may ask.
His students are excited and happy that school is closed on
Independence Day. He stopped his regular teaching and
explained about the efforts of Myanmar patriotic heroes for
independence. He didn't miss the chance.
Just the other day, he was in his classroom and it was time
to clean up. The time was ticking away, yet one group of
students was still finishing their magnetic tower. Instead of
impatiently scolding the students for not being quick to
clean, he stopped to admire the tower and praise the
students’ hard work as he snapped their picture.
He always tries to know his students. He understands that
each student has his/her own story and is filled with
feelings that accompany these stories.
He believes that the classroom should be filled with real
conversations which can lead to a deeper understanding of
academics, but also a sense of mutual respect.
He spends most of his time in reading, researching or
taking classes. This relentless pursuit of learning creates a
passion and a want for others to learn.
What occurs is a contagious spirit of learning in the
classroom
He has a vision and he shares what he sees with his
students. He uses encouraging words and often are heard
saying something like, “I see you using your creative
writing skills in a book someday.” He has confidence in his
students, both in the classroom and regarding their futures.
He gives the students insight into a vision they might not
have had for themselves.
He can foresee a potential pitfall and can address them
about it. Today classrooms will be filled with students who
may have negative thoughts, and he will find ways to
address them in a constructive way.
He will adjust and modify his teaching when it is
necessary, and often have a conversation with the students
as to what could have gone better. He never hesitates to
admit when he made a mistake.
In this way, students feel more connected to a “real”
teacher, which results in stronger relationships. These

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bonds make students want to learn and be present.

Review Questions

Question 1: Among the types of leadership, which type do you like most? Why?

Question 2: How is servant leadership different from authoritarian leadership?

Question 3: Describe what is implied by the term “transformational leadership.”

What accounts for the popularity of this concept?

Question 4: What kinds of leadership qualities do students look for in teachers?

Question 5: Write about your favorite teacher when you were a student? What
leadership qualities did he/she has that you try to emulate on a daily
basis?

1.3.

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1.3. Teacher Leadership

Teacher leaders work with faculty and other school staff to develop and improve
curriculum, teaching practices and student achievement initiatives. To be successful in a
teacher leadership position, it can be necessary to develop a strong skill set that can help
you succeed in leading and collaborating with a team of educators. Skills like
communication, empathy and problem-solving are just some of the skills you might rely
on in a leadership role.
In this sub-unit, we discuss what teacher leadership is, what types of skills teacher
leaders have and how to improve your teacher leadership skills so you can further
advance your career.
Box 1.11. What is teacher leadership?
Teacher leadership is the process where teachers work and collaborate with school
faculty and staff to improve current teaching approaches and develop new teaching
methods to further students' academic success.
Teacher leaders may also perform a wide variety of leadership functions, including
introducing school-wide (and sometimes district-wide) practices and initiatives like new
curriculum implementation and new-hire mentoring programs. Teacher leaders are still
effective educators in their classrooms, however, many often continue to advance their
careers to higher leadership roles where they can make decisions to improve instruction,
curriculum development and student achievement initiatives.

1.3.1. Key teacher leadership skills

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
 define the meaning of teacher leadership;
 explain key leadership skills; and
 demonstrate teacher leadership skills.
There are several key traits and skill sets that teachers in leadership positions should
have. Effective communication, empathy, compassion and motivation to learn and
provide counsel can all encompass the different skills teacher leaders possess. Here are
several more essential skills that make effective teachers in leadership roles: 20
Essential skills that make effective teachers in leadership roles
20
Indeed Editorial Team. (n.d.). Teacher Leadership: A Definitive Guide. Updated March 31, 2023
Retrieved from https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/teacher-leadership

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 Listening skills
 Critical thinking skills

 Emotional intelligence

 Problem-solving skills

 Technical skills

 Teamwork skills

 Organizational skills
Listening skills
Effective teacher leaders may rely on their active listening skills in their roles, especially
when mentoring or collaborating with other faculty and staff during planning, meetings
and other professional conferences. Active listening in a teacher leadership role can
often lead to mutual understanding between you and your teammates regarding concerns
or issues that your colleagues express. This can create opportunities to collaborate with
your team to create effective solutions and strategies for success.
Critical thinking skills
Successful teacher leaders can also possess critical thinking skills. Developing
curriculum, creating teaching strategies, coaching other faculty members and leading a
teacher team can involve making high-level decisions and planning strategically. Critical
thinking skills can be essential for teacher leaders.
Emotional intelligence
Empathy and compassion for others are two highly desirable traits in teacher leaders,
and they are also traits of exceptional emotional intelligence. Having empathy for
colleagues who are learning new teaching methods or who are undergoing a
performance evaluation can help create lasting relationships with professionals in your
field. Fostering and maintaining your team with compassion for their needs as well as
the students' needs can ensure success in a teacher leadership role.
Problem-solving skills
The ability to approach a problem or issue from different perspectives can also be an
important skill to have. Being able to problem-solve using strategic thinking as well as
being able to work with your team to implement solutions can help further your
development and success in a teacher leadership role.
Technical skills

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Oftentimes, new initiatives within a school district can include technology

implementation. Effective teacher leaders will have the skills necessary to learn new
technology and work with their teammates to implement and use the new technology in
the classroom. Additionally, some teacher leaders may work with a school's IT team and
may need to possess a specific level of technology skills.
Teamwork skills
Teacher leaders most commonly perform in mentoring and coaching roles, and because
of this, they should possess excellent teamwork skills. Leading a team and collaborating
with them can rely on your ability to listen, accept and seek common understanding
between your colleagues.
Organizational skills
Successful leaders might also develop highly organized habits. Improving your
organization skills can positively impact your teacher leadership skills because you can
learn how to approach delegating tasks; providing and receiving feedback; documenting
curriculum standards, assessments and other records; and maintaining schedules and
records for school-wide and district events. Additionally, creating and maintaining
effective lesson plans can depend on your organizational skills.

Learning activity 1: Self Reflection – Teacher leadership skills

The purpose of this activity for you is to reflect yourself and demonstrate through
examples that you have these skills.

Please tick (√) the skills you possess in the table below and demonstrate with examples
that you have these skills.
Table 1.8. Teacher leadership skills with examples

Leadership Skills (√) or (X) Demonstration with examples

Listening skills

Critical thinking skills

Emotional intelligence

Problem solving skills

Technical skills

Team work skills

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Organizational skills

1.3.2. How to improve teacher leadership skills

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss the ways to improve leadership skills; and
 name the leadership skills that match the given activities.

There are several methods you can use to help improve your teacher leadership skills.
Consider the following tips to help you develop various skill sets and improve your
overall leadership skills:
Box 1.12. Ways to improve leadership skills21
1. Offer opportunities for feedback
2. Develop your active listening skills

3. Learn to adjust approaches as needed

4. Offer to mentor new teachers

5. Improve the way you organize

6. Perform evaluations and use them for growth

7. Set goals for your teams

1. Offer opportunities for feedback
Feedback and constructive criticism are an integral part of being an educator, and
offering and receiving feedback as a teacher leader is equally as important. One key way
to start improving your approaches and skill set is to create opportunities for your teams
to give you feedback as a leader. You can provide effective feedback to your teammates
as well.
2. Develop your active listening skills
Leading effectively can depend on how well you listen to your team's suggestions, ideas
and concerns. Developing your active listening skills can also be an area you can

21
Teacher Leadership: A Definitive Guide. op. cit.

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develop further. You might practice asking questions during meetings and taking notes
as you listen to lesson ideas and instructional suggestions.
3. Learn to adjust approaches as needed
Another integral aspect of being an educator is developing your learning style and
accepting that educators are constantly learning new things. This can also apply to
different leadership, instructional and mentoring approaches, and you can further
develop your teacher leadership skills by committing to learning new strategies and
methods. As you develop in your career, you can make any necessary adjustments to
how you approach teaching and learning.
4. Offer to mentor new teachers
As a teacher leader, you might offer to mentor newly hired or transferred teachers. This
can help strengthen your current leadership skills as well as your instructional skills as
you teach your teams how to implement and deliver effective lessons. Additionally,
mentoring can help you build lasting professional relationships.
5. Improve the way you organize
Another key approach to improving your teacher leadership skills is to work on
becoming highly organized. You might organize your classroom to keep student records,
lesson plans, assessments, evaluations and other academic and administrative documents
in file systems as well as within the school's electronic database. Similarly, you can
improve the way you prioritize and delegate tasks so you can avoid becoming
overwhelmed with different projects.
6. Perform evaluations and use them for growth
Similar to providing and receiving feedback, another effective approach to improving
your teacher leadership skills is to participate in educator evaluations. You might request
a performance evaluation for yourself and use the data from your assessment to track
your improvement progress and make adjustments to your approaches as needed.
7. Set goals for your teams
Another important improvement strategy is to set goals for yourself and your teacher
teams. For instance, you might set a team goal to help all students improve their reading
scores. Then, you can collaborate with your teams to implement curriculum,
instructional and support strategies that will help your team and their students reach their
goals. You can also use the SMART goal method to evaluate and assess your progress
toward meeting any objectives you set.

Learning activity 2: Brain storming: writing scenario and role-play – Ways to

improve leadership skills

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The purposes of this activity for you are: (i) to write scenarios that would improve
leadership skills (ii) to act out the scenarios and (iii) to name the leadership skills that
other group performs.

Divide the class into five groups. Each group can take 10 minutes to think of 3 scenarios
that would improve leadership skills and write them down in the table below. While one
group is acting out one of their scripts, the other groups must name the leadership skills
of the script.
Table 1.9. Ways to improve leadership skills

Scenarios (your own scripts) Leadership Skills (name by other groups)

1

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Review Questions

Question 1: Do you agree with the following statements? Give examples to support
or refute them.

“Teachers are leaders all day. They lead by example in the way they act,
speak, and behave. They lead their students through challenging
activities and rigorous learning. Then, they take on additional teacher
leadership roles inside and outside the classroom.”

Question 2: Teacher leadership shapes and solidifies significant educational change

and is an essential cornerstone to all classroom, departmental, school,
and district improvements. Discuss.

Question 3 What skills do teachers need to become a successful leader?

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1.4. Educational Management

Educational management refers to the administration of the education system in which a

group combines human and material resources to supervise, plan, strategise, and
implement structures to execute an education system.
The overall purpose of educational management is to effectively and efficiently create
and maintain environments within educational institutions that promote, support, and
sustain effective teaching and learning, but how those key objectives are set and the
means by which they are attained may differ significantly.
In this sub-unit, student you will learn meaning, nature and scope of educational
management, and functions of educational management.
Box 1.13. The difference between educational leadership and management22
Leadership is focused on vision, motivation, the future, and the teams and people in your
school. Management provides systems and processes essential to the smooth day-to-day
running of the school. Both leadership and management are essential for successful
school development.
Leadership requires trust of followers on his leader. Unlike Management, which needs
control of manager over its subordinates. Leadership is a skill of influencing others
while Management is the quality of the ruling. Leadership demands foresightedness of
leader, but Management has a short range vision.
Managers, for example, will focus on setting, measuring and achieving goals by
controlling situations to reach or exceed their objectives. Whereas leaders will focus on
what those goals are and motivating people to achieve them.

22
UNRWA. (n.d.). Unit 1.1 Leadership vs. management. Retrieved from
https://www.unrwa.org>LeadingfortheFuture>unit-11-leadership-vs-management

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1.4.1. Educational management: meaning, nature and scope

Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 differentiate the differences between educational leadership and management;
 describe the nature of management;
 explain the meaning and concept of management;
 enumerate the functions of management;
 explain the meaning of educational management;
 discuss the nature and scope of educational management; and
 explain the objectives of educational management;
Meaning:
While Education is the provision of a series of learning experiences to students in order
to impart knowledge, values, attitudes and skills with the ultimate aim of making them
productive members of society, Educational Management is the process of planning,
organising, directing and controlling the activities of an institution by utilising human
and material resources so as to effectively and efficiently accomplish functions of
teaching, extension work and research.
Nature and Scope: The National Policies on Education seek to bring about a social,
economic and cultural development in society by focusing on human resource
development through education. Education, therefore, must have more relevant
curricula, be dynamic, and empower students to bring about desirable social changes
while preserving the desirable aspects of our existing culture.
The national developmental goals require the professional management of education to
bring about the effective and efficient functioning of educational institutions. The scope
of Educational Management is wide and includes the history and theories of
management science, roles and responsibilities of an educational manager along with the
requisite managerial skills.
Educational Management focuses on:
 the study of theories of management science which define and describe the roles and
responsibilities of the educational manager and the development of managerial skills
 the study of educational planning at macro levels, its goals, principles, approaches
and processes and on institutional planning and educational administration at the
micro level

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 decision making, problem solving, communication, information management and

effective team building
 Planning of curricular and co-curricular activities, curriculum and academic calendar
 Maintenance of school records, evaluation of students‟ achievement
 Effective allocation of financial resources and the planning of the budgets of
institutions
Educational Management aims at:
 Achieving an institution‟s objectives
 Improving the processes of planning, organising and implementing within the
institution
 Creating, enhancing and maintaining a positive public image of the institution
 Optimal utilisation of human resources (administrators, non-teaching staff, teaching
staff and students)
 Enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of infrastructure
 Enabling job satisfaction
 Creating and maintaining a congenial and cohesive atmosphere
 Managing interpersonal conflicts, stress
 Improving interpersonal communication
 Building a relationship with the community

Learning activity 1: Think-pair-share – Educational management

The purpose of this activity for you is to reflect on a teacher you met at your
practicum and decide whether he/she is a good educational manager with examples.

You have to work this activity in pairs. Think about a principal or a teacher you and your
partner met during your Year 3 practicum. Some of the qualities of an educational
manager are listed in the left column of the table below. You decide individually
whether your principal/teacher has the qualifications listed. After that, you both discuss
and make a final decision whether he or she is a good educational manager. Then write
your final decision with reasons in the given spaces.

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Table 1.10. Qualities of an educational manager

Yes (√) or No (X)
Qualities of educational manager Your Partner’s Final
decision decision decision
Setting up school or classroom goals
Creating a good physical environment
Creating psychologically sound environment
Skills on decision making, problem solving, communication,
information management and effective team building
Planning of curricular and co-curricular activities, curriculum
and academic calendar
Maintenance of school records, evaluation of students‟
achievement
Improving the processes of planning, organising and
implementing within the institution
Creating, enhancing and maintaining a positive public image
of the school
Enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of infrastructure
Managing interpersonal conflicts and stress
Improving interpersonal communication
Building a relationship with the community
Optimal utilisation of human resources (administrators, non-
teaching staff, teaching staff and students)
Enabling job satisfaction
Creating and maintaining a congenial and cohesive
atmosphere

Our comment is that he/she is (a good / not a good) educational manager. The reasons
are as follows:
_____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

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1.4.2. Functions of educational management

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, we will be able to:

 illustrate the functions of educational management.

The functions of Educational Management are largely based on Henry Fayol‟s 14

Principles of Management,23 namely,
1. Division of work
2. Authority
3. Discipline
4. Unity of command
5. Unity of direction
6. Subordination of individual interests
7. Remuneration
8. Centralisation
9. Scalar chain
10. Material and social order
11. Equity
12. Stability
13. Initiative
14. Esprit de corps (Esprit de Corps means “Team Spirit”. This Henry Fayol
principle of management states that the management should strive to create unity,
morale, and co-operation among the employees. This principle states that union
is strength.)
These functions can be encapsulated into the following 5 functions:
1. Planning: is the process of setting objectives and determining the actions in
order to achieve them. Planning is anticipatory in nature and sets priorities. It is
proactive rather than passive.
Planning asks the following questions: What? When? Where? By whom? How? while
following a series of steps:

23
DDCE, Utkal University. (n.d.). Educational Management: Meaning, Nature and Scope Retrieved from
http://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syllabus/MA_Educaion Paper_8.pdf

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What
?,
When
?,
Wher
Defining Objectives (setting objectives or goals)
e?,
By
What
who
?,
m?
When
How?
?,
Wher
Determining the current status with respect to the objectives (being aware of opportunities)
e?,
By
What
who
?,
m?
When
How?
?,
Determining planning premises (analysing the situation for external factors and forecasting future
Wher
e?,
trends; generation of future scenarios)
By
What
who
?,
m?
When
How?
?,
Wher
Identifying alternative (best alternative to accomplish the objectives)
e?,
By
What
who
?,
m?
When
How?
?,
Wher
Choosing an alternative (selecting the course of action to be pursued)
e?,
By
What
who
?,
m?
When
How?
?,
Wher
Formulating support plans (arranging for human and material resources)
e?,
By
What
who
?,
m?
When
How?
?,
Wher
Implementing the plan (action stage which also involves evaluation)
e?,
By
who
m?
How?

Figure 1.10. Planning process

2. Organising: is the process of combining the work which individuals or groups
have to perform with facilities necessary for its execution such that the duties performed
provide the best channels for efficient, systematic, positive and co-ordinated application
of available effort.
Organising is characterised by:
Division of work or specialisation: Activities are assigned to different people who are
specialists in that area, for specialisation improves efficiency.
Orientation towards goals: it harmonises the individual goals of employees with the
overall goals of the institution.
Composition of individuals and groups: individuals are grouped into departments and
their work is coordinated and directed towards organisational goals.
Differentiated functions: the entire work is divided and assigned to individuals so that
the organisation‟s objectives are achieved. While each individual performs a different
task, each one also coordinates with the tasks of others.
Continuous process: groups of people with defined relationships with each other work
together to achieve the goals of the organisation. These relationships do not end once the
task is completed.
Delegation of authority: the levels of hierarchy are determined and the span of control is
determined via formal relationships.

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Establishing a communication channel: for effective decision making, coordination,

control, supervision and feedback, motivation and redressing problems or grievances
encountered.
3. Directing: is the art or process of influencing people such that they willingly
strive to achieve group goals. It focuses on the development of willingness to work with
zeal and confidence, provides adequate guidelines to complete the task, and motivates
individuals to achieve goals in a coordinated manner. It also focuses on exercising
leadership while determining responsibility and accountability.
4. Controlling: involves measuring and monitoring performance in accordance with
plans and taking corrective action when required. It establishes performance standards
based on the objectives, measures and reports actual performance compares the two and
takes corrective or preventive action as necessary.
Thus controlling indicates the quantum of goals achieved, the extent of deviation from
actual plans, generates accurate information and requisite feedback. Thus controlling
focuses upon the difference between planned and actual performance.
Controlling is especially concerned with the areas of Institutional Budget (finance in
terms of income and expenditure), Institutional Supplies (stationery and material
equipment), Library (maintenance and up gradation), Teaching-learning Process,
Accounts and School Records and Discipline (staff and students).
5. Evaluating: is the process of measuring and assessing the achievement of
objectives while providing an insight into strengths and weaknesses and planning for
future endeavours.
Evaluation helps determine the effectiveness of plans for both administrators and other
stakeholders like teachers, staff, students and parents, as also the extended community. It
seeks to document the objectives that have been met and to provide information to all
concerned stakeholders regarding achievement, obstacles and corrective action or
improvements.
Thus evaluation focuses upon Process (how is the plan being carried out), Outcome
(achievement of objectives), and Impact (effect of the plans initiated).
In an educational setting, evaluation of the following areas is carried out, namely,
 Goals and Objectives
 Content: Selection, Validity, Relevance, Appropriateness
 Processes: teacher activities, pupil activities, instructional material, teaching
methods
 Outcome: Assessment and Feedback

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Learning activity 2: Individual work – Functions of educational management

The purpose of this activity for you is to describe the 5 functions of educational
management and what they mean.

In the table below, mention the 5 functions of educational management and write briefly
what each function means. You can use the table below.
Table 1. 11. Functions of Education and what does it mean
Functions What does it mean?
1. e.g., Planning e.g., Planning is the process of setting objectives and
determining the actions in order to achieve them.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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Review Questions

Question 1: What is the difference between leadership and management in

teaching?

Question 2: Teacher management functions include recruitment, training and

motivation of personnel, their deployment and the establishment of
staffing norms, wage negotiations and organisation of pay, follow up
and evaluation of performance, planning of future needs, the
development of communication systems or yet again making
opportunities available for personal and professional development
(UNESCO, 2009; Halliday, 1995: 15-16). Do you think teacher
management is important for the improvement of education? Why?

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1.5. Education and Social Change

Any alteration, difference or modification that takes place in a situation or in an object

through time can be called change. The term ‘social change’ is used to indicate the
changes that take place in human interactions. Society is a ‘web of social relationships’
and hence ‘social change’ obviously means a change in the system of social
relationships. Social relationships are understood in terms of social processes and social
interactions and social organizations. Thus, the term ‘social change’ is used to desirable
variation in social interaction, social processes and social organization. It includes
alterations in like structure and functions of the society.
There are many causes of social change, including environmental causes, demographic
processes, innovation and inventions in technology, economic processes, social
movements, and political processes. All these causes can combine to create even larger
social changes.24

The basis of determining the objectives of education should be the life philosophy of that
society, the structure of the society and its religious, political, cultural and economic
status. Thus, the social basis of education emphasizes that the basis of education
should be society.
Empowering education is a critical pedagogy that challenges the existing status quo and
asks students to engage in a critical inquiry of society, power, inequality, and change.
In this sub-unit you will learn types and features of social change, factors responsible for
social change, relationship between education and social change, and how teachers can
promote social change in the classroom.

1.5.1. Types, and features of social change

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain types and features of social change; and
 explain and discuss the roles of invention, discovery and diffusion in social
change.

(a) Types of Social Change

24
Hepler, Reed. (n.d.). What is social change? Retrieved from https://study.com/learn/lesson/social-
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 Civilization change: it refers to the dress, food habits, production technologies,

communication system, etc.
 Cultural change: it is associated with new knowledge. Religion, ritual, arts,
literature, etc.
 Change in social relationship: it is the relationship between the father and son,
teacher and student, husband and wife, etc.
(b) Features of Social Change
1. Universality. Change is universal law, an eternal law and invariable law of
nature. Social changes are necessary and inevitable. Social changes take place in
all societies of the world, therefore, social change is universal in character.
2. Continuity. Social change is continuous process. It does not take place at one
point of time only. It takes place all the time at all the places. However, can
predict some direction of change.
3. Variation. Social change is relative in time, and according to a specific period of
time, its rate may be high or low. The rate and quantum of change varies from
one society to another depending upon the prevailing conditions.
4. Criteria of larger population. Only those changes are considered as social
change that affects larger population. Social change is accepted as such only
when the majority of individuals in a society accepts it in their life, behavior and
beliefs.
5. Independence. Social change is independent of the desire and will of the people
of society.
6. Forces. Social change is caused due to internal and external factors (forces).
7. Planned as well as unplanned. There was a time when changes were unplanned
and undirected. But in the modern time, changes can be planned to achieve the
goals of the society.
8. Structural or functional. Any change in the social structure or its function is
social change.

Learning activity 1: Paragraph writing – Social change

The purpose of this activity for you is to explain the roles of invention, discovery,
and diffusion in social change.
Write a paragraph that explains how culture can generate social change. Be sure to
explain the roles of invention, discovery, and diffusion in social change, providing
examples of each.
Example: The invention of the polio vaccine caused social change, as people could get
the vaccine and no longer have to worry about contracting the debilitating disease.

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1.5.2. Factors responsible for social change

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 identify and explain the factors responsible for social change.

There are various factors of social change. Some important factors are discussed
below:25
1. Geographical factors (physical environment). Social change takes place due to
physical environment or geographical factors. Floods, earthquakes, famine,
epidemics, fires, excessive rains, drought, (lack of rainfall), hot or cold climate
transform the life style of people. Floods may hasten the birth of model cities.
2. Biological factors. Biological factors like heredity prepare the way for social
change. The biological heredity determines the general and glandular constitution
of the offspring, which is closely related to temperament, intelligence, physique,
activity level and other potentialities of individuals. Biological factors result into
better-equipped or less equipped persons, strong or weak persons and several
other changes in social set-up.
3. Demographic factors (population factor). Population plays a vital role in social
change. Due to increase or decrease in population the possibility of social change
is also influenced. Population is governed by death and birth rate, immigration
etc. Migration due to over population, food storage, political reasons (e.g.,
partition of India) also brings about social change.
4. Technological and scientific factors. Technological and scientific inventions
i.e., various types of machines and implements etc, are potent factors in social
change. They break regional barriers by providing easy and fast means of
communication as well as of conveyance. The press, radio, and airplanes together
have brought the world closer and provided for inter-cultural impacts. Scientific
inventions in the field of medicine, public health, community organization, the
means of transportation, the means of knowledge, dissemination and interaction,
and physical environment are regarded as significant factors in social change.
5. Ideological factors. Social change is caused by ideological factors. Ideas rule the
world. Political, philosophical, and scientific ideas significantly influence social
change. For example, the idea of Marxism.

25
Devasis Chakma (2022). Social Change: Meaning, Characteristics, Factors and Role of Education in
Social Change. Retrieved from https://onlinenotebank.wordpress.com>2022/12/03

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6. Cultural factor. Human culture is a process of change. Any change in cultural

order is accompanied by a corresponding change in the whole social order.
7. Psychological factors. Psychological factors are important elements in social
change. Man by nature is a lover of change. He is always trying to discover new
things in every sphere of his life and is always anxious for a new experience. As
a result of this tendency the mores, traditions, customs etc. of every human
society are undergoing perpetual change.
8. War. War is also a cause of social change because if influences the population,
the economic situation and ratio of males to females etc.
9. Legislation. Legislation plays an important role in bringing about planned social
change.
10. Education. Education is the most powerful factor of social change.

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Figure 1.11. Some of the main forces for social change.

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Learning activity 2: Reflection prompt – Social change

The purpose of this activity for you is to write an essay on social change in your
Consider an example of social change during your own lifetime. Write an essay on
“Social Change in my Lifetime”, that explains what this change was and how it
occurred. Be sure to describe whether this change was related to cultural developments,
a new invention, diffusion, conflict, demographics, etc. Your essay should be at least 3
paragraphs – introduction, body and conclusion. The following table can help you in
writing your essay.
Example: People now wear face masks in public and distance themselves from others as
a result of COVID-19.
Table 1.12. Essay on social change
What this change was?

How it occurred?

Whether this change was related to

cultural developments, a new invention,
diffusion, conflict, demographics, etc.?

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1.5.3. Relationship between education and social change

Education is the vital link that brings about social change and generates synergies to
address the interconnectedness between sustainability, society and the environment.
Education empowers society to assume responsibility for sustainable living. This implies
that educational processes and systems can transform perspectives and behavior patterns,
which in turn inculcates sustainable practices in all aspects of human life. Education is a
precursor of change therefore educators are responsible for transforming communities
and initiating social change.

Figure 1.12. Role of education in social change

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 understand and discuss the relationship between education and social change;
and
 describe and discuss the functions of education in the sphere of social change.
Education and social change are a two-way traffic. While education preserves, transmits
and disseminates the whole culture, social change is the instrument and precondition of
educational thought.
Education as a Condition of Social Change
 Education makes the people aware of the inadequate of the existing system and
creates a craze for social modification.

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 Many of the old superstitions, beliefs and outdated customs which retarded social
progress, can be prevented by education.
 Education initiates the social change and gives them direction and purpose.

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Education as an Instrument of Social Change

 Education prepares the individual for social changes.
 Education is considered as a powerful instrument for social change, because it
details mainly with the thought patterns and behavior patterns of younger
generation.
 The axe of education can cut down the thick roots of traditional supervisions,
ignorance and the backwardness. Education prepares the people for social
change.
Education as an Effect of Social Change
 The changes caused by the political disorder, industrialization, technological
progress and religious reform movements naturally demands more education in
order to maintain social equilibrium.
 Education creates the social reformers and leaders who consciously make all the
efforts to bring about social changes.
Education is the most powerful instrument of social change. It is through education that
the society can bring desirable changes and modernize itself. Education can transform
society by providing opportunities and experiences through which the individual can
cultivate himself for adjustment with the emerging needs and philosophy of the changing
society. A sound social progress needs careful planning in every aspect of life – social,
cultural, economic and political. Education must be planned in a manner, which is in
keeping with the needs and aspirations of the people as a whole.26
The functions of education in the sphere of social change are outlines as under:
1. Assistance in changing attitudes. Education helps to change the attitudes of
people in favor of modern ways of life and develops attitudes, which can fight
prejudice, superstitions and traditional beliefs.
2. Assistance in creating desire for change. Education creates a desire for change
in a society, which is pre-requisite for any kind of change to come.
3. Assistance in adopting social change. Whenever some social change occurs, it is
easily adopted by some people while others find it difficult to adjust themselves
to this change. It is the function of education to assist people in adopting good
changes.
4. Overcoming resistance to change. Certain factors create resistance in the way of
accepting social change. Education helps in overcoming resistance. The
importance of social change is convincingly explained to the people through the

26
Triumph IAS (2021). Role of Education in Social Change. Retrieved from
https://triumphias.com/blog/role-of-education-in-social-change-sociology/

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process of education. Education helps people in removing blind faith and

prejudice and accepting something new.
5. Analysis in change. Education invests the individuals with the capacity to use his
intelligence, to distinguish between the right and wrong and to establish certain
ideals.
6. Emergence of new changes. Education initiates, guides and controls movements
for social reform. The flood of social reform movements that was witnessed at
the turn of the century was due to modern education.
7. Leadership in social change. Education must be able to create appropriate
leadership at every level if social changes conducive to democracy are to be
introduced. Able leaders can be produced only through education.
8. National integration. Education can prove very useful in bringing about national
integration, which is the basis for unity among people, social change and
ultimately the basis for strong and united country.
9. National development. Education is the fundamental basis of national
development. National development is the all-round development of the different
facets of the nation, i.e., economic, political, scientific, and social as well as of
the individuals. Therefore, education is the powerful instrument of economic,
political, cultural, scientific and social change.
10. Economic prosperity. Education is the most important factor in achieving rapid
economic development and technological progress and in creating a social order
founded on the value of freedom, social justice and equal opportunity. It
develops physical and human resources for all sectors of economy and ultimately
brings a desired change in the society.

Learning activity 3: Education and social change “Pizza” – The functions of

education in the sphere of social change

The purpose of this activity for you is to make a Social Change Pizza that shows your
perspectives on education and social change.

You have to make an “Education and Social Change Pizza” where participants represent
their perspectives on education and social change.
Divide the class into 5 groups. Each member must rate their views on education and
social change. Rating 5 is the highest point. Give 1 point for rating 1 and 5 points for
rating 5. Find the group mean of each function. Members must then draw a slice of pizza
on a “large piece of paper”. Their education and social change perspective must be
added to that circle in a 360-degree pie chart or percentage-based format. When the
pizza is ready, choose one member from your group to share the ideas about your pizza

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with the class. Don’t forget to describe how your team determined the importance of
each function in the presentation.
Table 1. 13. Rating the functions of education in the sphere of social change
√ your rating
The functions of education in the sphere of social change
1 2 3 4 5
Education helps to change the attitudes of people
Education creates a desire for change in a society
Whenever social change occurs, it is easily adopted by people
Education helps in overcoming resistance
Education helps individuals to distinguish between the right and
wrong and to establish certain ideals
Education initiates, guides and controls movements for social reform
Education must be able to create appropriate leadership
Education can enhance the dignity of the nation
Education is the fundamental basis of national development
Education is the most important factor in achieving rapid economic
development and technological progress and in creating a social
order founded on the value of freedom, social justice and equal
opportunity.

1.5.4. How teachers can promote social change in the classroom27

The philosopher John Dewey wrote, “Education is not a preparation for life but is life
itself.” Dewey reflected extensively on the page about the role of education in a healthy,
ever-evolving democratic society, and he believed classrooms aren’t just a place to study
social change, but a place to spark social change. Dewey wrote about these topics in the
early twentieth century, at a time when debates raged about whether teachers should be
tasked with preparing students to conform or to actively push for progress and
improvement where they are necessary.
These same debates continue today with real implications for education policy. Dewey
remains one of our clearest voices on the argument that the classroom ought to be seen
as an important locus of social change. For present and future teachers, it’s one thing to
appreciate Dewey’s views on education and social change and quite another to create a
classroom environment that embodies them. So, how can teachers build real classrooms
that exemplify Dewey’s ideals for education in society?

27
American Education Blog. (2018). How Teachers can Promote Social Change in the Classroom. School
of Education Online Programs. Retrieved from https://soeonline.american.edu/blog/how-teachers-can-
promote-social-change-in-the-classroom/

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Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 understand and discuss how teachers can promote social change in the
classroom.
Here are a few ideas:
1. Encourage active participation and experimentation with ideas among students.
Unfortunately, teachers and students who want to see some kind of paper-based progress
often push for a lot of memorization of dates, facts, and definitions. However, this type
of learning is not the society-shifting classroom activity of which Dewey wrote. Instead,
teachers should construct active learning opportunities, where students can be fully
engaged with the material and play with ideas without being reprimanded for going too
far afield. A few ways teachers might facilitate such a learning environment include
letting students teach each other, setting up a system for occasionally letting students ask
anonymous questions, and assigning open-ended projects in which students are not given
the impression that they are expected to take prescribed steps until they get to the “right”
answer.
2. Teach students how to think instead of teaching them what to think.
Starting to make strides in this area may be as simple as rethinking common assumptions
about which subjects are suitable for which students and when. For example, multiple
studies suggest that philosophical inquiry is not above the heads of elementary-aged
students. A Washington Post article on the topic describes the Philosophy for Children
movement, in which a teacher offers a poem, story, or other object and employs the
Socratic method to stimulate classroom discussion – not necessarily about the prompt,
but around it. The students’ impressions and quandaries are what take center stage, not
an actual philosophical mode or text. In other words, students are being taught how to
think rather than what to think. Evidence suggests that students respond well to the
Philosophy in the Classroom exercise, which, when performed just once a week, has
been shown to improve students’ reading levels, critical thinking skills, and emotional
wellbeing.
Socrates himself said, “Education is a kindling of a flame, not a filling of a vessel.” It
follows, then, that using Socrates’ method of discourse as a teaching tool would line up
well with Dewey’s goals for the classroom.
3. Prepare students to expect the need for change and to believe in their own ability
to take positive steps for the benefit of society.
One step teachers can take to encourage students to play a part in larger societal
improvement is to create a classroom where they are given the responsibility and

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authority to make some significant decisions. If teachers have all the answers, it is
implied that students are expected to receive knowledge, not offer solutions or
improvements. But if teachers make it clear that, especially when it comes to the big
questions we all face, even those in authority do not know it all, then students have more
room to rely on their own cognitive powers and problem-solving skills.
Teachers might try offering lessons in, for example, how ethical decisions are made and
the role of empathy and considered argument, and then setting up situations in which
students can apply these skills in solving problems.
It’s also important to create a learning environment in which students learn to see the
benefit of a worthy failure – rather than learning to fear the possibility of doing
something wrong.
4. Make classroom processes democratic to establish the idea that if we actively
participate in our communities, we can help make decisions about how they
function.
Dewey noted that if we want our education systems to benefit the larger cause of a
healthy democratic society, then it’s important that we keep democracy as a central
“frame of reference” in our classrooms. Too often, he adds, we forget that participating
in a democracy is a skill that needs to be honed in our daily lives. The classroom is a
good place to learn to do just that: Consider making classrooms more democratic than
authoritarian, starting at a young age. What decisions can you put to students in the
classroom? Before organizing a vote, can you encourage those on opposing sides to
clearly state their positions and try to understand and respond to the counterarguments?
Students who spend time in classrooms with such processes will be learning more than
how to cast a vote when that opportunity is presented to them; they will be learning that
their thoughts and ideas count and can be applied to benefit their larger community—all
while welcoming opposing sides on an issue.
5. Facilitate discussions among teachers as a group – starting with student teachers
– about the decisions they can make to drive social change.
Dewey made it clear that he believed teachers and schools had great influence over
society, whether they were aware of that fact or not. If you think Dewey was on to
something with this point, then it most likely follows that you would agree teachers
ought to be intentional about how they are influencing our society. The best way to do
that is to come together as a group to share ideas, experiences, reading, and successes.
As these group discussions get bigger and broader, teachers can start to take on questions
of policy—questions that should be decided with an eye on the influence that teachers
have.

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If we can begin to take these steps consistently in our classrooms, then we’ll be fostering
a stronger societal fabric, building a healthier democratic process, and benefitting people
far from our schools, one classroom at a time. As lives are being lived in classrooms and
societies are being forged, certainly that’s change we can all get behind.

Learning Activity 4: Panel discussion - “How teachers can promote social

change in the classroom”

The purpose of this activity for you is to discuss on how teachers can promote social
change in the classroom from different point of views.
Now, you have studied different types and features of social change, the factors
responsible for social change, relationship between education and social change and how
teachers can promote social change in the classroom.
Divide the class into 5 groups: A, B, C, D, and E. Based on your lesson learned in this
unit and your experiences, discuss how teachers can promote social change in the
classroom in your group. Your group will discuss the assigned part according to the table
below. Select a member as a panelist. Your teacher will act as a moderator. (You can
discuss in Myanmar language)
Table 1.14. “How teachers can promote social change in the classroom”

Group Assignment
A Encourage active participation and experimentation with ideas among students.
B Teach students how to think instead of teaching them what to think.
C Prepare students to expect the need for change and to believe in their own ability to
take positive steps for the benefit of society.
D Make classroom processes democratic to establish the idea that if we actively
participate in our communities, we can help make decisions about how they
function.
E Facilitate discussions among teachers as a group – starting with student teachers –
about the decisions they can make to drive social change.

Review Questions

Question 1: Do you like change?

Question 2: What is the biggest change you’ve made in your life? Was it good /
bad?

Question 3: Are you good at dealing with change?

Question 4: Do you think change is important?

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Question 5: What is the biggest change this world needs?

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Unit Summary

Key messages

 Issues in education are big topics of discussion within policy makers,

educators and among the general public;
 The current education system is based by a wide range of challenges;
 Everyone agrees that providing high-quality education for our citizens is a
worthy ideal;
 Understanding education issues is important for teachers, students and parents;
 Schools itself can solve the issues like school discipline, school safety,
technology in education, bullying, etc.;
 A makerspace is a destination where can create, problem solve, and develop
skills, talents, thinking, and mental rigor;
 Maker education focuses on learning rather than teaching;
 The traditional grading models do not sufficiently measure many of the most
prized skills in the 21st-century workforce, such as problem-solving, self-
advocacy, and creativity;
 Instead of letter grades, report cards may feature phrases like "partially meets the
standard" or "exceeds the standard." Some schools also include portfolios,
capstone projects, or other demonstrations of student learning.
 Micro-credentials, also known as digital badges or nanodegrees, are mini
qualifications that demonstrate a student's knowledge or skills in a given area;
 Flipped learning is becoming widespread in all education levels, but it is
especially prevalent at the college level;
 Social-emotional learning (SEL) focuses on helping students develop the abilities
to identify their strengths, manage their emotions, set goals, show empathy, make
responsible decisions, and build and maintain healthy relationships;
 Lack of professional training, poor network infrastructure and resistance to
change are the most popular challenges facing education technology today;
 Both leadership and management are essential for successful school
development;
 In general, leadership is focused on vision, motivation, the future, and the teams
and people in school while management provides systems and processes essential
to the smooth day-to-day running of the school;
 Among the different types of educational leadership, transformational leadership
creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the end goal of
developing followers into leaders;

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 Teacher leadership is the process where teachers work and collaborate with
school faculty and staff to improve current teaching approaches and develop new
teaching methods to further students' academic success;
 Educational management refers to the administration of the education system in
which a group combines human and material resources to supervise, plan,
strategise, and implement structures to execute an education system;
 The overall purpose of educational management is to effectively and efficiently
create and maintain environments within educational institutions that promote,
support, and sustain effective teaching and learning;
 Leadership is focused on vision, motivation, the future, and the teams and people
in your school;
 Management provides systems and processes essential to the smooth day-to-day
running of the school;
 Both leadership and management are essential for successful school
development;
 Society is a ‘web of social relationships’ and hence ‘social change’ obviously
means a change in the system of social relationships;
 Education is the vital link that brings about social change and generates synergies
to address the interconnectedness between sustainability, society and the
environment;
 Education empowers society to assume responsibility for sustainable living;
 This implies that educational processes and systems can transform perspectives
and behavior patterns, which in turn inculcates sustainable practices in all aspects
of human life;
 Education is a precursor of change therefore educators are responsible for
transforming communities and initiating social change;
 Education and social change are a two-way traffic; and
 While education preserves, transmits and disseminates the whole culture, social
change is the instrument and precondition of educational thought.

Unit reflection

Reflection question:

 One of the learning activities you did in this unit was to describe the challenges
you faced in your Education Degree College or the challenges you faced in using
educational technology in your learning. Answer one of the following questions:
(i) How can you solve the challenges that you faced in your Education Degree
College? (or) (ii) How can you solve the challenges you faced in using
educational technology in your learning?

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 In your reflection activity, you reflect on the teacher you met in your practicum
and describe his/her type of leadership and his/her behavior. Based on your
studies in this unit, write a paragraph on “What type of behavior do I like best”.
Be sure to include the reasons why you chose that type.
 As social change occurs, the education system too undergoes some transformation.
This is marked with the need for an education system that advocates for equality and
social justice. It has been mentioned that the political ideology influences what is
taught by the education system. Changes are noted in the curriculum to reflect what
people view or expect the education system to attain for the society. This means that
the content in the subject areas have to be tailored towards meeting the demands from
the society. Give three examples of the impact of social change on the education
system.

Further reading

1.1. Solving Educational Issues

Chen, Grace. (2022). 10 Major Challenges Facing Public Schools, Public School
Review. Retrieved from https://www.publicschoolreview.com>blog>10-maj
Gabriel, Mariya. (2020). A European approach to micro-credentials. December 2020.
Retrieved from https://education.ec.europa>node
Lambda Solutions. (2016). Blended Learning vs. Flipped Classroom: Choose the Right
One for Remote Training In 2022. May 4 2016. Retrieved from
https://www.lambdasolutions.net/blog/difference-between-blended-learning-
flipped-classrooms
Lutkevich, Ben. (n.d.). Transactional Leadership. Retrieved from
https://www.techtarget.com/searchcio/definition/transactional-leadership#:
Newport News Public Schools. (n.d.). Social Emotional Learning. Retrieved from
https://sbo.nn.k12.va.us/sel/
Patel, Hitesh. (n.d.). The 7 Greatest Challenges Facing Education Technology Today.
Retrieved from https://wpgc.io/the-7-greatest-challenges-facing-education-
technology-today/
Preddy, Leslie B. (2013). School library makerspaces: Grades 6-12. Sep 16, 2022.
Publisher. (2022). 13 Major Issues in Education at the K-12 Level. Retrieved from
https://www.trade-schools.net/articles/issues-in-education
Ummer, Shahaziya. (2017). Flipped Classroom, ppt. April 12 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/ShahaziyaUmmer/flipped-classroomppt

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1.2.

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1.3. Educational Leadership

Fishtree. (2015) The Top 10 Qualities of Great Educational Leaders. Retrieved from
https://www.fishertree.com/blog/the-top-10-qualities-of-great-educational
Fontein, Dara. (2022) Your Guide to Transformational Leadership in Education.
Retrieved from https://thoughtexchange.com>Blog
Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership. (n.d.). What is Servant Leadership. Retrieved
from https://www.greenleaf.org>what-is-servant-leadership
Jaafari, Fatmah Hussein. (2019). Transformational Leadership. International Journal of
Development Research. Vol. 09, Issue 05, pp. 27617 ~ 27621, May 2019. ISSN:
2230-9926. Retrieved from
https://www.journalijdr.com/sites/default/files/issuepdf/15884_0.pdf
Jovanovica, Dragana. & Ciric, Marina. (n.d.). Benefits of Transformational Leadership
in the Context of Education. Retrieved from
https://www.europeanproceedings.com>article
Lynch, Matthew (Dr.). (n.d.). Four Major Types of Educational Leadership – Integrity
Coaching Educational Leadership and Management. Retrieved from
https://www.integritycoaching.co.uk>blog> qualities>types-leadership-style/
Mahalat, Sabar. (2022). Educational Leadership and Management. Retrieved from
https://www.ilkogretim-online.org>fulltext
The Wellspring Foundation for Education. (n.d.). What is Servant Leadership? Retrieved
from https://thewellspringfoundation.org>resources>servant...

1.4. Teacher Leadership

Indeed Editorial Team. (n.d.). Teacher Leadership: A Definitive Guide. Updated March
31, 2023 Retrieved from https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-
development/teacher-leadership

1.5. Educational Management

DDCE, Utkal University. (n.d.). Educational Management: Meaning, Nature and Scope
Retrieved from http://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syllabus/MA_Educaion Paper_8.pdf
UNRWA. (n.d.). Unit 1.1 Leadership vs. management. Retrieved from
https://www.unrwa.org>Leadingfor-the-Future>unit-11-leadership-vs-
management

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1.6.

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1.6. Education and Social Change

American Education Blog. (2018). How Teachers can Promote Social Change in the
Classroom. School of Education Online Programs. Retrieved from
https://soeonline.american.edu/ blog/how-teachers-can-promote-social-change-
in-the-classroom/
Devasis, Chakma (2022). Social Change: Meaning, Characteristics, Factors and Role of
Education in Social Change. Retrieved from
https://onlinenotebank.wordpress.com>2022/12/03
Hepler, Reed. (n.d.). What is social change? Retrieved from
https://study.com/learn/lesson/social-changes-forms-examples.html
Triumph IAS (2021). Role of Education in Social Change. Retrieved from
https://triumphias.com/blog/role-of-education-in-social-change-sociology/

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Unit 2. Pedagogical Theory and Practice

In this unit, you will have to study pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), pedagogical
technological content knowledge (TPACK), and their conceptual frameworks to be able
to compare for your comprehension and understanding of the opportunities for
technological integration in education and applying viable PCK and TPACK
frameworks in teaching learning processes.
Furthermore, you will have to study the lifespan development and culturally responsive
pedagogy.

Expected Learning Outcomes

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By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 develop and understanding of the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

framework;
 develop and understanding of the technological pedagogical content
knowledge (TPACK) framework;
 compare between pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and technological
pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework;
 outline the opportunities for technological integration across the middle school
curriculum given available technologies in Myanmar;
 choose suitable PCK and TPACK framework in teaching learning process;
 analyze the core features of inquiry-based learning models;
 demonstrate the inquiry-based learning models in teaching learning process;
 outline the good practice principles for facilitating inquiry-based learning at
the middle school level;
 plan for construct in inquiry-based learning models and skills development
across the lesson sequences;
 analyze the core features of problem-based learning models;
 demonstrate the problem-based learning models in teaching learning process;
 outline the good practice principles for facilitating problem-based learning at
the middle school level;
 plan for problem-based learning models and skills development across the
lesson sequences;
 reflect on core ideas of foundational theories relating to students’ cognitive,
physical, social and emotional development in middle school level;
 design classroom practices to increase developmental skills of students;
 apply an understanding of strategies to extend the development of the students
in classroom situation;
 reflect on the challenges of teaching in culturally diverse classrooms;
 manage to promote diversity and multiculturalism in the classrooms; and
 outline strategies for engaging students to culturally and linguistically diverse
classrooms.

Competencies Gained

 A 1.1 Demonstrate understanding of how students learn relevant to their age

and developmental stage
 A 1.2 Demonstrate understanding of appropriate use of how different

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teaching methods can meet students’ individual needs

 A 2.1 Demonstrate understanding of appropriate use of a variety of teaching
and learning strategies and resources
 A 2.2 Demonstrate understanding of appropriate use of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in teaching and learning
 A 3.2 Demonstrate respect for the social, linguistic, cultural diversity of the
students and their communities.
 A 5.2 Demonstrate understanding of how to vary delivery of subject content
to meet students’ learning needs and the learning context
 B 4.1 Demonstrate strategies for working together with other teachers,
parents, and the local community to improve the learning environment for
students
 C 1.1 Demonstrate values and attitudes consistent with Myanmar’s tradition
of perceiving teachers as role models
 C 1.2 Demonstrate understanding of the underlying ideas that influence one’s
practice as a professional teacher
 C 2.1 Demonstrate commitment to serving the school and community as a
professional member of the teaching profession
 C 3.3 Demonstrate capacity to build students’ understanding of different
cultures and global citizenship
 D 1.1 regularly reflect on own teaching practices and its impact on student
learning
 D 3.1 Demonstrate understanding of the importance of inquiry and research-
based learning to improve teaching practice

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Educational Studies

Key Terms

Authentic problem, blackboard, cultural capital, cultural mismatch, creativity, critical

thinking, curiosity, email, epistemology, framework, hypothesis, ill-structured
problem, information and communication technology, internet, moodle,
multidisciplinary, pedagogical content knowledge, pedagogical technological content
knowledge, scientific understanding, social media, technological integration, well-
defined problem.

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2.1. Assuring Understanding of Technological, Pedagogical and

Content Knowledge (TPACK)

In this sub-unit, you will have to study a knowledge base for teaching, including
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), technological pedagogical content knowledge
(TPACK), their conceptual frameworks and opportunities for technological integration
in education and using viable PCK and TPACK frameworks in teaching learning
processes.
Furthermore, you will also have to study technological integration across the curriculum.
2.1.1. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and technological pedagogical
content knowledge (PCK & TPACK)

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 develop and understanding of the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)
framework;
 develop and understanding of the technological pedagogical content knowledge
(TPACK) framework; and
 compare between pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and technological
pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

To teach effectively you need deep understanding of four types of knowledge.

The first is knowledge of your subject. You must understand the fundamental concepts,
principles and relationships that define your subject and you must understand how
experts in the field thinks about and use these ideas. How well you understand the things
you want students to learn determines how readily you can express ideas in terms that
are appropriate to the students’ level of development. It also places an upper limit on the
conceptual level at which you can engage your students with that topic.
The second thing you need is knowledge about how students learn so that you can teach
in ways that are consistent with principles of developmental and educational psychology
and educational neuroscience.
The third is general pedagogical knowledge so that you understand how to guide your
students’ learning in appropriate ways.

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Finally, you need pedagogical content knowledge – knowledge about how to teach
effectively in particular disciplines. As you develop a sound base of pedagogical
knowledge, it will enable you to teach in ways that reflect the structure and forms of
inquiry of your discipline and make your subject readily understandable to students.
These ideas are represented in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. A model of teacher knowledge:28 Pedagogical content knowledge

framework
In this representation, the overlapping of circles A and B emphasizes that you need a
deep understanding of content and learning theories to understand how students can
learn particular types of content. You need, for example, to be able to identify the
important concepts you want your students to learn and you need to understand what is
involved in learning a concept.
The overlapping circles A and C emphasizes that you need to understand how to teach
particular forms of content – for example, how to teach concepts. The overlapping of
circles B and C emphasizes that you need to understand the pedagogical implications of
learning theories – for example, how to teach in ways that will enhance learning if
learning is viewed from a constructivist perspective.
Finally, at the centre of Figure 2.1, you see the intersection and interaction of all these
factors – the understanding that you must have in order to teach particular forms of
content in ways that are consistent with general principles of teaching that are designed
to enhance particular forms of learning. It is this interaction that is pedagogical content
knowledge and Figure 2.1 illustrates that it cannot exist without deep understanding of
28
Killen, R. (2016). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice. Melbourne: Cengage Learning.
p. 26.

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content, learning theories and general pedagogy – no matter what subject you are
teaching.

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Learning activity 1: Understanding the model of teacher knowledge: PCK

framework

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to consolidate your understanding of the
model of teacher knowledge – pedagogical content knowledge framework.

Now, you reached the final year of your preservice teacher education. You are studying
various subjects. And you have studied various subjects in your previous years.
Categorize the Modules that falls under different components of pedagogical content
knowledge that you learned. Certain subjects will fall under more than one component.
Use the following Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Component of What have you learned? (Include Module

Year Semester
Knowledge Name)

1 1

1 2

2 1

Knowledge about
2 2
CONTENT

3 1

3 2

4 1

1 1

1 2

2 1
Knowledge about
TEACHING
2 2

3 1

3 2

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4 1

1 1

1 2

2 1

Knowledge about
2 2
LEARNING

3 1

3 2

4 1

1 1

1 2

2 1
Pedagogical
Content
2 2
Knowledge
(PCK)
3 1

3 2

4 1

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The Components of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)29

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) attempts to identify the nature

of knowledge required by teachers for technology integration in their teaching, while
addressing the complex, multifaceted and situated nature of teacher knowledge.

Figure 2.2. The TPACK framework and its knowledge components

At the heart of the TPACK framework, is the complex interplay of three primary forms
of knowledge: Content Knowledge (CK), Pedagogy (PK), and Technology (TK). The
TPACK approach goes beyond seeing these three knowledge bases in isolation. The
TPACK framework goes further by emphasizing the kinds of knowledge that lie at the
intersections between three primary forms: Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK),
Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), Technological Pedagogical Knowledge
(TPK), and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK).
Effective technology integration for pedagogy around specific subject matter requires
developing sensitivity to the dynamic, transactional relationship between these
components of knowledge situated in unique contexts. Individual teachers, grade-level,
school-specific factors, demographics, culture, and other factors ensure that every

29
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge? Contemporary Issues
in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 60-70.

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situation is unique, and no single combination of content, technology, and pedagogy will
apply for every teacher, every course, or every view of teaching.

1. Content Knowledge (CK) – Teachers’ knowledge about the subject matter to be

learned or taught. The content to be covered in middle school science or history is
different from the content to be covered in an undergraduate course on art appreciation
or a graduate seminar on astrophysics. This knowledge would include knowledge of
concepts, theories, ideas, organizational frameworks, knowledge of evidence and proof,
as well as established practices and approaches toward developing such knowledge.
2. Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) – Teachers’ deep knowledge about the processes
and practices or methods of teaching and learning. They encompass, among other things,
overall educational purposes, values, and aims. This generic form of knowledge applies
to understanding how students learn, general classroom management skills, lesson
planning, and student assessment.
3. Technology Knowledge (TK) – Knowledge about certain ways of thinking
about, and working with technology, tools and resources. and working with technology
can apply to all technology tools and resources. This includes understanding information
technology broadly enough to apply it productively at work and in everyday life, being
able to recognize when information technology can assist or impede the achievement of
a goal, and being able continually adapt to changes in information technology.
4. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) – Knowledge of pedagogy that is
applicable to the teaching of specific content. The conceptualization of PCK is the
notion of the transformation of the subject matter for teaching. Specifically, this
transformation occurs as the teacher interprets the subject matter, finds multiple ways to
represent it, and adapts and tailors the instructional materials to alternative conceptions
and students’ prior knowledge. PCK covers the core business of teaching, learning,
curriculum, assessment and reporting, such as the conditions that promote learning and
the links among curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy.
5. Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) – An understanding of the manner
in which technology and content influence and constrain one another. Teachers need to
master more than the subject matter they teach; they must also have a deep
understanding of the manner in which the subject matter (or the kinds of representations
that can be constructed) can be changed by the application of particular technologies.
Teachers need to understand which specific technologies are best suited for addressing
subject-matter learning in their domains and how the content dictates or perhaps even
changes the technology—or vice versa.
6. Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) – An understanding of how
teaching and learning can change when particular technologies are used in particular
ways. This includes knowing the pedagogical affordances and constraints of a range of

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technological tools as they relate to disciplinarily and developmentally appropriate

pedagogical designs and strategies.
7. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) – Underlying truly
meaningful and deeply skilled teaching with technology, TPACK is different from
knowledge of all three concepts individually. Instead, TPACK is the basis of effective
teaching with technology, requiring an understanding of the representation of concepts
using technologies; pedagogical techniques that use technologies in constructive ways to
teach content; knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how
technology can help redress some of the problems that students face; knowledge of
students’ prior knowledge and theories of epistemology; and knowledge of how
technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge to develop new epistemologies
or strengthen old ones.

Learning Activity 2: The Components of Technological Pedagogical Content

Knowledge

The purpose of this activity for you is to refresh their understanding of the components
described in the TPACK framework.

Now, you reached the final year of your preservice teacher education. You are studying
various subjects. And you have studied various subjects in your previous years.
Categorize the Modules that falls under different components of technological
pedagogical content knowledge framework that you learned. Certain subjects will fall
under more than one component. Use the following Table 2.2.
Table 2.2. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Component of What have you learned? (Include Module

Year Semester
Knowledge Name)

CONTENT
1 1
Knowledge

1 2

2 1

2 2

3 1

3 2

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4 1

1 1

1 2

2 1

TECHNOLOGICAL
2 2
Knowledge

3 1

3 2

4 1

1 1

1 2

2 1

PEDEGOGICAL
2 2
Knowledge

3 1

3 2

4 1

1 1

1 2
Technological
2 1
Content Knowledge
2 2

3 1

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3 2

4 1

1 1

1 2

2 1
Pedagogical Content
2 2
Knowledge

3 1

3 2

4 1

1 1

1 2

2 1
Technological
Pedagogical 2 2
Knowledge
3 1

3 2

4 1

1 1

1 2
Technological
Pedagogical Content 2 1
Knowledge
2 2

3 1

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3 2

4 1

CONTEXTS

2.1.2. Technological Integration across the Curriculum

In this lesson you will have to study the opportunities for technological
integration across the middle school (lower secondary) curriculum given available
technologies in Myanmar, and choose suitable PCK and TPACK frameworks in
teaching learning process.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 outline the opportunities for technological integration across the middle school
curriculum given available technologies in Myanmar; and
 choose suitable PCK and TPACK frameworks in teaching learning process.

Opportunities for technological integration

The evolving concept of effective teaching has been linked to teacher’s ability to use
technologies that help students to learn. In the days when available technologies were
little, using them effectively was not difficult. This gradually changed with the
introduction of information and communications technologies that could be used for
educational purposes. In recent years, the rapid development of electronic technologies
has greatly expanded the possibilities and challenges for teachers.
There are currently at least six types of technology 30 that can be used in teaching and
learning:
1. presentation tools (such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboards)
2. fixed and mobile devices to give access to web-based learning and assessment
resources
3. asynchronous communications systems (such as emails, bulletin boards, and
podcasting)
4. synchronous communications systems (such as instant messaging and webcams)
30
Killen, R. (2016). p.51.

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5. collaborative writing tools (such as wikis and blogs)

6. web-based course management tools (such as Blackboard and Moodle).
The most critical attributes of any technology used in teaching and learning are the
capacity to engage learners and the extent to which the technology can support learners’
efforts to understand the things they are studying. Whether the technology is simple or
complex, to use it effectively you will need to be knowledgeable about the technology
and competent in using it to meet specific educational goals.
From a psychological perspective, there are basically two sets of arguments to support
the use of technology in teaching: from a behaviourist perspective, it can be a useful
motivational tool and a useful way to reinforce the information learned; from a
constructivist perspective, it can be useful in enabling students to manipulate
information, explore ideas and construct personal meaning.
The most effective use of any technology occurs when it becomes a tool that seamlessly
supports and scaffolds learning – when it is embedded in the curriculum and integrated
into units of work.
Regardless of the technology or the teaching strategy you are using, keep the following
points in mind:31
1. Technologies are tools for communicating and learning. Having students learn
about the technology (e.g., how to use a word processor) should not be an end in
itself.
2. Apart from possible motivational benefits, there is limited value in having
students use complex technology when using simpler technology will have them
achieve the same learning goals.
3. Your students will have different levels of familiarity with the technologies you
employ (particularly Internet-based technologies). You need to allow for this and
take advantage of it.
4. You need to model appropriate ways of using the technology and help students to
use the technology confidently and competently.
The use of technology is pervasive and it encompasses a range of activities that teachers
have to perform. These activities of teachers include:
1. administration such as updating students’ profile and preparing students’
progress report;
2. communication with multiple parties including parents and colleagues;

31
Killen, R. (2016). pp. (52-53).

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3. resource design/development, lesson planning, out-of-school/classroom

activities, students’ independent learning;
4. assessment of students’ learning, and
5. teachers’ professional development. 32
It is obvious that these activities require a range of competencies to fulfil. Specifically,
developing teachers’ competencies in the pedagogical use of technology includes
instructional planning processes; pedagogical knowledge, content knowledge;
pedagogical content knowledge, classroom management, and knowledge of students.

Learning Activity 3: Self-reflection: Technological integration across the

curriculum

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to examine the level of your pedagogical
competencies and to illustrate the possible trajectories of your expertise in using a
presentation tool (PowerPoint).

Your Teacher Educator will pair you and your colleague, and ask you to exchange the
information.
1. Put a tick (  ) below the level you think you have such competencies at present.
2. Put a tick (  ) below the level you think you will have after finishing your Year
4 studies in Education Degree College.
Table 2. 3. A Matrix of the interaction between teachers’ ICT literacy, pedagogical
competencies and dispositions33
Levels of
Basic Intermediate Advanced
competencies
Preparation and use of Preparation and
Facilitation of
PowerPoint for implementation of
students’ construction
Model of use presentation in student-centred
of multimedia
teaching (multimedia, learning package using
presentation
text, slide transition) PowerPoint as tool
At Present
A Graduate of EDC
Just-in-time teaching
Basic features of Advanced features of of PowerPoint
Technical
PowerPoint PowerPoint competencies and
basic troubleshooting

32
Lim, C. P, Chai, C. S. & Churchill, D. (2010). Leading ICT in education practices: A capacity-building toolkit for
teacher education institutions in the Asia-Pacific. Perth: (Edith Cowan University): Microsoft Corporation. p. 07.
33
Lim, C. P, Chai, C. S. & Churchill, D. (2010). Leading ICT in education practices: A capacity-building toolkit for
teacher education institutions in the Asia-Pacific. Perth: (Edith Cowan University): Microsoft Corporation.

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At Present
A Graduate of EDC
Empower and
Plan and implement
Explain and pose facilitate/manage
Pedagogical meaningful activities
questions students’ knowledge
to engage students
construction
At Present
A Graduate of EDC
Willingness to change
Willingness to learn Willingness to
Dispositions pedagogical practices
and use ICT experiment & innovate
& beliefs
At Present
A Graduate of EDC

Review Questions
Question 1: What are the overlapping areas of expertise in PCK. How do they
overlap?

Question 2: What are the overlapping areas of expertise in TPACK. How do

they overlap?

Question 3: What is the key insight of the TPACK framework?

Question 4: How can teachers, as professionals, continue to develop their

knowledge of technology integration?

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2.2. Assuring Understanding of Inquiry-based Learning

In this sub-unit, you will explore inquiry-based learning and problem-based learning in
middle school settings. You will align discipline-specific inquiry-based learning models
with a generic model. You will review the skills required for students to successfully
engage in inquiry-based learning and how the teacher supports the development of these
skills over students’ schooling. You will frame problem-based learning scenarios and
questions that are appropriate for the middle school. You will select a scenario and
undertake preliminary planning for classroom implementation.

2.2.1. Inquiry-based Learning models and skills development

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 analyze the core features of inquiry-based learning models;

 demonstrate the inquiry-based learning models in teaching learning process;
 outline the good practice principles for facilitating inquiry-based learning at
the middle school level; and
 plan for construct in inquiry-based learning models and skills development
across the lesson sequences.

Inquiry-based learning

Inquiry-based learning is a pedagogical approach that encourages students to explore

academic content through their own questions and investigations. It fosters curiosity,
creativity, and critical thinking skills, as well as collaborative and communicative
competencies. Inquiry-based learning can be applied to various disciplines and levels of
education, depending on the degree of guidance and structure provided by the teacher or
the curriculum.
Stages of inquiry-based learning: 5Es Model

 Engage: The teacher introduces the topic or problem and sparks the students'
curiosity and interest.
 Explore: The students formulate their own questions and hypotheses, and plan
how to investigate them.

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 Explain: The students conduct their investigations, collect and analyze data, and
draw conclusions based on evidence.
 Elaborate: The students apply their learning to new situations, deepen their
understanding, and communicate their findings to others.
 Evaluate: The teacher and the students reflect on the learning process, assess the
outcomes, and identify the strengths and weaknesses of their inquiry.
Essential features34
The National Research Council (NRC) in the USA further proposed a ‘…working
definition that distinguishes inquiry-based teaching and learning from inquiry in a
general sense and from inquiry as practiced by scientists’ (NRC 2000, p. 25). In doing
so, the NRC described the essential features of classroom inquiry to be:35
 Learners are engaged by scientifically oriented questions.
 Learners give priority to evidence, which allows them to develop and evaluate
explanations that address scientifically oriented questions.
 Learners formulate explanations from evidence to address scientifically oriented
questions.
 Learners evaluate their explanations in light of alternative explanations,
particularly those reflecting scientific understanding
 Learners communicate and justify their proposed explanations
Stages of inquiry-based learning36
The instructional approach used in scientific, geographical and historical inquiry is
generally considered to be mutually dependent, recursive and interactive. A combined
discipline listing that has been described is as follows:
1. Making observations;
2. Posing questions;
3. Examining books and other sources of information to see what is already known;
4. Planning investigations;
5. Reviewing what is already known in light of experimental evidence;
6. Using tools to gather, analyse and interpret data;
7. Proposing answers, explanations and predictions;
8. Communicating the results and
9. Personal evaluation and response.

34
Kidman, G., & Casinader, N. (2017). Inquiry-Based Teaching and Learning across Disciplines, DOI 10.1057/978-1-
137-53463-7_1
35
National Research Council. (2000). p. 25. Inquiry and the national science education standards: A guide for
teaching and learning. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/9596.
36
Kidman, G., & Casinader, N. (2017). p. 5.

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The diagram below illustrates the conception of the relationship between the
constellations of objectives and skills.

Figure 2.3. The inquiry process37

What your students need to do in inquiry-based learning can be summed up as follows:

1. Clarify the purpose of their inquiry so that they understand exactly why they are
doing the research and what outcomes they are expected to achieve; This should
be the focus of their initial group discussion (i.e., if they are working in groups)
or teacher conference (i.e., if they are working individually).
2. Develop their inquiry questions (i.e., essential questions and foundation
questions).
3. Develop an inquiry strategy (i.e., make plans to achieve the outcomes).
4. Locate information (or gather data) that will be used to answer the inquiry
questions.
5. Filter, organize, analyse and evaluate the information or data.
6. Develop an answer to the inquiry question.
7. Report the results of their inquiry in an appropriate way.
8. Evaluate the effectiveness of their inquiry strategies, including the way their
results were presented, so that they are better prepared for their next inquiry.38
While your students are working on their inquiry task, you, as a teacher, need to monitor
their progress and encourage the following forms of engagement:39
37
Justice, C. (2001). p. 6. A Grammar for inquiry: Linking goals and methods in a collaboratively taught social
sciences inquiry course. Newfoundland: Mac-Graw Hill Ryerson.
38
Killen, R. (2016). p. 281.
39
Killen, R. (2016). p. 282.

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 whether your students are assuming ownership of their task, recognizing what
needs to be done, planning thoughtfully, making decisions and setting on with
the task;
 whether group members are cooperating and dividing the inquiry tasks so that
they can achieve more than they would working alone;
 whether your students are choosing a variety of approaches to problems, being
prepared to take learning risks, and preserving when they encounter difficulties;
 whether your students are using metacognitive strategies to solve problems and
to monitor their progress; and
 whether your students are being keen to discuss their progress with you.

Learning activity 1: Inquiry-based Learning models

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to analyze the core features of
inquiry-based learning model and demonstrate the inquiry-based learning models in
teaching learning process.

Align the phases of the 5Es model and its descriptions with the steps and processes of
inquiry-based model by linking with the relevant skills necessary for the students. Mark
E1/E2/E3/E4/E5 next to the process(es) and stages. Use Table 2.4 below.

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Table 2.4. Analysis of the inquiry-based model with its processes and stages
Inquiry-based learning: Taking responsibility for
5Es Model Description learning
Processes & Stages
1. Engaging a topic
The teacher introduces 1. Making
and developing basic
the topic or problem observations
E1ngage knowledge
and sparks the
students' curiosity and 2. Developing a
2. Posing questions
interest. question

The students
formulate their own 3. Examining books
questions and and other sources of
3. Determining what
E2xplore information to see
hypotheses, and plan needs to be known
what is already
how to investigate known
them.
4. Identifying 4. Planning
The students conduct
resources investigations
their investigations,
E3xplain collect and analyze 5. Reviewing what
5. Gathering data
data, and draw is already known in
conclusions based on light of experimental
evidence. evidence

6. Assessing data 6. Using tools to

The students apply
gather, analyse and
their learning to new interpret data
situations, deepen
E4laborate their understanding, 7. Proposing
7. Synthesizing
and communicate answers,
their findings to explanations and
others. predictions

8. Communicating 8. Communicating
The teacher and the
new understandings the results
students reflect on the
learning process,
assess the outcomes,
E5valuate 9. Evaluating success 9. Personal
and identify the
evaluation and
strengths and response
weaknesses of their
inquiry.

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Scientists use a dynamic, open-ended process to investigate questions. Here are the five
steps.40
1. Define a Question to Investigate
As scientists conduct their research, they make observations and collect data. The
observations and data often lead them to ask why something is the way it is. Scientists
pursue answers to these questions in order to continue with their research. Once
scientists have a good question to investigate, they begin to think of ways to answer it.
2. Make Predictions
Based on their research and observations, scientists will often come up with a
hypothesis. A hypothesis is a possible answer to a question. It is based on: their own
observations, existing theories, and information they gather from other sources.
Scientists use their hypothesis to make a prediction, a testable statement that describes
what they think the outcome of an investigation will be.
3. Gather Data
Evidence is needed to test the prediction. There are several strategies for collecting
evidence, or data. Scientists can gather their data by observing the natural world,
performing an experiment in a laboratory, or by running a model. Scientists decide what
strategy to use, often combining strategies. Then they plan a procedure and gather their
data. They make sure the procedure can be repeated, so that other scientists can evaluate
their findings.
4. Analyze the Data
Scientists organize their data in tables, graphs, or diagrams. If possible, they include
relevant data from other sources. They look for patterns that show connections between
important variables in the hypothesis they are testing.
5. Draw Conclusions
Based on whether or not their prediction came true, scientists can then decide whether
the evidence clearly supports or does not support the hypothesis. If the results are not
clear, they must rethink their procedure. If the results are clear, scientists write up their
findings and results to share with others. The conclusions they draw usually lead to new
questions to pursue.

40
https://www.amnh.org/explore/videos/the-scientific-process

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Learning activity 2: Inquiry-based learning: skills development

The purpose of this learning activity is for you to outline the good practice
principles for facilitating inquiry-based learning and plan for construct in inquiry-based
learning models and skills development across the lesson sequences at the middle school

1. Read how scientists investigate questions.

2. Construct an inquiry-based learning model to boost up your skills development
across the lesson sequences at the middle school level.
3. Pick a lesson Unit 5.1. “Physical Change and Chemical Change” from Grade 7
Science Textbook, pp. 60- 70.
4. Fill in the grids of Table 2.5. Inquiry-based learning: skills development with
appropriate scientific method of inquiry.
Table 2.5. Inquiry-based learning: skills development

Steps Physical Change Chemical Change

1. Define a
Question to
Investigate

2. Make
Predictions

3. Gather Data

4. Analyze the
Data

5. Draw
Conclusions

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2.2.2. Problem-based Learning in the middle school

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 analyze the core features of problem-based learning models;

 demonstrate the problem-based learning models in teaching learning process;
 outline the good practice principles for facilitating problem-based learning at
the middle school level; and
 plan for problem-based learning models and skills development across the
lesson sequences.

In this sub-unit, you will have to analyze the core features of problem-based learning
models, demonstrate the problem-based learning models in teaching learning process,
outline the good practice principles for facilitating problem-based learning at the middle
school level, and plan for problem-based learning models and skills development across
the lesson sequences.
Before you go into the definition of problem-based learning, you should first explore the
meanings of the word problem. You may find some problems at the end of textbook
chapters, or on a larger instructional scale, you sometimes contend with problems that
call for you to find solutions, such as how to improve the school playground or the water
quality of a neighbourhood pond or stream.
Problem-based learning goes well beyond these short-term instructional instances or
simple questions. It encompasses a rethinking of the entire curriculum so that teachers
design whole units around complex, ill-structured problematic scenarios that embody the
major concepts to be mastered and understood. By ill-structured or ill-defined means the
realistic, authentic problems – such as pollution of the planet and feeding the hungry –
that are so complex, messy, and intriguing that they do not lend themselves to a right or
wrong answer approach; on the other hand, “How far does an auto mobile travel in 3.5
hours going 60 mph?” would be an example of well-defined problem because there is a
right answer. While engaged in the unit, students will ask good questions, conduct
purposeful investigations, think critically, draw conclusions, and reflect until they arrive
at a meaningful solution. 41
Problem-based learning is an instructional method that encourages learners to apply
critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and content knowledge to real-world problems

41
Barell, J. (2010). Problem-based learning: The foundation for 21st century skills. In J. Bellanca & R. Brandt. (Eds.),
21st century skills: Rethinking how students learn (pp. 175-199). Bloomington IN: Solution Tree Press.

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and issues. Instruction is more student centered and less teacher directed than in
traditional classrooms.
Students assume considerable responsibility for their own learning by locating much of
the information they need to solve the problems at hand. Learning is active rather than
passive, integrated rather than fragmented, cumulative rather than isolated, and
connected rather than disjointed. Problem-based learning is likely to include discussion,
reflection, research, projects, and presentations. The instructor plays several roles,
including lecturer, facilitator, foil, coach, and assessor. These roles entail offering
guidance, instruction, and resources to help students acquire content knowledge and
problem-solving skills. Evaluation is authentic, performance based, and ongoing.
Problem-based learning starts with an issue, case, or ill-structured problem that can be
researched, studied, or even solved. Solutions, however, do not have one correct answer.
Instead, many solution paths and several good answers may be possible. Different
problem-solving techniques can be applied to the initial problem, and groups or
individuals generally arrive at a reasonable or possible solution.42
Using problem-based learning for teacher education and professional development
comes in many forms, but in all cases, it offers you opportunities to work together to
solve complex problems and dilemmas related to students, teaching, learning,
curriculum, and instruction.
Key elements of problem-based learning43
1. Real-world problems that foster inquiry and embody key concepts
2. Choices about content as well as ways to learn and share understandings
3. Objectives reflecting the highest of intellectual challenges, including the need to
pose questions, conduct purposeful research, think critically, make decisions, and
draw reasonable conclusions supported with evidence
4. Experiences in small-group collaboration such as listening, reasoning together,
and building upon each other’s ideas
5. Feedback students receive from classmates and teachers during rehearsals of
final findings
6. Occasions to revise, modify, and elaborate on findings
7. Engagement in planning of, monitoring of, and self-reflection on work, progress,
and results

42
Jonassen, D. H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning
environments. Oxon: Taylor & Francis.
43
Barell, J. (2010). Problem-based learning: The foundation for 21st century skills. In J. Bellanca & R. Brandt. (Eds.),
21st century skills: Rethinking how students learn (pp. 175-199). Bloomington IN: Solution Tree Press.

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8. Opportunities to obtain pre-, formative, and summative assessment information

9. A clear and easy-to-follow curricular structure centered on authentic problems
and inquiry
10. Teachers and students sharing control of decision making, teaching, and learning
Stanton and McCaffrey (2011) summarized the key features of problem-based learning
in their designing authentic problem-based learning problems in multidisciplinary groups
as shown in Figure 2.3.44

Figure 2.4. Summary of the key features of effective problems

Learning activity 3: Problem-based Learning models

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to analyse the features of problem-
based learning models and demonstrate your understanding in teaching learning process.

1. Fill in the following Table 2.6. of the core features of problem-based learning
with the detail characteristics of its features.
2. Compare your list with that of your colleagues, and add to your list.

44
Stanton, M. & McCaffrey, M. (2011). Designing authentic PBL problems in multidisciplinary groups. In T. Barrett
and S. Moore (Ed.), New approaches to problem-based learning: Revitalising your practice in higher education.
Oxon: Taylor & Francis.

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Table 2. 6. Problem-based learning: its core features and characteristics

Core features Characteristics

1 Authenticity

Activation of prior
2
knowledge

3 Complexity

4 Group discussion

5 Appropriate learning

6 Self-directed learning

7 Optimum structure

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The process of problem-based learning45

Problem-based learning is an instructional strategy. That is, it is an instructional solution
designed to improve learning by requiring students to learn content while solving
problems. As such, problem-based learning is:

 problem-focused, where learners begin learning by addressing simulations of an

authentic, ill-structured problem;
 student-centered, because faculty cannot dictate learning;
 self-directed, where students individually and collaboratively assume
responsibility for generating learning issues and processes through self-
assessment and peer assessment and access their own learning materials;
 self-reflective, where learners monitor their understanding and learn to adjust
strategies for learning.
The problem-based learning process normally involves the following steps:
 Students in groups of five to eight encounter and reason through the problem.
They attempt to define and bound the problem and set learning goals by
identifying what they know already, what hypotheses or conjectures they can
think of, what they need to learn in order to better understand the dimensions of
the problem, and what learning activities are required and who will perform
them.
 During self-directed study, individual students complete their learning
assignments to understand the problem and its possible solutions. They collect
and study resources and prepare reports to the group.
 Students share their learning with the group and revisit the problem, generating
additional hypotheses and rejecting others based on their learning.
 At the end of the leaning period (usually one week), students summarize and
integrate their learning.
You, as a student teacher, should have high expectations on your students. Thus, you
should always think about giving them exciting and challenging experience while you
are teaching them your lessons. As you have been familiar with the problem-based
learning, you need to experience the key elements of problem-based learning, especially
real-world problems, inquiry, and assessment feedback – elements that would fully
engage them in their learning.

45
Jonassen, D. H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing problem-solving learning
environments. Oxon: Taylor & Francis.

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The problem scenario: A good practice principles

You are a finance minister from a nation that desires a substantial loan from the World
Bank. Your goal is to convince the World Bank that your country’s needs are great and
you deserve a loan. The World Bank has a limited amount to land and may other
countries are asking for loans. Therefore, you must prepare a strong case for receiving a
loan and be able to defend your need for the money. (Adapted from Barell, 2003, p. 145)

Imagine being a student confronted with this challenge of not only earning about a
nation, but also conducting extensive research about the nation’s natural resources,
history, and culture. Imagine having to identify a country’s most pressing economic,
political, and health needs; devise a plan to meet them; and then present your plan to the
World Bank. You should use a variation of the structured approach to inquiry known as
KWHLAQ46 (Figure 2.5).

K What do you think you already know? Explore prior knowledge.

W What do you want and need to find out?

H How will you proceed to investigate your questions? How will you
organize time, access to resources and reporting? How will you self-assess
your progress (such as with a scoring rubric)?

L What are you learning (daily)? And what have you learned at the end of
your investigations?

A How and where can you apply the results for your investigations – to this
and other subjects/to your daily lives?

Q What new questions do you have now? How might you pursue them in
your next units?
Figure 2.5. Structured approach to inquiry for a problem-based learning

46
Adapted from Barell, 2007a, p. 85.

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Learning activity 2: Problem-based Learning: skills development

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to select one of the problem-based
learning scenarios and undertake a variation of the structured approach to inquiry known
as KWHLAQ for implementation in a Grade 7 or Grade 8 or Grade 9 classroom.

As for an example, every place is succumbed to the use of singles-use grocery plastic
bags everywhere from a bazaar to a grocery store to modern supermarkets.
People readily throw away those plastic bags on the streets, into the ditches, drains,
canals, streams, rivers and to the beaches.
What are the consequences of that behaviour now and later in your society?
Write a letter to the municipalities convincing them with your structured inquiry-based
evidences to pass a law prohibiting that behaviour in the society.
Table 2. 7. Problem-based learning: skills development – The problem of plastic
bags47

K What do you already know?

W What do you want to find out?

How do you carry out your

H
investigation.
What do you learn from your
L investigation? What have you learned
at the end of your investigation?
How do you apply the results of your
A investigation? Where can you apply
them?
What new questions do you have
Q
now?

47
Read the short article in Anex 1

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Review Questions
Question 1: Why do teachers use inquiry-based learning as a pedagogical
approach in teaching students?
Question 2: What are the pedagogical competencies in developing teachers’
pedagogical use of technology?
Question 3: What is the result of a scientist’s conclusion of their scientific inquiry-
based learning?
Question 4: What is the meaning of structured approach to inquiry known as
KWHLAQ?

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2.3. Assuring Understanding of Learner Development and Diversity

This sub-unit is about the lifespan development and culturally responsive pedagogy.

2.3.1. Lifespan development

In this lesson, you will learn about the core concepts of life-span perspective, core ideas
of developmental theories and how to design learning activities to support the
development of the students.

Expected learning outcomes

By the end of the lesson, student teachers will be able to

 reflect on core ideas of foundational theories relating to students’ cognitive,

physical, social and emotional development in middle school level;
 design classroom practices to increase developmental skills of students; and
 apply an understanding of strategies to extend the development of the students
in classroom situation.

Revisiting to life-span perspective

Development is the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through
the life span. It includes both growth and decline. The belief that development occurs
throughout life is central to the life-span perspective on human development, but the
perspective has other characteristics a well. The life-span perspective 48 includes these
basic ideas: development is life long, multidimensional, multidirectional, and plastic: Its
study is multidisciplinary; it is embedded in context; it involves growth, maintenance,
and regulation; and it is a construction of biological, sociocultural, and individual
factors.
Health, and well-being, parenting, education, sociocultural context and diversity concern
for those who study life-span development.
The nature of development: Three key developmental processes are biological,
cognitive and socioemotional. Development is influenced by interplay of these
processes. The life span is commonly divided into the prenatal period, infancy, early
childhood, middle and late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood,
and late adulthood.

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We often think of age only in chronological terms, but a full evaluation of age requires
he consideration of biological age, psychological age, and social age as well. There are
three pathways of aging, pathological aging, normal aging, and successful aging.
Three important issues in the study of development are the nature-nurture issue, the
continuity-discontinuity issue, and the stability-change issue.
Revisiting to theories of development: You have studied foundational developmental
theories: Erik Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory, Jean Piaget’s cognitive
developmental theory, Lev Vygotsky’s social cultural theory in year 2. And then You
have learned developmental system theories: Bronfenbrenner’s biological theory and
Baltes’ developmental theory which introduced in year2. In this lesson, you will study
some of developmental theories.
Behavioral Child Development Theories49: Behavioral theories of child development
focus on how environmental interaction influences behavior and is based on the theories
of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B. F. Skinner. These theories deal
only with observable behaviors. Development is considered a reaction to rewards,
punishments, stimuli, and reinforcement.
This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives
no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how
experience shapes who we are. Two important types of learning that emerged from this
approach to development are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical
conditioning involves learning by pairing a naturally occurring stimulus with a
previously neutral stimulus. Operant conditioning utilizes reinforcement and punishment
to modify behaviors.
Cognitive developmental theory: This theory states that children, quite simply, think
differently than adults. While this may seem obvious to some, this was a revolutionary
theory that went on to provide the foundations for several other theories to come.
Piaget’s theory on a child’s development being tied to their developmental milestones
has gone on to be one of the top theories in the world.
Essentially, this theory divided the child life into four separate categories, or stages,
each of which carries its own important qualities and vulnerabilities:
 Sensorimotor stage: Birth to two years
 Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
 Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 years
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
According to Piaget, each of these stages was marked by a specific developmental goal.
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Cherry, Kendra, MSEd. (n.d.).

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Psychoanalytic theory (Psychodynamic): Freud also went on to make many other

significant contributions to the sciences including the assertion of his Psychosexual
Developmental Theory which tackles the stages of child development.
Freud’s theory of psychosexual development was one of the most important
psychological theories of the 20th century. Freud explained that child experiences,
experienced at different ages in childhood, directly dictate personality and behavior
patterns in the later adult. He explained that childhood experiences are intensely linked
to healthy development for children. According to Freud, childhood development
follows five distinct stages: Oral Stage, Anal Stage, Phallic Stage, Latent Stage, and
Genital Stage.
Another layer to Freud’s theory is the development of the id, ego, and superego. Freud
believed that the id was instinctual and primitive. It is something we are born with and
the mechanism that controls our sexual drives. The id is often unrealistic and impulsive.
The ego develops during the first few years of life and represents reality. For this reason,
the id and ego are often at odds – the id wants what it wants and it wants it now,
regardless of how realistic or unrealistic it might be. The ego, then, is the go-between
that balances the id’s impulses and the demands of the real world. Freud believed that
the ego was responsible for decision-making and reason.
The superego develops during the phallic stage and is the source of morality. Our
morals, according to Freud, are learned from our parents or other caregivers. Since the
superego is meant to control the id and ego, it helps tamp down the id’s desires while
also helping the ego recognize morals-based goals rather than constantly striving for
perfection.
Likewise, the superego can be thought of as our conscience. It’s what makes us feel
guilty when we do something wrong and what rewards us with feelings of pride or joy
when we do something right. Freud’s work and theories around a child’s development
are respected and studied across the world.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory: Erik Erikson was an important figure
in the fields of psychoanalytic and psychological development. He was also famously
known for coining the popular phrase “identity crisis”. His work on child development
has been studied and considered since 1959.
Central to much of his work was his theory on psychosocial development (which, unlike
Freud’s theory of development, focuses on social development and not sexual
development). As it became known, Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory
produced a framework for organizing human growth, through all stages of life, into eight
distinct stages:

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 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
Key to the outcomes of the child stages as well as those afterward is the principles of
social interaction and experience.
Each of these stages corresponds with a different period of human development.
Erikson’s theory was an important turning point in our understanding of human
development. Some theories posited that adulthood and late adulthood are relatively
meaningless from a development standpoint, at least when compared to all that changes
during infancy, childhood, and early adulthood.
But Erikson was adamant that developmental milestones occur across the lifespan. His
theory is reflective of that and is accepted as a more realistic view of human
development, emotional growth, and social change.
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory: is commonly relied upon today across
many industries and professions. This theory states that while much child learning and
child development does come from direct experience, much also comes from modeling
and simple observations of people around you.
Additionally, Bandura posited that the modeling we do of others isn’t limited to
behaviors, but also includes attitudes and emotional reactions in various situations.
Therefore, this theory takes into account both cognitive and environmental factors in
determining how children learn and learn to behave.
Modeling is a simple enough process. Children note how their parents and other
important figures in their lives behave, and children encode that information. Later on,
children might imitate the behavior that has been modeled.
Bandura built his theory on the foundation of classical and operant conditioning. For
example, if a child exhibits a behavior that they encoded from a model, and that behavior
is met with a reward, the child is more likely to exhibit that behavior in the future. A
caregiver that claps and baby talks to an infant that begins to crawl is reinforcing that
behavior with positive rewards.

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On the other hand, if a child engages in a behavior that is met with a consequence (e.g., a
parent yelling at them for striking the dog), they will be less likely to continue that
behavior because it was met with a punishment.
Where Bandura broke from strict behaviorist approaches is in his position that the
environment was just one determinant for how we learn and behave. Instead, Bandura
posited that our intrinsic motivations and even our current mental state have much to do
with our ability to learn and how we behave.

Learning activity 1: Group Work – Reflection on core ideas of foundational

theories relating to students’ development

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to reflect on core ideas of
foundational theories relating to students’ development

You will think about the core ideas of foundational theories of child development
(Behavioral theories, cognitive developmental theories, social cognitive theories,
psychodynamic theory). You will fill your responses in the following table.
Table 2.8. Core ideas of foundational theories relating to development of the
students
Forces that drive
Theories Basic aims
development
Behavioral theory

Cognitive theory

Social cognitive (or)Social

learning theory

Psychodynamic theory

You have learned about physical, cognitive emotional and social developments of the
child in year 2 and year 3. In this section, you will study about the development of
teenagers.

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Teenage development

It is important to understand the science of child development as the teachers apply

research findings to their classrooms. You need to understand the multiple factors from
genes to culture that influence children. The ways you think about children will
influence whether you whether you promote positive outcomes and resilience in your
students.
Research in teenage development has produced some interesting findings. After the age
of 18 months, our rate of brain development generally decreases with time. However,
during the teen years, the rate of brain development increases again. This is thought to be
due to the reorganization of the brain as teenagers develop their identity and their
autonomy. This is a natural development triggered by hormonal changes.
Teenagers experience very rapid and dramatic changes of their bodies, their emotions
and their social relationships. Their links with their family become more distant, while
their links with friends become stronger. At the same time they also face big decisions in
their life about their future: passing exams, getting a job and starting a family. Teenagers
easily become stressed, resulting in anger, depression or low self esteem. Their rapid
development also uses a lot of energy, so they are also often tried.
Teenagers crave excitement and new experiences, and this makes them obsessed with
sport, music or sometimes reckless behavior. They worry about their appearance, and
worry about fitting in with their groups of friends, so they take risks to express their
identity and solidarity with friends. They also take risks to prove their autonomy.
Sometimes these risks are dangerous.
Dealing with teenagers is difficult for parents and teachers. They feel upset when their
teenager questions their authority. They don’t approve of many of the teenager’s
relationships, decisions or values. They worry that the teenager will make serious
mistakes. The best way to help teenagers is to encourage them in this period of
development. Encourage them in their interests that are not harmful. Set rules for
behavior, but focus only on important things, not the pretty. Usually, teenagers are
looking for good role models that they can respect and be guided by: parents and
teachers should provide this for them.

Learning activity 2: Pair work – Designing classroom practices to increase

the developmental skills of students

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to design classroom practices
to increase the developmental skills of students.

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You will read and reflect the development of teenagers and think about how you will
design classroom practices to increase the developmental skills of students. You can
imagine the practices by answering the questions given in table.

Table 2.9. Classroom practices for developmental skills of students

Developmental skills Questions

Physical well-being Do I observe my students closely verify that they are reaching
appropriate physical mile stones?
Do I provide emotional support to children who are overweight or
unusually early or late in puberty?
Do I help students getting enough exercises? Do I encourage
exercise, perhaps by providing physical activity in the classroom
or by taking my class to play?

Learning and cognition Do I aware of the full array of reinforcers operating in my

classroom? Are they facilitating learning? Do I mistakenly
reinforce inappropriate behavior?
Do I use direct instruction? Would my students benefit?
Do I model how to think about problems? Am I aware of which
models my students imitate?
Do I help children construct their own understanding by guiding
experiences, encouraging experiments, asking questions, and
provoking discourse? Do I ask open-ended questions? Could I
talk less and listen more?
Do I connect new material to familiar objects and events? Do I
use hands-on materials when appropriate particularly for novices?
Do I make student thinking (not just answers) public? Do I
encourage students to justify their answers regardless of whether
they are correct?
Do I allow children to choose some of their learning activities
when possible? Do I follow the children’s lead? Do I follow up on
their questions?

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Emotional competence Is there a positive emotional climate in my classroom and the

school?
Do I express emotions of moderate intensity and wide range,
although primarily positive?
Do I model for good regulation and coping when I am emotional?
Do I converse with students about their own and others’
emotions? Do I use students’ emotions, conflicts, or stories as
opportunities to talk about emotions?
Do I respond promptly when students are overly aroused before
they lose control? Do I validate their negative emotions (but not
accept hurtful behaviors?

Social cognition Do I provide students with opportunities to interact with peers

who have different perspectives?
Do I give respect to students, and earn their respect?
Do I give students the opportunities to care for others in my
classroom? If so, do I provide time for self-reflection about it?

Language and listening Do I have any students with poor verbal ability? When a child
misbehaves or performs worse than I expect, do I look for
language problem?
Do I use common words when I talk to my students? Do I directly
teach vocabulary? Do I read to my students or encourage them to
read?
Do my students have opportunities to talk in the classroom? Do I
insist on full sentences answer?
Do I allow extra time for reading tasks or provide oral testing?
What interventions are available in my school?

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Learning activity 3: Group work – Applying an understanding of strategies

to extend the development of students in classroom
situation

The purpose of learning activity for you is to be able to apply an understanding of

strategies to extend the development of students in classroom situation.

You will read and reflect on the learning activity scenario given in Box 2.1. And then,
you will discuss your groups and brainstorm the tasks which will extend the
development of the students. You analyze this activity using the following questions:
Did the students have an opportunity to extend their physical development during this
lesson? And how?
Did the students have an opportunity to extend their cognitive development during this
lesson? And how?
Did the students have an opportunity to extend their social and emotional development
during this lesson? And how?
Did the students have an opportunity to extend their language development during this
lesson? And how?
Box 2.1. Learning activity scenario in the classroom

The teacher introduced the ideas heavy and light by brining two different sized rocks
to the classroom. She asked one student to come and lift them, and which is easy to
lift, and why it’s easiest. The student explained and the teacher introduced the words
heavy and light to help the student explain more effectively. Then the teacher asked
the student to try to lift the teacher’s chair, and decide if it is heavier or lighter than the
biggest rock. Then she asked the student to lift a textbook and tell whether it is heavier
or lighter than the smallest rock. (These two were the same weight, and the teacher
encouraged the student to hold them both at once in deferent hands to decide.)
Then the teacher asked the whole class to use this method to find out if their
notebooks are heavier or lighter than their pencil, ruler, and mathematics textbook.
The teacher encouraged the students to talk about this using the terms heavy, light,
heavier and lighter. Then the teacher asked each student to go outside and bring back
one thing lighter than his/her notebook, and one thing heavier. When the students

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returned with their environmental materials, they sat in small groups and placed all the
things they had collected on the desk. First, they checked each other’s materials, to
make sure they were heavier and lighter than the notebooks. Then they arranged all
their group’s materials in order from heaviest to lightest. They labeled their work. At
the end of the activity, each small group went to see and check the work of another
small group.

2.3.2 Culturally responsive pedagogy

You have learned about culturally responsive teaching in Year 2 and Year 3. In this
lesson, you will learn about cultures and diversities, types of cultural diversity in the
classroom learning, and how to promote diversity and multiculturalism in the classroom.

Expected learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 reflect on the challenges of teaching in culturally diverse classrooms;
 manage to promote diversity and multiculturalism in the classrooms; and
 outline strategies for engaging students to culturally and linguistically diverse
classrooms.
A person's culture may include their race, ethnicity, gender identity, gender expression,
sexual orientation, nationality, language, religion, political affiliation, and
socioeconomic background. Additionally, cultural norms may be influenced by these
differences, such as peer and social group interactions and family or community values.
Often, cultural and linguistic diversities are mentioned together (CLD), while cultural
diversity may often include linguistic diversity, the two terms are not interchangeable.
Special educators must be culturally responsive to all students, especially those students
with disabilities whose culture may influence their educational decisions and outcomes.
Types of cultural diversity in the classroom learning50
Every student is unique. In order to properly understand and promote cultural awareness,
teachers need to understand all the different types of diversity they may encounter in
their classrooms including:
Race: A person’s skin color can have a great impact on their experience in society. It
can also impact how they view themselves and others when engaging in classroom
activities.

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Drexel University (n.d.)

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Ethnicity: Ethnicity relates to a person’s culture and nationality. Ethnicity is sometimes

confused with race, but it is important to recognize that while some people may have the
same skin color, they may come from different places and have vastly different cultural
beliefs and views of the world.
Religion: It is important to understand that people have different religious belief or no
religious beliefs, and it may impact their participation in the classroom. Students may
react differently to lessons based on their religion or may not be able to be present on
certain religious holidays.
Language: While English is commonly used in classrooms, for some students, it is not
the language they speak at home. Accommodations should be made to help students for
whom English is a second language.
Socioeconomic status: A student’s socioeconomic status can affect their ability to
participate in the classroom without some type of accommodation. For instance, access
to a computer at home or reliable internet access is not a given for some children.
Teachers should be aware of this and the stress it may cause students who may struggle
due to a lack of resources.
Sexual orientation: A student’s sexual orientation can have a great impact on how they
are experiencing the world. Teachers should understand the struggles that exist and
ensure that the lessons taught in their classroom are inclusive.

Learning activity 4: Group Work – Reflecting on the challenges of teaching in

culturally and linguistically diverse classroom

The purpose of this activity for you is to reflect on the challenges of teaching in
culturally and linguistically diverse classroom.

You will think about the concepts of culturally diverse classroom and reflect on the
challenges of teaching. You will response the ideas based on the following facts:
challenges for teachers, and challenges for students.
How can you promote diversity and multiculturalism in the classroom?
There are several ways teachers and administrators, such as principals and coaches, can
ensure that both the classroom environment and curriculum are responsive to the
increasing cultural diversity of our society. These strategies will encourage all students’
cultural awareness, enhancing each student’s sense of identity, and foster inclusion in the
classroom community51.

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(a) Get to know your students: Ensuring that cultural awareness is promoted in the
classroom starts with the teacher understanding each individual student. Take the
time to learn about each student’s cultural background, hobbies, learning styles,
and what makes them unique. Demonstrating a genuine interest in learning about
each student and their culture will help establish trust and allow you to form a
bond with them so they feel valued. If students feel appreciated by and
comfortable with the teacher, there’s a better chance they’ll feel comfortable
talking with and respect their peers in the class – and communication is the core
to a culturally aware and inclusive classroom.
(b) Maintain consistent communication: Aside from getting to know your
students, teachers should also continue to maintain ongoing communication
throughout the semester or school year. Scheduling 1-on-1 meetings with
students to “check in” every so often will allow you to consistently improve how
accessible the classroom is to everyone. Students can talk about whether they felt
included in the classroom culture. This can help identify issues or ways to
improve the overall experience. It’s also an opportunity to discuss their progress
in the class and offer guidance on how they can improve, based on their
individual needs as a student.
(c) Acknowledge and respect every student: It’s also important for students to
celebrate and respect their own diverse backgrounds, as well as each other’s.
When appropriate, teachers should encourage students to research and learn
about their own ethnic and cultural backgrounds. This allows them to better
understand their own culture as well as the differences and nuances with their
peers. As a bonus, this can be a great ice breaker assignment, allowing students
to give presentations about their family traditions and culture to help expose the
class to concepts outside of their own familiar comfort zone. Acknowledging
these differences and creating a safe space for discussion helps promote
understanding in the classroom and beyond. Also, as you encourage students to
learn about their diverse backgrounds, remember to take the time to highlight
what’s offensive and the distinction between cultural celebration and
appropriation. Learning how to talk about other cultures in a respectful, mature
way is essential for success in life outside the classroom.
(d) Practice cultural sensitivity: While it’s important to keep an open dialogue
amongst students, it’s equally as important to make sure you’re being sensitive to
everyone’s culture, beliefs, and language concerns. Take the time to understand
each student’s cultural nuances – from learning styles to the language they use –
and use these insights to design your lesson plans. For example, provide English
language learners with appropriate and relevant resources that help them improve
their English comprehension skills. Rather than teach with a traditional lecture

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style, create learning experiences that are more interactive and require
collaboration. These considerations will help ensure that every student feels
included, is given the space to learn in their own way and is given a chance to
succeed.
(e) Incorporate diversity in the lesson plan: The classroom environment is
important for fostering cultural awareness, but you also should ensure diversity is
represented in your actual lesson plan. For example, broaden history lessons so
that they encompass the world beyond United States history and culture. Or, use
references and analogies to other cultures in your lessons and assignments to help
students with diverse backgrounds personally connect. Another great strategy is
bringing in diverse speakers to add varying points of view and real-life context to
different subjects. There are several ways you can ingrain cultural awareness and
diversity into your lesson plan, and it will vary depending on the cultures
represented in your classroom and the course you’re teaching. Regardless of the
subject, always try to present and connect lessons to real-world issues. It’s easier
to promote cultural awareness within your lessons when there’s a real example
for students to relate to.
(f) Give students freedom and flexibility: Teachers often feel like they need to
take on a strict, authoritative approach when it comes to managing their
classroom. The most valuable lessons are often learned through a student’s own
experiences, so giving them some freedom in the course encourages more
connection to the curriculum. Allow students to read and present their own
materials that relate to the fundamental lesson so they can approach the topic
from their own perspective. As a teacher, you can act as a facilitator and
encourage conversation and healthy debate between diverse opinions. Group
assignments are also a great way to expose students to diverse perspectives,
allowing them to work together to explore and solve a problem. This will also
help prepare them for a diverse workforce where they’ll have to partner with a
range of people to accomplish their professional goals.
Involvement of family and community in culturally diverse classroom
Making a classroom more culturally responsive means engaging families and
communities in the academic lives of students. Research has shown when parents and
communities are involved, students are more likely to attend school regularly, complete
homework, earn better grades, have better social skills, maintain better relationships with
their parents, and have higher self-esteem. Involvement can occur several different ways,
including parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making,
and collaborating with the community.

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Educators should communicate with families, not just when there is a discipline issue,
but when something positive occurs. Open and honest communication with families can
lead to greater trust and develops a nurturing relationship which allows teachers to ask
questions and learn more about their students and their backgrounds. Reaching out
before the school term begins and providing ways parents can communicate with the
teacher can be very helpful. Teachers might even invite parents to complete an interest
survey to better understand their students. Dialoging with parents about community or
support resources to strengthen schools can not only lead to increased awareness but can
also build the community relationships that are necessary to support students. Many
schools also ensure translators are available for families and provide transportation
vouchers to enable them to attend school meetings and events. Finally, making time for
impromptu conversations and organic check-ins can enable families to feel more
included and more comfortable.
There are some other important points you will require to know about cultural capital
and cultural mismatch. Cultural capital 52 refers to knowledge and relationships that can
be invested to gain benefits. In school settings, cultural capital includes knowledge about
school policies, what language usage is acceptable, how to learn class content, how to
take tests, who can intervene to help a child (e.g., teacher, principal, or classroom aide),
how to find mentors, what credentials are necessary for specific jobs, how to use
internet, and so forth. Students who have school-relevant knowledge, or who have
parents who do, have cultural capital in school setting.
Cultural mismatch: some ethnic groups experience cultural mismatch at school.
Cultural mismatch refers to a pattern of in compatibilities between home and school.
Cultural mismatch is stressful. It can lead to poor adjustment to school and placement in
special education. It can also lead to emotional disturbance.

Learning activity 5: Pair work – Managing to promote diversity and

multiculturalism in the classroom.

The purpose of this activity for you is to manage diversity and multiculturalism in the
classrooms.

You will work with your partner and discuss about the diversity and multiculturalism in
the classroom. You will consider the responses of the following questions:
 How will you acquire cultural knowledge of the students?
 What will you do if there is cultural mismatch between your students and
your classroom?

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 What characteristics do you need to express for students in culturally diverse

classroom?

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Culturally responsive teaching53

Culturally responsive teaching is multi-faceted. It is not focused solely on
curriculum materials or on one instructional approach, and it cannot be achieved
by following a set of prescriptive steps.
(a) Activate students' prior knowledge: This might include asking students what
they know about a particular concept and connecting that to the lesson you’re
introducing. For example, before you begin a story about a character adjusting to
life in other region, you might ask students to think about when they’ve
encountered a new environment.
(b) Make learning contextual: When discussing a text or primary source that is
from or about another time, place, or culture, encourage students to connect it to
their lives or the current moment. Try asking questions.
(c) Consider your classroom setup: One way to communicate to students that they
matter is to ensure they are reflected in the classroom environment. Ask yourself:
Are there authors of different races visible in the classroom? Are different
languages and countries displayed? Are people with disabilities seen?
(d) Form relationships: Connecting to students as people is vital to culturally
responsive instruction. Learning about students’ interests, likes, dislikes, family
members, and aspirations are all ways to build relationships. And remember to
share about yourself. The best relationships are mutual, built on transparency and
trust.
(e) Discuss social and political issues: Help students discuss and learn about
current issues that are germane to them, including immigration, community-
police relations, environmental concerns, women’s rights, and race relations. The
goal is not to tell students what to think, but to teach them how to become
informed and engage in respectful dialogue.
(f) Tap into students’ cultural capital: Seek ways for students to use and share the
skills, knowledge, and strengths they bring to the classroom. Give students
opportunities to respond to literature in a variety of ways and to help each other
do so. If students speak more than one language, allow them to use languages
other than Myanmar and, when possible (and without putting them on the spot),
to share vocabulary.
(g) Incorporate popular culture: Connect the music, movies, and other media
students are interested into the content of the classroom. For some students,
video games, fashion, or sports are automatic ways to grab their attention and
connect to their interests.

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In classrooms where culturally responsive education is practiced, we often see an

increase in students’ effort and a rise in participation. Most importantly, we see students
grow as learners. Our ultimate goal is to create cultural democracies in our classrooms,
where students are continually interacting with a wide range of backgrounds,
experiences, and realities, and where every student feels respected, important, and proud.

Learning activity 6: Group work- Outlining strategies for engaging students

in culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms

The purpose of this activity for you is to outline strategies for engaging students in
culturally and linguistically diverse classrooms

You will study the strategies for students to engage in culturally and linguistically
diverse classrooms. And then, you will fill strategies to support student engagement.
You will think about the ideas based on given concepts.
 Cultural course content
 Meaningful methodology
 Assessments

Review Questions

Question 1: What are the basic ideas of life-span perspective?

Question 2: What are two types learning that emerged from behavioral child
development theory?

Question 3: Describe the emotions of teenagers.

Question 4: What are the different types of cultural diversity in the classroom
learning?

Question 5: What are the strategies that encourage cultural awareness?

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Unit summary

Key messages

 Effective teacher needs deep understanding of four types of knowledge.

• The first is knowledge of your subject.
• The second is knowledge about how students learn.
• The third is general pedagogical knowledge.
• The fourth is pedagogical content knowledge.
 At the heart of the technological pedagogical content knowledge framework, is
the complex interplay of three primary forms of knowledge: content knowledge,
pedagogy, and technology.
 The technological pedagogical content knowledge approach goes beyond seeing
these three knowledge bases in isolation.
 The technological pedagogical content knowledge framework goes further by
emphasizing the kinds of knowledge that lie at the intersections between three
primary forms: pedagogical content knowledge, technological content
knowledge, technological pedagogical knowledge, and technological pedagogical
content knowledge.
 In inquiry-based learning students:
• Clarify the purpose of their inquiry.
• Develop their inquiry questions.
• Develop an inquiry strategy.
• Locate information/gather data.
• Filter, organize, analyse and evaluate the information or data.
• Develop an answer to the inquiry question.
• Report the results of their inquiry in an appropriate way.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of their inquiry strategies.
 Problem-based learning is: problem-focused, student-centered, self-directed, and
self-reflective
 Three key developmental processes are biological, cognitive and socioemotional.
Development is influenced by interplay of these processes. Three important
issues in the study of development are the nature-nurture issue, the continuity-
discontinuity issue, and the stability-change issue.
 Teenagers experience very rapid and dramatic changes of their bodies, their
emotions and their social relationships. Their links with their family become
more distant, while their links with friends become stronger.
 Often, cultural and linguistic diversities are mentioned together (CLD), while
cultural diversity may often include linguistic diversity, the two terms are not

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interchangeable. Special educators must be culturally responsive to all students,

especially those students with disabilities whose culture may influence their
educational decisions and outcomes.
 In classrooms where culturally responsive education is practiced, we often see an
increase in students’ effort and a rise in participation. Most importantly, we see
students grow as learners. Our ultimate goal is to create cultural democracies in
our classrooms, where students are continually interacting with a wide range of
backgrounds, experiences, and realities, and where every student feels respected,
important, and proud.

Unit reflection

1. What is pedagogical content knowledge?

2. What is pedagogical technological content knowledge?
3. What is inquiry-based learning?
4. What is problem-based learning?
5. All the concepts that you have studied are important for teachers who have to
bring up the students. You need to know thoroughly about learner development
and cultural diversity in the classroom.

Further reading

2.1. Assuring understanding of technological pedagogical content

knowledge (TPACK)

Killen, R. (2016). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice.
Melbourne: Cengage Learning.
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content
knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1),
60-70.
Lim, C. P, Chai, C. S. & Churchill, D. (2010). Leading ICT in education practices: A
capacity-building toolkit for teacher education institutions in the Asia-Pacific.
Perth: (Edith Cowan University): Microsoft Corporation.

2.2. Assuring understanding of inquiry-based learning

Barell, J. (2010). Problem-based learning: The foundation for 21 st century skills. In J.

Bellanca & R. Brandt. (Eds.), 21st century skills: Rethinking how students learn.
Bloomington IN: Solution Tree Press.

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Barrett, T & Moore, S. (2011). (Eds.). New approaches to problem-based learning:

Revitalising your practice in higher education. Oxon: Taylor & Francis.
Center for Biological Diversity. (n.d.). 10 Facts about Single Use Plastic Bags.
Retrieved from https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_
and_sustainability/sustainability/plastic_bag_facts.html
Jonassen, D. H. (2011). Learning to solve problems: A handbook for designing
problem-solving learning environments. Oxon: Taylor & Francis.
Levin, B. B. (2001). (Ed.). Energizing teacher education and professional development
with problem-based learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Schmidt, D.A., Baran, E., Thompson, A. D., Mishra, P., Koehler, M.J., & Shin, T. S.
(2009). Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): The
development and validation of an assessment instrument for preservice teachers.
Journal of Research on Technology in Education JRTE, 42(2), 123–149.
Stanton, M. & McCaffrey, M. (2011). Designing authentic PBL problems in
multidisciplinary groups. In T. Barrett & S. Moore (Eds.), New approaches to
problem-based learning: Revitalising your practice in higher education. Oxon:
Taylor & Francis.

2.3. Assuring Understanding of Learner Development and Diversity

Bergin, C.C & Bergin, D.A. (2012). Child and adolescent development in your
classroom. International Edition. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Cherry, Kendra, MSEd. (n.d.). 7 Main Developmental Theories. Updated on March 13,
2023. Medically reviewed by Amy Morin, LCSW. Retrieved from
http://www.verywellmind.com/child-development-theories-2795068
Drexel University (n.d.). The importance of diversity & multicultural awareness in
education. Retrieved from http://www.drexel.com.
Howard, Tyrone. C. (2020). Culturally responsive teaching strategies and instrumental
practices. Retrieved from http://www.hmhco.com.

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Unit 3. Strategies for Effective Learning

In this unit, you will learn about critical and creative thinking, blended learning and
cooperative learning, mastery learning and self-regulated learning, and practicing in
virtual learning environment.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 discuss critical thinking in middle school;

 apply the appropriate critical thinking strategies in planning for teaching and
learning in middle school;
 discuss creative thinking in middle school;
 apply the appropriate activities to develop creative thinking skills for effective
learning in middle school;
 examine the blended learning in middle school;
 plan the blended learning activities that can be used effectively in the middle
school;
 organize school, family and community partnerships for the effective learning;
 design how to create the collaborative school culture for effective learning;
 discuss and reflect on the concept of mastery learning;
 apply the principles of mastery learning for effective learning in middle school;
 apply the self-regulated learning strategies in teaching learning process;
 reflect on the concept of virtual learning environment; and
 design virtual classroom for effective learning.

Competencies Gained

 A 1.1 Demonstrate understanding of how students learn relevant to their age

and developmental stage
 A 1.2 Demonstrate understanding of how different teaching methods can
meet students’ individual learning needs
 A 2.1 Demonstrate understanding of appropriate use of a variety of teaching
and learning strategies and resources
 A 2.2 Demonstrate understanding of appropriate use of information and
communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning
 A 3.2 Demonstrate understanding of appropriate use of information and

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communication technology (ICT) in teaching learning

 A 5.2 Demonstrate understanding or how to vary delivery of subject content
to meet students’ learning needs and the learning context
 B 1.1 Demonstrate capacity to teach subject-related concepts clearly and
engagingly
 B 1.2 Demonstrate capacity to teach subject-related concepts and content
clearly and engagingly
 B 1.3 Demonstrate good lesson planning and preparation in line with
students’ learning ability and experience
 B 2.1 Demonstrate capacity to keep detailed assessment records and use the
assessment information to guide students’ learning progress
 B 3.1 Demonstrate capacity to create a safe and effective learning
environment for all students
 B 3.2 Demonstrate strategies for managing student behavior
 C 1.1 Demonstrate values and attitudes consistent with Myanmar’s tradition
of perceiving teachers as role models
 C 1.2 Demonstrate understanding of the underlying ideas that influence one’s
practice as a professional teacher
 C 1.4 Demonstrate responsibility and accountability for the use of education
resources
 C 3.1 Demonstrate a high regard for each student’s right to education and
treat all students equitably
 C 3.2 Demonstrate respect for diversity of students and the belief that all
children can learn according to their capacities
 D 1.1 regularly reflect on own teaching practices and its impact on student
learning
 D 3.1 Demonstrate understanding of the importance of inquiry and research-
based learning to improve teaching practice

Key terms

Analytical skills, mastery-based learning, self-regulation, virtual learning

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3.1. Critical and Creative Thinking

In this subunit, you will study critical and creative thinking in middle school context.
Critical and creative thinking are important higher order thinking skills. The students
need to develop these skills to solve the problems which they face in real situation.

3.1.1. Developing critical thinking in middle school

You have learned about defining critical thinking, list of critical thinking, cognitive
skills and sub-skills, elements of critical thinking and strategies and activities to develop
critical thinking in Year 3. In this lesson, you will learn about the aim of critical
thinking, how to help students hone their thinking skills, solid strategies for teaching
critical thinking skills and ways of teaching critical thinking skills

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss critical thinking in middle school; and
 apply the appropriate critical thinking strategies in planning for teaching and
learning in middle school.

Critical thinking
Critical thinking is a higher order well-disciplined thought process, which involves to
use of cognitive skills like conceptualization, analysis, synthesis and evaluation for
arriving at a unbiased, valid and reliable judgment of the gathered or communicated
information or data as a guide to one’s belief and action.54
Critical thinking occurs when students are analyzing, evaluating, interpreting, or
synthesizing information and applying creative thought to form an argument, solve a
problem, or reach a conclusion. The aim of critical thinking is to promote independent
thinking, personal autonomy and reasoned judgment in thought and action. This involves
two related dimensions: The ability to reason well and the disposition to do so.
Critical thinking involves logic as well as creativity. It may involve inductive and
deductive reasoning, analysis and problem-solving as well as creative, innovative and
complex approaches to the resolution of issues and challenges.
One of the significant aims of education is to produce learners who are well informed,
that is to say, learners should understand ideas that are important, useful, beautiful and
powerful. Another is to create learners who have the appetite to think analytically and
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critically, to use what they know to enhance their own lives and also to contribute to
their society, culture and civilization. Every pupil should have an effective skill of
critical thinking, and they must not accept anything for granted. It’s the ability of the
child to think about anything and everything.
Helping students hone their critical thinking skills55
Critical thinking skills are important in every discipline, at and beyond school. From
managing money to choosing which candidates to vote for in elections to making
difficult career choices, students need to be prepared to take in, synthesize, and act on
new information in a world that is constantly changing.
While critical thinking might seem like an abstract idea that is tough to directly instruct,
there are many engaging ways to help students strengthen these skills through active
learning. Used consistently, the following strategies can help middle and high school
teachers guide students to improve much-needed skills.
Make time for metacognitive reflection: Create space for students to both reflect on
their ideas and discuss the power of doing so. Show students how they can push back on
their own thinking to analyze and question their assumptions. Students might ask
themselves, “Why is the best answer? What information supports my answer? What
might someone with a counterargument say?”
Through this reflection, students and teachers (who can model reflecting on their own
thinking) gain deeper understandings of their ideas and do a better job articulating their
beliefs. It is important to help students understand that it is OK to take a breath and think
about their ideas before putting them out into the world. And taking time for reflection
helps us more thoughtfully consider others’ ideas, too.
Teach reasoning skills: Reasoning skills are another key component of critical thinking,
involving the abilities to think logically, evaluate evidence, identify assumptions, and
analyze arguments. Students who learn how to use reasoning skills will be better
equipped to make informed decisions, form and defend opinions, and solve problems.
One way to teach reasoning is to use problem-solving activities that require students to
apply their skills to practical contexts. For example, give students a real problem to
solve, and ask them to use reasoning skills to develop a solution. They can then present
their solution and defend their reasoning to the class and engage in discussion about
whether and how their thinking changed when listening to peers’ perspectives.
Ask open-ended questions: Moving beyond the repetition of facts, critical thinking
requires students to take positions and explain their beliefs through research, evidence,
and explanations of credibility.

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When we pose open-ended questions, we create space for classroom discourse inclusive
of diverse, perhaps opposing, ideas—grounds for rich exchanges that support deep
thinking and analysis.
For example, “How would you approach the problem?” and “Where might you look to
find resources to address this issue?” are two open-ended questions that position students
to think less about the “right” answer and more about the variety of solutions that might
already exist.
Journaling, whether digitally or physically in a notebook, is another great way to have
students answer these open-ended prompts—giving them time to think and organize
their thoughts before contributing to a conversation, which can ensure that more voices
are heard.
Once students process in their journal, small group or whole class conversations help
bring their ideas to life. Discovering similarities between answers helps reveal to
students that they are not alone, this can encourage future participation in constructive
civil discourse.
Teach information literacy: Education has moved far past the idea of “Be careful of
what is on Wikipedia, because it might not be true.” With AI innovations making their
way into classrooms, teachers know that informed readers must question everything.
Understanding what is and is not a reliable source and knowing how to vet information
are important skills for students to build and utilize when making informed decisions.
You might start by introducing the idea of bias: Articles, ads, memes, videos, and every
other form of media can push an agenda that students may not see on the surface.
Discuss credibility, subjectivity, and objectivity, and look at examples and non-examples
of trusted information to prepare students to be well-informed members of a democracy.
Giving students the ability to create their own falsified information can help them better
identify it in other contexts. Understanding that information can be “too good to be true”
can help them identify future falsehoods.
Provide diverse perspectives: Consider how to keep the classroom from becoming an
echo chamber. If students come from the same community, they may have similar
perspectives. And those who have differing perspectives may not feel comfortable
sharing them in the face of an opposing majority.
To support varying viewpoints, bring diverse voices into the classroom as much as
possible, especially when discussing current events. Use primary sources: videos from
YouTube, essays and articles written by people who experienced current events
firsthand, documentaries that dive deeply into topics that require some nuance, and any
other resources that provide a varied look at topics.

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Practice makes perfect: To make the above strategies and thinking routines a
consistent part of your classroom, spread them out—and build upon them—over the
course of the school year. You might challenge students with information and/or
examples that require them to use their critical thinking skills; work these skills
explicitly into lessons, projects, rubrics, and self-assessments; or have students practice
identifying misinformation or unsupported arguments.
Critical thinking is not learned in isolation. It needs to be explored in English language
arts, social studies, science, physical education, mathematics. Every discipline requires
students to take a careful look at something and find the best solution. Often, these
skills are taken for granted, viewed as a by-product of a good education, but true critical
thinking doesn’t just happen. It requires consistency and commitment.
In a moment when information and misinformation abound, and students must parse
reams of information, it is imperative that we support and model critical thinking in the
classroom to support the development of well-informed citizens.

Learning activity 1: Pair work- Critical thinking in learning area.

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to discuss the concept of
critical thinking.
You will reflect on the main themes of critical thinking. You will think about the ideas
based on the following questions.
1. How do you understand critical thinking?
2.What critical thinking skills do the students usually possess?
3.Why is critical thinking important for students?
4.How do you strengthen your students’ thinking skills?
Solid strategies for teaching critical thinking skills56
Teaching critical thinking skills is a necessity with our learners because they’re crucial
for living life. As such, every teacher is looking for exciting ways to integrate it into
classrooms. However, what exactly are these skills, and what are some of the best
strategies teachers can use for teaching them?
Thinking critically is more than just thinking clearly or rationally; it’s about
thinking independently. It means formulating your own opinions and drawing your
conclusions regardless of outside influence. It’s about the discipline of analysis and
seeing the connections between ideas, and being wide open to other viewpoints and
opinions.
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You can use these techniques for teaching critical thinking skills in every lesson and
subject. Get creative and find different ways to incorporate them into your teaching
practices.
Ways of Teaching Critical Thinking Skills57
1. Begin with a question
Starting with a question is the most straightforward foray into a subject. What do you
want to explore and discuss? It shouldn’t be a question you can answer with a ‘yes’ or a
‘no’. You want to develop essential questions here, ones that inspire a quest for
knowledge and problem-solving. They’ll support the development of critical thinking
skills beautifully.
When you post your question to learners, encourage brainstorming. Write down possible
answers on a chalkboard or oversized pad as a reference. Having open discussions with
learners is a big part of defining the problem.
2. Create a foundation
Learners cannot think critically if they do not have the information they need. Begin any
exercise with a review of related data which ensures they can recall facts pertinent to the
topic.
These may stem from things like:
 reading assignments and other homework
 previous lessons or exercises
 a video or text
3. Consult the classics
Classical literary works are a perfect launch pad for exploring great thinking. Use them
for specific lessons on character motivation, plot predictions, and themes.
4. Create a country
This could be a tremendous project-based learning scenario about learning what makes a
country. In the process, learners experience history, geography, politics, and more.
5. Use information literacy
Mastering the proper use of information is crucial to our student's success in school and
life. It’s about learning how to dig through knowledge to find the most useful and
appropriate facts for solving a problem. Students must learn to amass the proper
expertise to inform their thinking. Teaching critical thinking skills can be supported by
an understanding of how to analyze, organize, and clarify information.

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6. Utilize peer groups

There is comfort in numbers, as the saying goes. Digital learners thrive in environments
involving teamwork and collaboration. A learner’s peers are an excellent source of
information, questions, and problem-solving techniques.
7. Try one sentence
Try this exercise: form groups of 8-10 learners. Next, instruct each learner to write one
sentence describing a topic on a piece of paper. The learner then passes the paper to the
next one who adds their understanding of the next step in a single sentence. This time,
though, the learner folds the paper down to cover their sentence. Now only their
sentence is visible and no other, so each time they pass the paper you can see only one
sentence.
The object is for learners to keep adding the next step of their understanding. This
teaches them to home in on a specific moment in time. Additionally, they learn to apply
their knowledge and logic to explain themselves as clearly as possible.
8. Activate problem-solving
Assigning a specific problem is one of the best avenues for teaching critical thinking
skills. Leave the goal or “answer” open-ended for the broadest possible approach. This is
the essence of asking essential questions requiring the discovery and synthesis of
knowledge through critical thinking. Ultimately, with the correct process to guide you,
it's best to teach critical thinking and problem-solving skills simultaneously.
9. Return to role-playing
Role-playing has always been an excellent method for exercising critical thinking. It’s
why actors do tireless research for their roles as it involves inhabiting another persona
and its characteristics. Becoming someone else calls upon stretching both your analytical
and creative mind.
Pair learners up and have them research a conflict involving an interaction between two
famous historical figures. Then lead them to decide which character they each choose to
play. They’ll each have different points of view in this conflict. Have them discuss it
until they can mutually explain the other’s point of view. Their final challenge will be to
each suggest a compromise.
10. Speaking through sketching
Though we are inherently visual learners, it can be challenging to communicate an idea
without words effectively. Nevertheless, translating thoughts to picture form encourages
critical thinking beautifully. It guides learners to think using a different mental skill set,
and it’s also a great way to get them truly invested in an idea.

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11. Make it a priority

Every subject offers opportunities for critical thinking, so put teaching critical thinking
skills at the forefront of your lessons. Check to understand and provide room for
discussion, even if such periods are brief. You’ll begin to see critical thinking as a
culture rather than just an activity.
12. Change their misconceptions
Critical thinking involves intensive work and concentration, but learners should practice
it themselves for much of the process. That said, it can be helpful to step in partway
through their process. Apart from correcting misconceptions or assumptions, you’ll offer
more vibrant lessons, more in-depth exploration, and better lifelong learning.
Teaching the Critical Path
Teaching critical thinking skills carries the potential to exhibit a profound impact on a
learner's intellectual development and overall success in life. By encouraging critical
thinking constantly, educators empower their learners with the ability to analyze
information, evaluate its credibility and relevance, and make informed decisions.
And here’s even better news—teaching critical thinking also cultivates creativity,
empathy, and open-mindedness, skills that enable any learner to approach complex
issues from multiple perspectives, engage in constructive debates, and develop well-
rounded arguments. Ultimately, though, it is through teaching critical thinking that we
help learners become better citizens and contributors to an ever-changing world.

Learning activity 2: Individual work – Applying the appropriate critical

thinking strategies in planning for teaching and
learning

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to apply the appropriate critical
thinking strategies in planning for teaching and learning.

You will design a learning activity that will enable your students to engage with critical
thinking about the topic “Natural Hazards” from science subject. (See Science
Curriculum, Unit 5, Grade 9)
You will consider the points based on the following questions:
1. What is strategy?
2. What is the main learning objective of the activity?
3. What is the task?
4. What questions will the students need to answer critically?
5. What do you plan for students to engage in activity?

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6. What have they learned after the activity?

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3.1.2. Developing creative thinking in middle school

You have studied about creative thinking, differences between critical and creative
thinking, habits and behaviors of creative thinkers and planning to develop creative
thinking in learning middle school in Year 3. In this lesson, you will learn about creative
thinking skills, why teachers should promote creative thinking in school and how to
develop creative thinking skills.

Expected learning outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss creative thinking in middle school; and
 apply the appropriate activities to develop creative thinking skills for effective
learning in middle school.
Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is all about developing innovative solutions to problems. Creative
thinkers brainstorm not only a large number of ideas but also a variety and range of
them. In the workplace, creative thinking is highly valuable because employers look to
hire innovative employees who can help them solve the company’s problems.
A creative person brainstorms their ideas, and then they’ll experiment with them. They
look at ideas from multiple perspectives and examine how their solutions fit into the
scope of what they’re working on. Creative thinkers aren’t afraid to take risks and try
new ideas. In fact, this ability to develop, test, and implement original solutions makes
them valuable assets to just about any workplace.
Why teacher should promote creative thinking in school 58
Creative thinking is the process of coming up with new and innovative ideas by using
imagination and originality. It involves generating novel ideas, approaches, or solutions
to problems that have not been thought of before. There are different ways to stimulate
creative thinking, such as brainstorming, mind mapping, exploring different
perspectives, asking questions, challenging assumptions, and using analogies. It also
involves being open-minded, flexible, curious, and willing to take risks and try new
things.
Creative thinking is important in many areas of life, including art, science, business, and
everyday problem-solving. It allows us to approach challenges in new ways, discover
opportunities, and find innovative solutions to problems. It can also lead to personal

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growth and fulfillment, as it encourages us to explore our passions and interests and
express our unique perspectives.
Creative Thinking Examples59
Creative thinking includes the process of innovative problem-solving from analyzing the
facts to brainstorming to working with others. Creative thinking examples include
analytical skills, innovation, and collaboration.
Analytical Skill: Analytical skills are problem-solving skills that help you sort through
facts, data, and information to develop rational solutions. These skills aid you in the first
part of the creative thinking process as you brainstorm and start to generate ideas.
Analytical skills include: Data analysis, Research, Forecasting, Reporting, Interpreting,
Communication
Innovation: Innovation is the ability to come up with something new; however, you
don’t need to develop the first flying car to be an innovative thinker. “Something new”
at work might mean a method you haven’t tried before or experimenting with an
unfamiliar process. Innovators in the workplace aren’t afraid to step away from tradition
and explore something original, even if it might fail.
Innovation skills include: Risk-taking, Brainstorming, Imagining, Critical thinking,
Ambition, Resilience

Learning activity 3: Group Work – Creative thinking in learning area

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to discuss the concept of
creativity in learning area.

You will think about the main concepts of creative thinking. You will response the
following questions.
1. Why do students need to be creative?
2. What is the teacher’s role in enhancing creativity?
3. How to foster a creative classroom environment?
4. How does the teacher help the students to be creative?

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How to Develop Creative Thinking Skill 60

There are several ways to develop creative thinking skills. Here are a few strategies that
you can try:
Practice brainstorming: Set aside time to generate as many ideas as possible about a
specific topic. Write down all your ideas without censoring or judging them. The more
ideas you generate, the more likely you'll discover a unique and innovative solution.
Seek out new experiences: Exposing yourself to new and different experiences can help
to stimulate your imagination and creativity. Try new hobbies, travel to new places, or
attend events outside of your usual routine.
Question assumptions: Challenge your assumptions and biases about a situation or
problem. Look at the problem from different angles and ask yourself what would happen
if you changed your approach.
Cultivate curiosity: Develop a curious mindset and ask questions about the world
around you. Try to understand why things are the way they are, and how they could be
different.
Use mind-mapping: Mind-mapping is a visual tool that can help you to explore
connections between different ideas and concepts. It can help you to generate new ideas
and explore relationships between different elements.
Collaborate with others: Collaborating with others can help you to expand your
perspectives and generate new ideas. Work with people from diverse backgrounds or
with different skill sets to gain new insights and approaches. Give yourself permission to
fail: Creative thinking often involves taking risks and trying new things. Be willing to
take chances and embrace failure as an opportunity to learn and grow. Remember,
developing creative thinking skills takes practice and patience. By incorporating these
strategies into your daily routine, you can cultivate your creativity and unlock new
solutions to problems.
Collaboration: Creative thinking doesn’t have to happen alone; you might have your
most creative ideas when bouncing your work off others. Collaboration skills ensure you
consider multiple perspectives and ways of thinking when you develop and refine ideas.
 Collaboration skills include: Written and verbal communication, active listening,
Empathy, Feedback, Inclusivity

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Learning activity 4: Group work – Appropriate activity to develop creative

thinking skills for effective learning

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to apply appropriate activity to
develop creative thinking skills for effective learning.

You will apply a learning activity to develop creative thinking skills. The task will centre
on the Science Topic, “Universe and Observable Things in a Space from the Earth”. (See
Science Curriculum, Grade 9)
You will think about the ideas based on the following questions.
1. What is the learning goal for the task? (What do you want the students to learn?)
2. What is the task?
3. What is the aim of the task? (What is the common goal that each group of
students needs to work towards?)
4. What will the students need to do demonstrate creative thinking?
5. How will the teacher help students to engage in task?

Review Questions
Question 1: What does critical thinking involve?

Question 2 What does teaching critical thinking cultivate the learners?

Question 3 What are the characteristics of creative thinkers?

Question 4 What are the ways to stimulate creative thinking?

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3.2. Blended learning and cooperative learning

In this sub-unit, you will have to study blended learning and cooperative learning
environment in middle school.

3.2.1. Blended learning in middle school

You have learned the types of blended learning, benefits of blended learning, issues for
students, teachers, and schools, and blended strategies in Year 3. In this lesson, student
teachers will learn about blended learning models, characteristics of blended learning,
and blended learning examples.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 examine the blended learning in middle school; and
 plan the blended learning activities that can be used effectively in the middle
school.

Blended learning

Figure 3.1. Blended learning (Credit: eDynamic Learning)

Blended learning, also known as hybrid learning, represents a seamless integration of
traditional, face-to-face classroom instruction with digital, online learning. It is a
pedagogical approach that aims to combine the best of both worlds. Blended learning is
no longer an option for classrooms. The combination of face-to-face instruction and
online learning opportunities allows for individualization, flexibility, and greater chance
for student success. Meeting diverse needs of individual students has always been a
challenge for teachers. With only so many minutes in a class or so many hours in a day,
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to honor all learning styles. Adding online learning experiences to face-to-face delivery
has been one solution to these struggles, and research seems to point to the success of
these hybrids.
Key characteristics of blended learning 61
1. Online and in-person elements
Blended learning employs a combination of face-to-face classroom sessions and online
activities. This blend offers students a diverse learning experience that spans physical
interactions and digital engagement.
2. Flexibility in scheduling
Unlike the rigid schedules of traditional learning, blended learning provides students
with more autonomy over their learning pace. They can access online resources and
assignments at their convenience, allowing for a personalized learning journey.
3. Student-centered approach
Blended learning encourages students to take an active role in their education. Online
components often involve self-directed assignments, fostering independence and
responsibility in learners.
4. Diverse learning resources
Students enrolled in blended learning programs have access to a wide range of resources,
including digital materials, multimedia content, and interactive online platforms. This
diversity caters to various learning styles and preferences.
5. Personalization
Blended learning enables instructors to tailor their teaching approaches to the specific
needs of individual students. Learners can progress through material at their own speed
and revisit concepts as necessary.

Learning activity1: Pair work – Examining the blended learning

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to examine the blended learning.

You will examine the pros and cons of blended learning. You will think back about the
benefits of blended learning which you have studied in year 3. You will response based
on the following facts:
The role of instructor, The interaction with students and so on.

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Models for blended learning

Educators have developed models for blended learning, and teachers and/or schools
select from among them based upon their unique student populations. You have studied
some models in year 3.

Figure 3.2. A common model of blended learning.

(Credit: Mountain House High School))
The models of Blended Learning are summarized as follows:62
1. The Face-To-Face Driver Model
This model works best for diverse classrooms in which students are functioning at
various levels of ability and mastery. In general, only some students will participate in
online learning components, as follows:

o Students at mastery levels above their grade level may proceed at a more
rapid pace. This prevents boredom by providing appropriate challenges for
highly capable students.
o Students who are at mastery levels below their grade level are given
appropriate skill remediation in an effort to accelerate their learning. And the
beauty of online learning for these children is that they are able to get all of
the practice they need to master skills and to devise their own techniques that
help to improve their memories when content retention is required.

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o ESL students can receive remediation as well, so that their English skills may
be more rapidly acquired.

2. The Rotation Model

This is really just a variation of the learning stations model that teachers have been using
for years. There is a set schedule by which students have face-to-face time with their
teachers and then move to online work. This model seems to be most popular in the
following environments:
o Elementary classrooms in which teachers have already used and are
comfortable with traditional learning stations.
o Elementary classrooms in which students can be divided based upon skill
levels in reading and math. Thus, students who are performing well in math
but not in reading may have face-to-face time with their teachers for reading
before rotating to the online learning stations for math. Teachers are able to
give struggling students more individual assistance based upon their needs.
3. The Flex Model
This model relies heavily on online instructional delivery, with teachers acting as
facilitators rather than as primary deliverers of instruction. This model appears to be
most used and most successful in the following environments:
o Alternative school settings in which the majority of the student population is
considered to be at-risk. Traditional classroom settings have traditionally not
been successful for these students.
o Alternative school settings in which students are involved in work-study
programs, have attendance problems, or have been placed in a part-time
schooling program.
o As a rule, the grade level for the Flex Model is secondary.
4. Online Lab School Model
This model involves students traveling to and attending a school with total online
educational delivery for entire courses. There are no certified teachers on hand, but,
rather, trained paraprofessionals who supervise. This is a good option in the following
circumstances:
o Secondary students who need flexibility of scheduling due to other
responsibilities (job, child-rearing).
o Secondary students who choose this option in order to progress at a faster rate
than they would in a traditional school setting.

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o Students who need to move at a slower pace than traditional classrooms

provide.
o Schools and districts that face budget constraints and cannot accommodate
their total populations in traditional classrooms, either because of facility
restraints or the inability to employ enough certified teachers. This model
eases classroom size issues.
5. Self-Blend Model
This model allows coursework beyond that offered in a tradition setting in a specific
school or district. Students participate in traditional classes but then enroll in courses to
supplement their regular programs of study. This model is particularly beneficial in the
following circumstances:
o A course that is not offered by the school may be taken by a student who
wants additional learning in a specific content field.
o Students who wish advanced placement courses for early college credit can
enroll in courses designed and approved for such.
o Students who are highly motivated and fully independent learners.
6. The Online Driver Model
This model is the complete opposite of a traditional face-to-face instructional
environment. Students work from remote locations (e.g., their homes) and receive all of
their instruction via online platforms. Usually, there are opportunities to “check-in” with
a course teacher and to engage in online messaging if an explanation is needed. Schools
and districts that offer this model find that the number of students opting for it increases
annually. The model works well for the following students:
o Students with chronic illnesses/handicaps who find it difficult to attend
school.
o Students whose jobs or other obligations demand flexibility to “be in school”
at hours during which traditional schools are not in operation.
o Students who are highly motivated and who want to progress much faster
than would be allowed in a traditional school setting.
While many “traditional” teachers may resist blended learning environments, this trend
is not going away. Students are digitally-oriented, understand the potential for success
that blended learning may offer them, and are excited about the opportunities that
blended learning offers them.

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Best Blended Learning Examples 63

1. Flipped Classroom
The flipped classroom is one of the most popular blended learning examples. In this
method, students watch recorded lectures or video tutorials before attending class.
During class, teachers focus on interactive activities such as discussions, problem-
solving, and group work.
The flipped classroom method is highly effective because it enables students to learn at
their convenient time and review difficult concepts before attending class. It also allows
teachers to engage with students on a deeper level and provide individualized support.
2. Gamification
Gamification is another effective blended learning method. It involves incorporating
gaming elements such as points, badges, and leader boards into the learning process.
Gamification makes learning more engaging and purposeful for students and helps them
retain information better. It also promotes healthy competition among students, which
can improve motivation and participation.
3. Personalized Learning
Personalized learning is a method of teaching that addresses the unique needs and
learning styles of each student. It involves using data analytics and technology to create
personalized learning paths for each student.
This method enables teachers to provide targeted support based on individual learning
needs. Personalized learning has been shown to improve student engagement and
academic performance.
4. Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning is an innovative teaching method that involves students working
together in groups to solve problems or complete tasks. It promotes teamwork,
communication, and critical thinking skills.
In a blended learning environment, collaborative learning can be facilitated through
online platforms such as discussion forums, video conferencing, and collaborative
document editing tools.

5. Microlearning
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Microlearning is a method of teaching that delivers small, bite-sized lessons or modules.

It is particularly effective for teaching specific skills or concepts.
Microlearning modules can be conveniently accessed online, and students can learn at
their convenience. This method is ideal for busy students who do not have a lot of time
for long lectures or assignments.
6. Virtual Reality
Virtual reality is an emerging technology that can be used to enhance blended learning.
It involves creating a simulated environment that students can explore and interact with.
Virtual reality can be used to create immersive learning experiences that are not possible
in a traditional classroom setting. For example, students can explore historical sites,
scientific phenomena, or engineering designs in a virtual environment.
7. Mobile Learning
Mobile learning involves delivering learning materials to students via mobile devices
such as smart phones or tablets. This method is particularly effective for students who
prefer to learn on the go.
Mobile learning can be delivered through apps, videos, or interactive modules. It is an
ideal method for busy students who need to study during their commute or between
classes.
8. Social Learning
Social learning involves using social media platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, or
LinkedIn to facilitate learning. Social media can be used to connect students with peers
and experts in their field of study. It can also be used to share resources, ask questions,
and collaborate on assignments.
Social learning can be particularly effective for students who are more comfortable with
online communication than face-to-face interaction.
9. Adaptive Learning
Adaptive learning is a method of teaching that uses data analytics and technology to
adjust the learning experience based on each student’s performance. It involves
providing personalized feedback, recommendations, and resources to each student.
Adaptive learning can be delivered online, and it allows students to receive targeted
support to improve their understanding of concepts.

10. Blended Learning Platforms

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Blended learning platforms are tools that combine different learning activities, such as
videos, quizzes, interactive activities, and assessments, into a single platform. They
allow teachers to create and deliver customized learning experiences for their students.

Learning activity 2: Individual work – Planning the blended learning

activities that can be used effectively in middle school

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The purpose of this activity for you is to plan the blended learning activities that can be
used effectively in middle school.

1. You will choose one of the topics from Grade 9 science subject (Science
curriculum, Grade 9)
2. You will consider planning blended learning activity and thinking about the
given points:
- which blended learning model you have been using
- which blended learning platform you will choose
- What technology you will use
- what learning objective of the lesson
- which class activities you will use
- how long you will take to do the activity

3.2.2. Cooperative learning environment in middle school

You have studied about benefits of cooperative learning, social development and
cooperative learning and scaffolding cooperative learning in Year 3. In this lesson, you
will learn collaborative school culture and cognitive principles applied in cooperative
learning.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 organize school, family and community partnerships for the effective learning;

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and
 design how to create the collaborative school culture for effective learning.
Cooperative Learning
Most methods of learning require the use of cooperative learning as an essential part of
their method. Cooperative learning exists when small groups of students work to
enhance their own and their group members’ learning. Educators are able to use this
method in every grade. Through open discussions, students are able to learn from each
other.

Figure 3.3. Main components involved in the cooperative learning methodology

(Credit: ResearchGate)
There are five essential components of cooperative learning.
Positive interdependence: When teachers create an environment of interdependence,
students feel responsible for their own work and the group’s success.
Face-to face interaction: In cooperative learning, students engage in discussions, make
eye contact with each other and provide support.
Individual and group accountability: In a group activity, each student has an individual
role or assignment. This can help the group reach its goal.
Group behaviors: Students can learn behavioral techniques like interpersonal skills,
social interaction and collaborative skills that teach them how to work with others.

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Group processing: Toward the end of the project or assignment, students can assess the
effectiveness of their group by analyzing how well its members were able to collaborate.
Cognitive principles applied in cooperative learning
Cooperative learning is not a unitary technique; there are endless varieties and
possibilities for cooperative learning activities. They all work because they utilize basic
principles in learning and thinking. These are the same principles that we teach about in
many psychology classes (e.g., cognitive psychology, learning, motivation, intellectual
development, group processes, and developmental psychology) then ignore when we
teach about them.
 Increased time on task – This is a basic principle in learning: the more time and
effort students put into learning, the greater the probability that quality learning
will occur. In general, students spend more time working actively with
cooperative learning groups.
 Increased motivation – In general, students are more motivated to succeed.
Students depend on each other to complete an assignment, a fact that usually
increases motivation to achieve at a high level.
 More immediate feedback – Students receive more feedback on their learning
and thinking and they receive it with more immediacy than in traditional learning
settings.
 Thinking and learning are modeled as processes – The process of how to think
about a complex issue and how to learn is modeled and practiced. Thinking and
learning become dynamic processes instead of learning outcomes.
 Shared knowledge and skills – When tasks are complex, the knowledge, skills,
and experiences of group members can be shared so that the collective
knowledge of the group can achieve goals that would elude any single member.
 Connected knowledge structures – Information is processed more deeply when
students are required to process it in a meaningful way. Cognitive psychologists
conceptualize meaning as constructed within a web of related concepts. A
concept or idea becomes meaningful when it is connected to many other concepts
in memory. When students are required to elaborate information that is being
learned, the result is improved comprehension and a greater likelihood that it will
be recalled successfully with appropriate retrieval cues.
Collaborative school culture
In a collaborative school culture, members of the school community work together
effectively and guided by a common project. All members of the community-teachers,
administrators, students and their families-share a common vision of what the school
should be like.

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Creating a school culture that ensures positive outcomes for all students requires an “all
hands-on deck” approach to meeting the needs of the school community. Yet, bringing
staff, teachers and parents together to do the work of the school is not easy.
Collaboration cannot be coerced nor compelled. Rather, school leaders must help all
members of the school community feel a sense of pride and ownership in their work.

Figure 3.4. Building a culture of classroom collaboration

(Credit: National Education Association – NEA)
The following tips can help you build a culture of collaboration in your school64.
 Focus on a clear outcome. The best collaborative projects focus on improving
student success and making the school a better place for children to learn. As
important as those goals are, words like “success” and “better” lack specificity,
making it difficult for people to understand how they can contribute to those
goals. Instead, clearly state the desired outcome of a collaborative project, such
as “build a new playground,” “develop a tutoring program” or “explore ways for
students to participate in service learning.”
 Expand leadership opportunities. While it may seem counterintuitive, asking
staff, teachers and parents to take on leadership roles—doing more work rather
than less—can have positive results. Expanding leadership opportunities
develops a critical mass of school members who have leadership skills. As more
members become adept at helping the school achieve its goals, more work can be
accomplished. Expanding leadership opportunities also reinforces a core tenet of
collaboration: equality among all parties.
 Create meaningful opportunities for work. People are more willing to
collaborate on work that has a significant personal meaning for them. Organizing

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people around projects in which they feel personally invested will create more
synergy for the project, energizing faculty, staff and parents and advancing a
collaborative culture. Use a short interest inventory to get a sense of what
projects are meaningful to members of your school community. List areas for
which you have immediate need, such as data collection and analysis, short- or
long-term planning, communication, or afterschool programming and ask
respondents to indicate their interest in those areas.. Provide several blank spaces
for school community members to answer questions such as, “What talents or
skills could you share with the school?” and “How would you like to become
involved with making our school a success?” Then organize committees around
areas of shared interest and provide a charge (or let them develop their own
charge) that can focus their collective effort.
 Coordinate efforts. Managing collaborative work is vital to success. You can
coordinate and manage efforts in several ways, including online through chat
rooms and blogs or at committee meetings during which members regularly
report on their progress. Capitalize on work across teams. For example, the
fundraising group might share their list of contacts with other committees so
community agencies are not asked multiple times to donate money or time to the
school.
 Celebrate the work of others. Finally, celebrate your successes! Find ways to
publicize your ongoing collaborative work, giving credit to those who have taken
on new roles. As projects draw to a close, focus on the ways collaborative work
has enhanced the school and the neighborhood. Use your celebrations to recruit
new partners and fortify future collaboration. In this way, collaboration becomes
rooted in the school’s culture.
When staff, teachers and parents work together, schools can be happier, healthier places
where shared goals are reached and everyone feels a sense of belonging.
Learning activity 3: Group Work – How to create collaborative school
culture for effective learning

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to create collaborative school
culture for effective learning.

You have studied about the collaborative school culture in previous section. When you
want to create effective learning environment in your school, you need to consider how
to create collaborative school culture for effective learning. To be effective for creating
school culture, you will think about the ideas based on facts given in Table 3.1 and how
they need to support for effective learning.
Table 3.1. Supporting collaborative school culture for effective learning

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Roles Supports
The role the
administrators and
staffs,

The role of families

The role of teachers

The role of students

Review Questions
Question 1: What are the key characteristics of blended learning?

Question 2: What is the flipped classroom method?

Question 3: What is necessary to build collaborative school culture?

3.3. Mastery Learning and Self-regulated Learning

This sub-unit is about the mastery learning and self-regulated learning in middle school.

3.3.1. Mastery learning in middle school

In this lesson you will have to learn how mastery-based learning work and the
techniques for implementing mastery in schools. At the end of this lesson, you will know
the main principles of mastery learning.

Expected Learning Outcomes

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By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss and reflect on the concept of mastery learning; and
 apply the principles of mastery learning for effective learning in middle school.

Mastery learning
Mastery learning is an instructional strategy and educational philosophy first formally
proposed by Benjamin Bloom in 1968. Mastery learning maintains that students must
achieve a level of mastery in prerequisite knowledge before moving forwards to learn
subsequent information. (Wikipedia)
Mastery learning is a way of designing units of work so that each set of tasks focuses on
a particular learning objective and students muster a task to move onto the next one.
Mastery learning approach can be beneficial in certain environments. For example, in a
remedial reading group for secondary students, a well organized mastery learning
program would allow students to progress at their own rates. Students motivated to make
rapid progress are not slow down by this type of instruction, as might happen if they are
placed in a traditional learning format. A key requirement is to include a progression of
activities from easier to more difficult. The program should have checkpoints which the
students interact with the teacher so that their progress is evaluated and reteaching or
special assistance is provided if needed.
Young children enter school with a wide range of experiences and abilities. Mastery
learning can help teachers deal effectively with the varying abilities and developmental
levels. Mastery learning techniques can be implemented by using learning centers and
small groups. Children can be placed in the different centers and groups according to
their current levels. Then they can move through the various levels at their own rates.
Mastery learning also can build students’ self-efficacy for learning. As they note their
progress in completing units, they are apt to believe they are capable of further learning.
Enhancing self-efficacy is particularly important with remedial learners, who have
encountered school failures and doubt their capabilities to learn, as well as for young
children with limited experiences and skills.65
How does Mastery-Based Learning Work?
Mastery-based learning sounds great in theory. But how does it actually work? Is there
really any practical way for educators to ensure that every student is working on
something they are truly ready to master?66

65
Schunk ((2012)
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The entire point of our blended, self-paced approach is to set classrooms up for mastery-
based learning.
There are the two techniques to facilitate mastery-based learning:
1. Blended Instruction. In Modern Classrooms, educators replace traditional direct
instruction (teacher lecturing from the front of the room) by creating their own
instructional videos. The teacher is still teaching, but each student can watch the
video on the content or skill that they are ready to learn next. If students already
understand the content, they can move to the next video; if students struggle to
understand, they can rewind or watch again. Each learner is working on a lesson
they are truly prepared to master.
2. Self-Pacing. Students learn different things at different speeds, so they need to
be able to set their own paces. Instead of choosing a pace that is too fast for some
learners and too slow for others, teachers in Modern Classrooms create structures
- such as progress trackers and lesson classifications - that help learners stay on
track while achieving mastery at the pace that works for them. Every learner gets
the time they need to reach true mastery, and the teacher is there to provide
support as needed. Practice with feedback is central in mastery learning.

Figure 3.5. Mastery learning (Credit: Hindawi)

Creating a mastery-based learning environment that uses blended instruction and self-
pacing is not easy - it requires commitment and careful planning. But Modern
Classrooms like these provide the conditions for each learner to achieve true mastery.
Techniques for implementing mastery in schools
So, we can see that mastery learning has clear benefits. But embedding mastery into a
school curriculum takes time. There are some techniques for success:67
1. Set demonstrable learning goals

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Before embarking on mastery learning, try asking the following questions: What do we
want students to know and be able to do? What does success look like? How will they
demonstrate their mastery? How will we measure it?
For example, in English class, students learning the present tense must be able to write
ten sentences about their daily routine correctly. That way, you’ll be sure they’ve
mastered the present tense before moving on to more complex grammar.
2. Create effective groups for collaborative work
Mastery learning has been found to be particularly effective when students work
collaboratively. This is because students take responsibility for each other’s progress,
and help each other move forward.
However, it’s not enough to allow groups of friends to work together. As the teacher it’s
important to engineer the groups, as research shows that effective collaborative groups
have some key characteristics:
 A diversity of learning styles and expertise in the group
 A sense of a collective team-based learning effort
 An emphasis on different learning styles and ways of sharing knowledge
 A view of one another as researchers and resources for learning
3. Provide an anchor task
An anchor task is a problem given to students at the beginning of a lesson. It gives them
the opportunity to draw upon prior knowledge, and requires them to ask questions of
each other, working together to look for solutions.
For example, in a primary mathematics class an anchor task might involve one student
simply counting some building blocks one by one. Another stronger student on the other
hand, may feel more confident in challenging themselves to try multiplication or
repeated addition.

4. Monitor progress carefully

To be able to advance in a topic, a clear boundary needs to be established. Typically this
happens when 80-90% of knowledge has occurred. This is normally measured with an
end of topic assessment such as a written exam, presentation or verbal test.
In a primary mathematics class, children would normally have to demonstrate they can
solve problems accurately and fluently. So the mastery benchmark may be that they can
solve 9 multiplication problems out of ten within 4 minutes.

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It’s also important to provide clear and consistent feedback to students – highlighting
what they’ve done well and areas they need to improve on to demonstrate mastery of
learning.
5. Provide additional support for struggling students
In mastery learning there is a shift in responsibility – when a student fails to grasp a
concept, it’s not seen as a reflection of their learning ability. Instead, it’s a cue for the
teacher to look at their method of instruction, and see if there’s a more effective way to
deliver the knowledge that they are trying to impart.
Teachers can vary the way content is presented, such as trying alternative textbooks,
using audiovisual methods, or simplifying instruction. Additional tuition or peer support
can also be useful tools to help students achieve mastery and progress to the next level of
learning.
The elements of mastery learning
The students can truly learn any subject if they receive the right environment. As
educators and researchers continue to find new ways to apply the principles of the
mastery learning model, research showed that the 6 elements are key to successful
teaching and learning.
Pre-assessment: Classroom teachers can use pre-assessments to get a sense of their
students’ knowledge, skills, and prior experience before a lesson.
Through this, the teachers gain a deep understanding of the students’ knowledge,
abilities, and interests. This can be accomplished through quick assessments or brief
reviews of past lessons.
Group-based initial instruction: Mastery learning-based education focuses on
individualizing the learning process, but initial instructions are usually given to all
students.
During the training, students are instructed in a discussion based class. The discussions
are well-researched and the teaching is of high quality. But instructions need to be multi-
faceted, contextualized, and oriented toward the students.
The use of formative assessments: With this, classroom teachers can determine the
next steps to undertake to increase student achievement. Formative assessments lay an
essential role in modern instructional models by providing teachers with feedback about
what students have learned and what still needs to be learned. This information is crucial
for determining the next steps to take in order to improve student achievement.
Corrective instruction in mastery learning: Mastery learning is an approach to
teaching that emphasizes mastery of concepts over memorization. In this approach,

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instructors do not end their lesson with tests or homework. Instead, they continuously
assess their students’ understanding of the material and provide high-quality feedback to
help students improve their understanding. As opposed to “reteaching”, which can only
accommodate on learning style, “Corrective Instruction” is versatile and can be applied
to a variety of teaching styles, including visual, auditory and kinesthetic. This makes it a
more effective approach to ensuring success in student progress.
The additional time spent correcting mistakes in e-learning courses is usually between
10 percent and 20 percent. By using personalized lectures, students will need less time
for remediation in later units.
Parallel formative assessments in mastery learning: The first evaluation in mastery
learning does not result in the determination of learner performance. After giving
remedial lessons, a mastery learning teacher conduct a supplementary, second, and
simultaneous assessment of the effectiveness of that remediation. This lets the students
have another attempt at showing their comprehension of the subject. This allows
students to experience success and show mastery of the subject 68. Mastery learning
enrichment activities; Some mastery learning-based education models provide students
with “enrichment’ activities that help them learn material they have already learned.
These activities are designed to challenge and stimulate students with topics that interest
them.
Academic enrichment activities include games, exercises, and various projects that are
meant to enrich students’ knowledge.

Learning activity 1: Group work – Reflection on mastery learning

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to reflect on mastery

You will think about the main themes of mastery learning and then you will consider the
strengths and weakness of the mastery learning. You will fill the responses in the
following table.

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Guskey (2010)

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Table 3.2. Reflection on mastery learning

Strengths Weakness

Main principles of mastery Learning

The purpose of mastery learning is to ensure that students truly master each course’s
subject materials before moving onto the next course in a traditional model, students do
not master the content in the set amount of time are rarely, if ever, given additional time
and opportunity to relearn what they missed.
Ten Principles of Mastery Learning69
1. Students and families are consistently informed of all learning expectations.
These include the long-term expectations (e.g., graduation competencies), the
short-term expectations (e.g., learning objectives), and the general expectations
(e.g., the school’s grading and reporting system).
2. The students’ academic performances are assessed against common learning
standards and performance expectations. This applies to all students regardless of
whether they are enrolled in traditional courses or pursuing alternative learning
experiences.
3. Since assessments are competency-based and criterion-referenced, student
success is defined by the achievement of expected competencies.

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4. Formative assessments are used to measure learning progress. Results from these
assessments determine how to improve instructions, teaching practices, and
academic support.
5. Summative assessments are used to evaluate learning achievement. Results from
these assessments record students’ level of mastery at a specific point in time.
6. Students’ work habits, character traits, and behaviors, such as attendance and
class participation are monitored and reported separately from academic progress
and achievement.
7. Academic grades translate as a student’s learning progress and are used to
improve and facilitate the learning process.
8. When students fail to meet expected standards, they are given another chance to
improve their work.
9. Personalized learning options, differentiated assessments, and alternative
learning methods can help realize student learning progress.
10. Students are empowered to make important decisions about their learning,
including contributing to the design of learning experiences and pathways.

Learning activity 2: Group work – Applying the principles of mastery

learning for effective learning in middle school

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The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to apply mastery learning
principles for effective learning.

1. First you will think to teach about grade 9 students who failed in Mathematics
and need to attend remedial class.
2. And then, you will prepare to teach them using mastery learning principles in
remedial class.
3. You will choose the topic, “Linear equations with one unknown variable” from
Mathematics subject. (See Mathematics Curriculum, Unit 6, Grade 9).
4. You will brainstorm teaching practices, how to provide for the students, making
tests and keep records.

3.3.2. Self-regulated learning in middle school

In this lesson, you will have to learn self-regulated learning strategies in teaching
learning process.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 apply the self-regulated learning strategies in teaching learning process.
Self-regulated learning
Self regulation learning is one of the domains of self regulation, and is aligned most
closely with educational aims. Broadly speaking, it refers to learning that is guided by
metacognition, strategic action and motivation to learn70.
Self regulation refers to one’s ability to understand and control one’s environment. Self-
regulated learning abilities include self monitoring, self-instruction, goal-setting, self
reinforcement71. Self-regulation is a self-directive process and set of behaviors whereby
learners transform their mental abilities into skills and habits through a developmental
process that emerges from guided practice and feedback.72

70
Retrieved from Wikipedia
71
Schunk(1996)
72
Paris & Paris (2001)

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Figure 3.6. Self-regulated learning

(Credit: American Journal of Physiology)
Elements of self-regulated learning: Effective learners are self-regulating, analyzing
task requirements, setting productive goals, and selecting, adapting or inventing
strategies to achieve their objectives. These learners also monitor progress as they work
thorough the task, managing intrusive emotions and waning motivation as well as
adjusting strategies processed to foster success. These are the students who ask
questions, take notes, and allocate their time and their resources in ways that help them
to be in charge of their own learning.73
Self-regulated learning strategies
Some of these strategies include direct instruction and modeling, guided and
independent practice, social support and feedback, and reflective practice.
Direct Instruction and Modeling: Direct instruction involves explicitly explaining
different strategies to students, as well as how those strategies are used and what skills
are involved in using those strategies.74 The focus of this kind of instruction is modeling
and demonstration. When teachers model and explain their own thought processes
necessary for completing activities and assignments, students are more apt to understand
and begin to use those same processes on their own 75 . Though direct instruction may
not be necessary for encouraging SRL in all students, it may be essential for most
students—especially younger learners—as many fail to independently use SRL
strategies effectively .Research has shown that this type of instruction can be the best
initial strategy for encouraging students to be more self-regulative .76
73
Ibid
74
Zimmerman(2008)
75
Boekaerts & Corno( 2005).
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Levy( 1996)

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Guided and Independent Practice: Guided practice is another way teachers can help
improve self-regulated learning (SRL) and motivation . During guided practices, the
responsibility of implementing the learning strategy shifts from teacher to student. For
example, a student might practice implementing a specific writing strategy while the
teacher carefully observes and offers help when necessary .Student-teacher
conferencing is one way teachers can help guide students in setting goals and monitoring
their strategy use and progress, as conferences tend to promote student thinking and
learning . Independent practice should naturally follow guided practice. During this
process, students are given opportunities to practice the strategy on their own, which can
ultimately reinforce autonomy. 77 Although direct and explicit strategy instruction can
be powerful on its own, students are less likely to incorporate the SRL strategy into their
academic routines without guided and independent practice 78. Ideally, strategy
instruction incorporates a combination of direct instruction and modeling, as well as
guided and independent practice. It is essential for students to have frequent
opportunities to practice self-regulation to maintain skills over time 79.
Social Support and Feedback: Social support from teachers and peers can serve an
important role as students are learning to be more self-regulative. Often, social support
comes in the form of feedback. Research indicates that effective feedback includes
information about what students did well 80, what they need to improve, and steps they
can take to improve their work .This type of feedback is often referred to as progress
feedback .Not only can progress feedback assist students in improving their academic
achievement, it also can promote student motivation and self-regulation.
Reflective Practice: Reflective practice, or adapting and revising pedagogical styles to
accommodate students might be the most important and effective tool a teacher can use.
This practice enables teachers to investigate the possible reasons explaining the
effectiveness of a given instructional strategy used in the classroom. Through thoughtful
reflection, experimentation, and evaluation, teachers can better create meaningful
learning experiences for their students81.
Common Self-Regulation Strategies82
The individual set of self-regulation strategies that are usually used by successful
students fall into three categories: personal, behavioral, and environmental.
A. Personal: These strategies usually involve how a student organizes and
interprets information and can include:
77
Schunk & Zimmerman( 2007)
78
Lee, McInerney, & Liem( 2010)
79
Montalvo & Torres( 2008)
80
Labuhn et al., (2010)
81
Gibson et al., (2011)
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1. Organizing and transforming information: outlining, summarizing,

rearrangement of materials, highlighting, flashcards/ index cards, draw
pictures, diagrams, charts, webs/mapping
2. Goal setting and planning/standard setting: sequencing, timing,
completing, time management and pacing
3. Keeping records and monitoring: note-taking, lists of errors made, record
of marks, portfolio, keeping, all drafts of assignments
4. Rehearsing and memorizing (written or verbal; overt or covert)
mnemonic devices, teaching someone else the material, making sample
questions, using mental imagery, using repetition
B. Behavioral: These strategies involve actions that the student takes.
1. Self-evaluating (checking quality or progress): task analysis (What does
the teacher want me to do? What do I want out of it?), self-instructions;
enactive feedback, attentiveness
2. Self-consequating: treats to motivate; self-reinforcement, arrangement or
imagination of punishments; delay of gratification
C. Environmental: These strategies involve seeking assistance and structuring of
the physical study environment.
1. Seeking information (library, Internet): library resources, Internet
resources, reviewing cards, rereading records, tests, textbooks
2. Environmental structuring: selecting or arranging the physical setting,
isolating/ eliminating or minimizing distractions, break up study periods
and spread them over time
3. Seeking social assistance from peers, from teachers or other adults,
emulate exemplary models

Learning activity 3: Group work – Applying the self-regulated learning

strategies in teaching learning process.

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to apply self-regulated learning strategies
in teaching learning process.

You will think about how to encourage the students to be self-regulated and the
challenges you will face in applying self-regulated learning strategies in teaching
learning process.

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Review Questions
Question 1: What are the elements of mastery learning?

Question 2: What is the purpose of mastery learning?

Question 3: What are the elements of self-regulated learning?

Question 4: What are some of self-regulated learning strategies?

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3.4. Practicing in Virtual Environment

This sub-unit is about the concept of virtual learning environment.

3.4.1. Virtual learning environment

In this lesson, you will explore the types, characteristics and benefits of virtual learning
in detail.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 reflect on the concept of virtual learning environment; and
 design virtual classroom for effective learning.

Virtual learning environment

A virtual learning environment (VLE for short) is a collection of software tools
supporting academic administration, teaching and research using the Internet,
particularly the World Wide Web.

Figure 3.7. Characteristics of virtual learning environment (Credit: kotobee)

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As information and communication is increasingly conducted online such systems have

become part of the essential educational infrastructure in many higher education
establishments. Just as with e-mail, VLEs are centrally provided services that are
delivered right across the institution largely to enhance existing academic practices, not
to replace them.
Broadly speaking, the functionality can be partitioned into five main areas.83
 Information: for the distribution of organizational news, notices, documents and
other data, such as announcements, regulations, syllabi and schedules;
 Content: for making available a wide range of electronic resources in a variety
of media, ranging from lecture notes and reading lists, through to video
demonstrations and podcasts, plus hyperlinks to external content hosted
anywhere on the Internet;
 Communication: online tools augmenting face to face contact through facilities
such as mailing lists, moderated discussion, messaging, and wikis;
 Assessment: both formative and summative assessments can be supported in
terms of tests, surveys, and assignments. Feedback can be provided using a
variety of methods and media, including annotated scripts and video
commentaries;
 Management: perhaps of greatest overall organizational benefit, VLEs provide
management tools operating at different levels. They can support the planning
and delivery of courses across departments and schools covering course
registration, student monitoring, and the administration of marks. They provide a
single point of online entry not only for the pedagogic purposes of teaching and
learning, but also for administrative matters such as institutional audits.

Virtual or online learning allows students to experiences their education outside of

traditional classroom environment. Universities organize courses using on online
platform where students can access their courses, review content, communicate with
professors and classmates and upload assignments. In most cases, virtual learning is self-
paced, or asynchronous, allowing students to learn at a time that is convenient for them
instead of a set day and time.
Virtual learning: It refers to an environment where students study a digital-based
curriculum taught by instructors that lecture online via video or audio. This instruction
can take place either in a self-paced (asynchronous) environment or in a real-time
(synchronous) environment.
Benefits of virtual learning: The virtual learning environment is a good choice for
people who enjoy learning on their own, without restrictions on space and time. Some
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virtual learning options have classes to attend at scheduled times, while others allow you
to learn at your own pace.
With this self-paced option, you have a lot of autonomy with the intensity and cadence
of your learning while still enjoying the benefits of guided lessons. Virtual learning can
be convenient, flexible, and affordable.
Types of virtual learning84
Not all virtual learning is the same. There are three different ways you may learn in a
virtual environment: synchronous, asynchronous, and hybrid.
1. Synchronous
Synchronous virtual learning typically asks students to attend online live-streamed
lectures. The instructor streams their presentation or lecture, allowing students to ask
questions in real-time via webcam, microphone, or live chat, for a more hands-on
learning experience. If you benefit from the constant structure and pacing of the
material, synchronous virtual learning could be a good choice for you.
2. Asynchronous
Asynchronous virtual learning features pre-recorded lectures that students can watch
on their own time. The instructor will post either a video or audio file along with lecture
notes. Often there will be a quiz on the material to ensure students are watching lectures
and up to date with the class schedule. Typically, the instructor or an assistant is
available via email or text chat. Current students, and sometimes past students, usually
have some form of communication with each other, such as a forum, where they can
discuss the material and flesh out details they may not have gathered from the lecture.
3. Hybrid
Hybrid learning will make use of both virtual and in-person learning. This is the most
common for classes that also require a lab component. If you want the freedom to learn
at the best times for you, but also want some structured lessons and communication with
the instructor, consider enrolling in a hybrid course.

Learning activity 1: Group Work – Reflection on the concept of virtual

learning environment.

The purpose of learning activity for you is to be able to reflect on the concept of virtual
learning.

You will think about advantages and disadvantages of virtual learning for students.

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Coursera. (2023). What is Virtual Learning. Retrieved from https://www.coursera.org/articles/what-is-
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What is virtual classroom?85 Virtual classroom refers to courses offered via the
internet. It is a teaching and learning environment located within a computer mediated
communication system. It consists of a set of group communication and work spaces and
facilities that can surpass that of the traditional classroom, a process in which students
and instructors are actively involved in creating and carrying out learning activities
together like group discussion, joint projects, and debates, sharing of solutions to
homework problems by emails, bulletin boards, chat rooms and conferences.
The development of IT technology and the internet is the basis of virtual classroom.
Thus, the virtual classroom possesses some of the characteristics of the internet which is
what the traditional classroom does not have. For example, there is no limit of time,
place, distance, and it is more convenient for both the students and the teachers to get
more information from the internet. It seems that this is hope for both teachers and
learners to overcome all the problems existing in the traditional classroom and many
people even are trying to use as much as virtual technology as possible in the real
campus.
A virtual classroom is a great way to connect with students and colleagues from around
the globe. By using technology, you can bring people together in a collaborative learning
environment that is both effective and efficient. It’s also a great way for students and
teachers to connect with each other online. It allows for just as much interaction and
collaboration as traditional learning methods.
Classrooms are essentially a system of communication, which help facilitate a dialogue
between teachers and students. Traditional classrooms and virtual classrooms achieve
this in different ways, and there are strengths and weaknesses to each approach.
Features and characteristics of virtual classroom
Asynchronous learning: In a virtual class, or online class, Instructors (professors or
lecturers) typically give students assignments to complete each week. For example,
week1 course work for the class will become available on the site on a Monday.
Students will have the full week to review video lectures and complete any readings or
assignments by Sunday evening.
Message Boards: The platform that hosts the course will often include a message board
where students can ask the instructor a question or pose a question to the class.
Video conferencing and recorded lectures: Instructor will typically include a video
lecture to accompany each week’s coursework. Some instructors may also schedule a
time for the class to meet via video conference to discuss assignments and questions.
This gives students the opportunity to speak directly to their professor or lecturer and
classmates.
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The benefits of a virtual classroom

There are many benefits of using online learning for both teachers and pupils. Here are
some of the benefits:
 Flexibility – Students can participate in class from anywhere in the world.
 Engagement – Teachers can create a more interactive learning environment by
incorporating multimedia into their lessons.
 Cost-effective – You don’t need to worry about expensive infrastructure or
equipment.

Learning activity 2: Pair work – Designing to the virtual classroom for

effective learning

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to be able to design the virtual classroom
for effective learning.

You will think about the ideas how to design to the virtual classroom
When you design the virtual class, you can imagine the necessary materials in class by
thinking back your experiences in virtual class. What elements of learning and teaching
might you keep in your virtual class? You will think about how you will support your
virtual class to be effective and encourage students to be engaged in learning.

Review Questions
Question 1: What are the types of virtual learning environment?

Question 2: What is virtual classroom?

Question 3: What are the benefits of virtual classroom?

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Unit Summary
Key messages

 One of the significant aims of education is to produce learners who are

well informed, that is to say, learners should understand ideas that are important,
useful, beautiful and powerful. Another is to create learners who have the
appetite to think analytically and critically, to use what they know to enhance
their own lives and also to contribute to their society, culture and civilization.
 Creative thinking is important in many areas of life, including art, science,
business, and everyday problem-solving. It allows us to approach challenges in
new ways, discover opportunities, and find innovative solutions to problems. It
can also lead to personal growth and fulfillment, as it encourages us to explore
our passions and interests and express our unique perspectives.
 Blended learning, also known as hybrid learning, represents a seamless
integration of traditional, face-to-face classroom instruction with digital, online
learning. It is a pedagogical approach that aims to combine the best of both
worlds. Blended learning is no longer an option for classrooms. The combination
of face-to-face instruction and online learning opportunities allows for
individualization, flexibility, and greater chance for student success.
 In a collaborative school culture, members of the school community work
together effectively and guided by a common project. All members of the
community-teachers, administrators, students and their families-share a common
vision of what the school should be like.
 Mastery learning can help teachers deal effectively with the varying abilities and
developmental levels. Mastery learning techniques can be implemented by using
learning centers and small groups. Children can be placed in the different centers
and groups according to their current levels. Then they can move through the
various levels at their own rates.
 Self-regulation learning is one of the domains of self regulation, and is aligned
most closely with educational aims. Broadly speaking, it refers to learning that is
guided by metacognition, strategic action and motivation to learn.
 A virtual learning environment (VLE for short) is a collection of software tools
supporting academic administration, teaching and research using the Internet,
particularly the World Wide Web.
 A virtual classroom is a great way to connect with students and colleagues from
around the globe. By using technology, you can bring people together in a
collaborative learning environment that is both effective and efficient. It’s also a

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great way for students and teachers to connect with each other online. It allows
for just as much interaction and collaboration as traditional learning methods.

Unit reflection

All the concepts you have studied in this unit3 are connected in different ways for
effective learning. In this unit you have studied critical thinking, creative thinking,
cooperative and blended learning, mastery and self-regulated learning, and virtual
learning. You can reflect the main concepts of how to improve the students’ learning and
which strategies you can apply to strengthen students’ learning.

Further Reading

3.1. Critical and creative thinking

Kaplan, Zoe. (2023). What is creative thinking? Definition and examples. Retrieved
from http://www.theforage.com.
Mangal. S. K. (2012). Advanced Educational Psychology. Second Edition. PHI learning
Private Limited, New Delhi 110001.
Provenzano, Nicholas. (2023). Helping students hone their critical thinking skills.
Retrieved from https://www.edutopia.org/article/teaching-critical-thinking-
middle-high-school/
Singh, Mamta. (n.d.). The Importance of Critical Thinking in Education. Retrieved from
https://rahuleducation.org/our-scribes/the-importance-of-critical-thinking -in-
education/

3.2 Blended learning and cooperative learning

Kruse, Sharon. D. (2010). Building strong school culture: A leader’s guide to change.
Published by Corwin Press. University of Akron.
Singh, Aman Kumar. (2023). Blended learning Vs. Traditional learning: A detailed
overview of the two approaches. Retrieved from
http://www.elearningindustry.com.
Suk, Julia. (2023). What are the Best Blended Learning Examples for 2023? Retrieved
from https://www.hurix.com/what-are-the-best-blended-learning-examples/#:
Thompson, Judy. (2016). Blended learning models: When blended learning is what’s up
for successful students. Retrieved from http://[email protected].

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3.3 Mastery learning and self-regulated learning

Barnett, Robert (2023). What is mastery-based learning? Retrieved from

http://www.modernclassrooms.org.cdn.ampproject.org.
Boekaerts, M. & Corno, L. (2005). Self-regulation in the classroom: A perspective on
assessment and intervention. Applied Psychology, An International Review,
54(2), 199-231.
Ct gov. (n.d.). 10 Principles of Mastery-Based Learning. Retrieved from
https://portal.ct.gov/SDE/Mastery-Based-Learning/10-Principles-of-Mastery-
Based-Learning
Gibson, M., Hauf, P., & Long, B. S. (2011). Reflective practice in service learning:
Possibilities and limitations. Education & Training, 53 (4), 284-296.
Labuhn, A.S., Zimmerman, B.J., & Hasselhorn, M. (2010). Enhancing students’ self-
regulation and mathematics performance: The influence of feedback and self-
evaluative standards. Metacognition and Learning, 5 (2), 173-194.
Lee, J.Q., McInerney, D.M., & Liem, G.A. (2010). The relationship between future
goals and achievement goal orientations: An intrinsic-extrinsic motivation
perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 35 (4), 264-279.
Levy, N. R. (1996). Teaching analytical writing: Help for general education middle
school teachers. Intervention in School and Clinic, 32(2), 95-103.
Mario, Maria Di. (2022). Mastery learning: What is it and how to implement? Retrieved
from https://blog.pearsoninternationalschools.com/mastery-of-learning-what-is-
it-and-how-to-implement-it/
Montalvo, F.T., & Torres, M. C. (2008). Self-regulated learning: Current and future
Directions. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 2(1), 1-
34.
Paris, S. & Paris, A. (2001). Classroom applications of research on self-regulated
learning. Educational Psychology, 36, 89-101.
Schunk, D. (1996). Goal and self-evaluative influences during children’s cognitive skill
learning. American Educational Research Journal, 33, 359-382.
Schunk, D. & Zimmerman, B. (2007). Influencing children’s self-efficacy and self-
regulation of reading and writing through modeling. Reading & Writing
Quarterly, 23(1), 7-25.

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UCONN University of Connecticut. (n.d.). Common self-regulation strategies. Retrieved

from http://www.nrcgt.uconn.edu.
Zimmerman, B. & Schunk, D. (2008). Motivation: An essential dimension of self-
regulated learning. In Schunk, D. and Zimmerman, B., Motivation and self-
regulated learning: Theory, research, and application.

3.4 Practicing in virtual learning environment

Coursera. (2023). What is Virtual Learning. Retrieved from

https://www.coursera.org/articles/what-is-virtual-learning
Trafford, Paul. & Shirota, Yukari. (2011). An introduction to virtual learning
environments. Gakushuin University. Japan.
Yan, Sufeng. & Song, Runjuan. (2013). Virtual classroom and traditional classroom.
International conference in Educational Technology and Management Science
(ICETMS). Published by Atlantis Press.

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Unit 4. Planning and Preparation

In this unit, you will have to study evidence-informed planning, particularly the
planning, teaching, assessment and review cycle, curriculum elements and constructive
alignment, particularly, basic education curriculum structure and elements, lesson
planning, and modification of lesson planning, pedagogical models, differentiation of
teaching and learning, assessment and evaluation, and modifying the existing lesson
plan. Thus, lesson planning is explained in the broader context through close reference to
Basic Education curriculum materials. You will explore the extent to which the Year 4
Lesson Plan Template accommodates the Basic Education’s Introduce–Teach–Practise–
Review model, as well as other pedagogical models, including the indirect instruction
model and the project-based model. The unit highlights principles of constructive
alignment, differentiation, and evidence and data informed planning. You will be
provided opportunity to plan a project-based lesson for a hypothetical Grade 7 class,
utilising the Year 4 Lesson Plan Template.

Expected Learning Outcomes

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By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 revise the practices at each stage of the planning, teaching, assessment and
review cycle;
 reflect and analyze middle school curriculum structure and elements;
 develop an annual plan for teaching, learning and assessment to support
student learning;
 explain how an annual plan for teaching, learning and assessment is
constructively aligned with middle school curriculum;
 evaluate a constructively aligned teaching and learning sequence for a lesson
scenario;
 develop a lesson plan using ITPR model;
 evaluate a lesson plan using ITPR model;
 reflect and compare middle school scenarios and explain elements of a lesson
that have been differentiated;
 outline how selected middle school learning activity can be differentiated to
respond to diverse student’s needs and support learning;
 use the whole class and individual students’ profiles to plan a lesson for upper
middle class;
 plan to assess throughout the learning and teaching sequence and review phase
of the upper middle lesson;
 develop the frame for teacher evaluation sheets that are linked to lesson
elements and selected pedagogical models;
 construct the lesson planning to analyze the student profile considerations; and
 write the lesson planning to achieve the objectives of respective subjects in
terms of students’ profile considerations.

Competencies Gained

 A 3.2 Demonstrate respect for the social, linguistic, and cultural diversity of
the students and their communities
 A 4.1 Demonstrate understanding of the structure, content and expected
learning outcomes of the basic education curriculum
 A 5.1 Demonstrate understanding of the subject matter to teach the assigned
subject/s for the specified grade level/s
 A 5.2 Demonstrate understanding of how to vary delivery of subject content
to meet students' learning needs and learning context

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 B 1.1 Demonstrate capacity to teach subject-related concepts clearly and

engagingly
 B 1.3 Demonstrate good lesson planning and preparation in line with
students’ learning ability and experience
 B 2.1 Demonstrate capacity to monitor and assess student learning
 B 2.2 Demonstrate capacity to keep detailed assessment records and use the
assessment information to guide students’ learning progress
 B 3.1 Demonstrate capacity to create a safe and effective learning
environment for all students
 C 1.2 Demonstrate understanding of the underlying ideas that influence one’s
practice as a professional teacher
 D 1.1 Regularly reflect on own teaching practice and its impact on student
learning
 D 2.1 Improve own teaching practice through learning from other teachers and
professional development opportunities

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Key Terms

Accommodating, assimilating, conceptualization, converging, diverging,

interpersonal, questionnaires, retrospective, tacit knowledge.

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4.1. Evidence-Informed Planning

In this sub-unit, you will have to learn why teachers need to plan lessons ahead of the
teaching periods. By planning, you’re giving each class the benefit of your unique
experience, knowledge and style. But lesson planning is hard, and it can take ages. You
might think that it’s easier to follow a coursebook, and your students often expect it.
Remember, all students can learn and succeed, but not on the same day in the same way.
It is your responsibility to provide appropriate learning opportunities and to ensure that
your students are able and willing to take advantage of those opportunities.

4.1.1. Planning, teaching, assessment and review cycle

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 revise the practices at each stage of the planning, teaching, assessment and
review cycle.

Why Lesson Plan?86

A lesson plan helps you before class because it:
 Gives you a better chance of success.
 Gives you confidence.
 Reduces anxiety.
It’s a reference in class, in case you forget what’s next. It can help you after class, as a
reference to figure out what went well (and what not so well). Plus, you can scribble
notes on it for the next time you teach that lesson. All the outstanding teachers reflect,
and make changes. Thus, you plan your lesson, you teach with your lesson plan, you
assess as you prepared, you review your work, and again you reflect and make changes.
In this way, you will see a tremendous improvement in your work.
A good lesson plan is no guarantee of a successful lesson because unforeseen things
might happen to prevent you putting the plan into action. However, few lessons will be
successful if they have not been carefully planned. Different types of lessons (theory,
practical, field trip and so on) and different teaching strategies (direct instruction, group
work and so on) will require different approaches, but the following planning steps are
useful for any form of instruction.
1. Clarify why you are teaching this particular lesson or topic.

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2. Write clear learning outcomes to describe what you want students to understand
and be able to do as a result of the lesson.
3. Decide how you will assess the students to determine how well they have
achieved the outcomes.
4. Determine the constraints (time, etc.) you must teach within.
5. Select the content you want students to understand, in order that they might
achieve the lesson outcomes.
6. Make sure that you have a thorough understanding of the content so that you can
focus your planning on the important ideas and on the relationships between
these ideas.
7. Organise the content into a suitable sequence and select appropriate examples to
help students understand it.
8. Select the most appropriate way to present the content and engage students in
learning (i.e., decide on a teaching strategy).
9. Do whatever preparation and organisation are necessary for using your chosen
strategy.
10. Plan how you will evaluate the success of the lesson, so that you can decide how
to modify your teaching in the future.
Basic Lesson Plans87
There are many different ways of setting out your lesson plans and with experience you
will develop a format that works best for you and satisfies the administrative
requirements of your school. The lesson plan format shown in Table 4.1 is a good
starting point. It emphasises the following:
• The lesson outcomes: clear statements of what you want students to be able to
do by the end of the lesson.
• The lesson content: a summary of the important things the students need to
understand in order to be able to achieve the lesson outcomes.
• The lesson introduction: a summary of how you will gain the learners’
attention, arouse their motivation, explain the purpose of the lesson and review
any prerequisite knowledge.
• The teaching–learning phase: what happens here will depend on the teaching
strategy you have chosen. You must always consider how you will facilitate
learning, keep learners on task, manage the learning environment, gain feedback
from the learners and help them to monitor their own learning. This particular
format requires you to think about what you will do and what the learners will do
at each point in the lesson.

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• The lesson closure: a summary of how you will bring the lesson to a logical
conclusion at an appropriate time.
• Assessment of student learning: a summary of how you will get feedback on
what students have learned.
• Lesson evaluation: a reminder to reflect on how successful your teaching has
been.

Learning activity 1: Planning, teaching, assessment and review cycle

The purpose of this learning activity is for you to identify the teacher practices that
occur at each stage of the planning, teaching, assessment, and review cycle of a lesson
plan format.

Take a unit from a middle school textbook. And prepare this table with what you want to
fill in.
Discuss each stage of the preparation of your lesson plan with your peers.
Table 4.1. The lesson plan preparation88

The lesson outcomes:

The lesson content:

The lesson introduction:

The teaching–learning phase:

The lesson closure:

Assessment of student learning:

Lesson evaluation:

The Process of Lesson Planning

Answering the following series of questions that follow will make up the fundamental
planning process.
About students
1. Where are your students starting from?

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Author’s work, Used with generosity.

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The better you know your students, the easier it is to plan. You’ll also deliver better
lessons, they’ll learn more, and you’ll all have more fun. “The most important single
factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach
him accordingly.”89 “What do I know about my students? What is heir background?
What level of prior knowledge do they have? What is the level of their motivation?”
About aims
2. Where do you want them to get to?
“What will students be better able to do by the end of the lesson? Is it required by the
syllabus/ curriculum? Is it student centred? Is it specific? Is it observable?”
About context, structure, materials, activities, exercises, tasks, supporting students
3. What’s the best way for them to get there?
“How does the context relate to the learners? Is it a strong context? Is it real, realistic,
implied or imaginary? How will you set the context–verbally, visually, aurally or using
realia? How are you going to run the context through the lesson? Which lesson structure
are you going to adapt? Can you put your exercises and tasks into this structure? Which
task (or tasks) will get students to demonstrate that they’ve reached the lesson aims? Do
your materials engage and support students? Can you re-use material? Have you varied
interaction patterns to support students, or encourage creativity? Have you personalised
the coursebook? Have you scaffolded where needed? Do you need to differentiate any
parts of the lesson?
About assessment
4. How can you check their progress?
“How are you going to check students have made progress? How are you going to
review at the end of the lesson?”

Learning activity 2: The process of lesson planning

The purpose of this learning activity is for you to identify the teacher practices that
occur at each stage of the planning, teaching, assessment, and review cycle of a lesson
plan format.

1. Take a unit from a middle school textbook.

2. Answer the questions in each stage of the cycle in Table 4.2.
3. Discuss with your peers.

89
Ausubel, D. (1968).

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Table 4.2. The lesson plan format

Lesson title: ………………

Date: ……………… ………………
……………….
Learning What do I want students to be able to do as a result of the
outcomes lesson?
How are the lesson outcomes linked to the curriculum
outcomes?
Lesson content
What are the key facts, concepts or procedures that I want
learners to understand as a result of this lesson?

Introduction How will I get the learners motivated, curious and ready to
learn?

Teacher activities Learner activities

What am I going to be doing during the What are the learners going to be
lesson? doing during the lesson?

Closure How will I bring the lesson to a logical conclusion?

Learner assessment How will I know whether the learners achieved what I wanted
them to achieve?
Lesson evaluation How will I evaluate the success of the lesson?

Review Questions
Question 1: How does a lesson plan help you?

Question 2: Why isn’t a good lesson planning no guarantee of a successful lesson?

Question 3: What is the most important single factor influencing learning?

Question 4: What is your responsibility when all students can learn and succeed, but
not on the same day in the same way?

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4.2. Curriculum Elements and Constructive Alignment

In this sub-unit, you will consolidate understanding of Myanmar’s Basic Education
curriculum structures and elements. You will explore constructive alignment as it applies
at the level of the year plan, unit plan, and lesson preparation.

4.2.1. Basic education curriculum structure and elements

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 reflect and analyze middle school curriculum structure and elements; and
 develop an annual plan for teaching, learning and assessment to support student
learning.

Middle School Education Curriculum Framework90

Aims of middle school education are as follows:
(a) To achieve age-appropriate, balanced, all-round development of five strengths,
i.e., intellectually, physically, morally, socially and economically,
(b) To achieve mastery of four language skills and foundational knowledge of
Myanmar language and apply them in daily life situations,
(c) To appreciate languages, cultures and customs of all national groups in
Myanmar,
(d) To achieve foundational knowledge of four skills of English language (listening,
speaking, reading and writing) and apply them for social relations and for further
learning
(e) To achieve mastery of necessary knowledge and skills, and development of
attitudes especially in well-defined areas of learning for middle school level,
(f) To achieve necessary foundational knowledge, skills and attitudes as a
preparation for academic or vocational learning,
(g) To develop basic knowledge, skills, attitudes, aesthetic appreciation, and
behavior which are assumed to be the basic characteristics of a good citizen,
(h) To develop a sound mind and in a sound body as a result of participation in
physical activities and application of health-related knowledge and attitude in
daily life situations, and
(i) To take pride in being a citizen of the Union of Myanmar.

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https://zbook.org/read/eebfb_myanmar-national-curriculum-framework-5-version.html

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Curriculum Structure
The middle school education curriculum includes eleven main learning areas.
The main compulsory learning areas are Myanmar, English, Mathematics, Science,
Social Studies (Geography), Social Studies (History), Life Skills, Physical Education,
Moral and Civics, Aesthetics (Music and Art), and Local Curriculum (Employability and
Personal Development).
The total teaching hours is 40 periods per week. Especially, 21 st century skills are taught
either in relevant subjects or through teaching several units across the subjects. Some
21st century skills should be considered carefully depending on local conditions. For
example, basic information and communication technology, computer skills, etc., must
be considered its appropriateness to the environment where children live.
In the middle school year, there are 36 weeks and a total of 1080 instructional hours per
year. One instructional hour is 45 minutes and there are eight periods in a school day
which is equivalent to 6 hours in total. The learning areas and time allotment are shown
in Table 4.3.
Local Curriculum
Local Curriculum is a period that individual states/divisions, townships or schools can
decide in consideration of their local educational needs. In implementing local
curriculum, some contents are taught across the subjects while other contents are taught
in individual subject. The main contents dealt in local curriculum are ethnic languages,
their histories and traditional cultures, local economic condition, agricultural businesses,
basic information and communication technology, and basic computer skills. The
contents most suitable for the local needs are to be chosen.
In deciding local contents, it should be given not more than 4 periods per week and 180
hours per year.
The development of the Local Curriculum including contents, textbooks, teaching and
learning materials, pedagogical approaches, evaluation and so on must be taken
responsibility by State or Regional governments.

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Table 4. 3. Learning area and time allotment at the middle level of basic education
Middle school Periods Total hours Total 21st Century Skills and
learning areas per per hours per Vocationally Relevant Skills -
week week year showing key linkages to learning
areas
Myanmar 5 3 hrs. 45 mins 135 hrs.
English 6 4 hrs. 30 mins 162 hrs.
Mathematics 6 4 hrs. 30 mins 162 hrs.
Science 5 3 hrs. 45 mins 135 hrs.
Social Study 3 2 hrs. 15 mins 81 hrs.
(Geography) Teaching of the 21st Century Skills
Social Study 3 2 hrs. 15 mins 81 hrs. are arranged either by integrating it
(History) in relevant subjects in the
Life Skills 2 1 hr. 30 mins 54 hrs. curriculum or by including some
Physical 2 1 hr. 30 mins 54 hrs. contents as separate units in
Education relevant learning areas
Moral and 2 1 hr. 30 mins 54 hrs.
Civics
Aesthetics 2 1 hr. 30 mins 54 hrs.
(Music and
Art)
Total 36 27 hrs. 972 hrs.
Local  Ethnic language and culture
Curriculum  Career skills
(Employability  Basic computer skills
and Personal  Basic information and
Period per week (4) periods, No more
Development) communication technology
than (108) hours per year
 Agriculture
 Home management skills
Teaching these skills are planned
according to the local needs
Total A total of 1080 instructional hours per year for the middle school level
instructional
hours
Practical There must not be more than 60 hours per year for ‘School Council
Educational activities’ performed outside school hours and ‘Interest Group activities.
Development
Activities
There must be no more than 1140 hours per year for the middle school education.

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Learning activity 1: Middle school education curriculum structure and

elements

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to reflect on a specific curriculum
structure to identify how it supports student learning.

A detailed curriculum structure for middle school education is provided in Table 4.3. It
is an interesting example to focus on, irrespective of whether your specialisation is
Primary or Middle school.
Draw a Weekly Timetable from Monday to Friday for your class, Grade 7, in a middle
school.
You can use the following Timetable framework shown in Table 4.4.
Include all the learning areas every week in terms of the time allotment.
Table 4.4. Weekly Timetable91for Grade 7

Basic Education Middle School Curriculum

Teaching Learning Approaches
A competency-based approach to teaching and learning will be introduced into middle
school teaching and learning, as the new secondary curriculum is introduced grade by
grade in the period. Teachers will be selective in their use of a variety of teaching
methods as appropriate to each subject and lesson. Teachers should be well prepared
with lesson plans that describe the intended objectives and outcomes for each lesson.
Each lesson will provide continuity, building on students’ prior learning.

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Author’s work, used with generosity.

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Assessment
Assessment in middle school grades will include both formative and summative
assessment. Formative assessment will enable teachers and students to monitor and
improve their learning achievement by identifying areas of strength and weakness.
Summative assessment will enable teachers and students to evaluate their achievement at
the end of an instructional period. The assessment on the achievements of middle school
students will be made in the following four steps.
1. Classroom-level assessment
In the classroom-level assessment, formative assessment is applied by a written exam,
giving homework, or observing activities at the end of each lesson.
2. School-level assessment
First and second term-tests and a year-end exam are conducted for each grade as the
school-level assessment. Depending on the results of these three tests as well as the
classroom-level assessment, students will be promoted to the following grade.
3. Assessment at the completion of each basic education level
Assessments at the completion of the middle school level of basic education are
conducted yearly by using a written exam at local level. The exam at the completion of
middle school education, which assesses how much students achieved objectives of the
middle school education, is conducted at regional/state levels.
The graduates are awarded the middle school completion certificate which allows them
to progress to high school education. Students who failed the exam should take remedial
courses for their failed subject at the respective schools and re-sit for that subject in the
next supplementary examination cycle.
4. National level assessment
In the end of Grade 7 at the middle school level of basic education, students’
achievement over the main learning areas is assessed regularly every year or every other
year as the national level assessment in order to identify the sample status of students’
achievement.
The results of assessment should be feedbacked to students and used for giving remedial
teaching in necessary areas in order to make students competent. Moreover, they should
be used for improvement of teachers’ teaching approaches and strategies.
In response to requests by lower competent students according to results of the
assessment, individual schools can arrange remedial teaching for necessary learning
areas by using extra periods, time after school, or holidays.

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Learning activity 2: Selected sample structure – student learning

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to develop an annual plan for
teaching, learning and assessment to support student learning.
A detailed curriculum structure is provided in the Grade 7 English Teacher’s Guide. It is
an interesting example to focus on, irrespective of whether your specialisation is Primary
or Middle school.
Grade 7 English comprises 12 units, 4 review lessons, and 4 projects. Each unit is made
up of 4 lessons. Each lesson is made up of 3/4 periods. After every 3 units, there is a
review lesson (2 periods) and a project (2 periods). Assessment comprises informal
assessment in class, student self-assessment at the end of the projects, performance
assessments (i.e., writing tasks, role plays, dialogues, presentations, and the projects),
and quarterly tests. View the curriculum structure in Figures 4.1(a) and 4.1(b).
Read about the elements of year plan in Figures 4.2 (a) and (b). Reflect on how this
structure and its elements support student learning.
Discuss in terms of:
 overall curriculum structure, and
 the pedagogical frameworks over the 4-period unit lesson; 2-period review
lesson; and 2- period project.

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Figure 4.1 (a). The sample curriculum structure of Grade 7 English.92

92
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. p.10.

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Figure 4.1 (b). The sample curriculum structure of Grade 7 English.93

93
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. p.11.

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Figure 4.2 (a). The year plan for Grade 7 English.94

94
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. p.12.

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Figure 4.2 (b). The year plan for Grade 7 English.95

95
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. p.13.

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4.2.2. Constructive alignment

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 explain how an annual plan for teaching, learning and assessment is
constructively aligned with middle school curriculum; and
 evaluate a constructively aligned teaching and learning sequence for a lesson
scenario.
The basic education curriculum specifies the content that students are to learn and the
competency standards against which their learning should be judged. Your task is to
guide students through the curriculum content in such a way that they will be able to
demonstrate their learning to the required standards.
Helping learners to master the curriculum content requires teachers to do at least the
following:
• transform the ‘raw’ curriculum content into something that is easy to learn
• create a physical and emotional environment that is conducive to learning
• structure learning tasks that will systematically lead students to an understanding
of the content by allowing their brains to process information effectively
• motivate the learners to engage with the learning tasks
• monitor students’ learning and respond appropriately to their changing needs.
Effective teachers spend a considerable amount of time transforming raw content into
forms that make it comprehensible to their students – that is, forms that make it easier
for students to use the new information to form new neural networks. This
transformation process is at the heart of teacher planning. It involves such things as
identifying the important concepts and principles that students need to understand,
organising those concepts and principles into a coherent structure, devising effective
ways of explaining the key ideas and their relationships, identifying themes and issues
that will help students to link the new information to their existing knowledge,
recognising the difficulties that students might have in understanding the content and
devising ways of minimising those difficulties.96

96
Killen, R. (2016). p.25.

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Learning activity 3: Selected sample structure – Constructive alignment

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to reflect further on the teaching,
learning, and assessment structure of the Grade 7 English curriculum with respect to the
principle of constructive alignment.

Reflect on how constructive alignment is evidenced in the teaching, learning, and

assessment sequence in Figures 4.3 (a), (b) and (c) by answering the following
questions.
How is assessment designed to enable clear judgements as to how well the learning
outcomes have been met?
How do the daily teaching and learning activities and formative assessments scaffold
students undertaking the performance tasks (i.e., optimise student chances of achieving
the intended learning outcomes)?
When considering this question note that the Grade 7 English Teacher Guide presents
detailed lesson plans for each of the lessons within the 12 units. However, these lesson
plans are generic – that is, planned for national implementation without a specific
teaching and learning context in mind.
What would be day-to-day considerations on the part of the teacher regarding teaching
and learning? How would the teacher plan and prepare for each lesson to ensure that
every student in their classroom has the opportunity to progress their learning?

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Figure 4.3 (a). Selected sample structure – Constructive alignment97

97
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. p. 91.

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Teach Practise
Exercise 2: In pairs, students match the expressions with
Tell students to imagine today is 22nd the dates.
October. They check their answers with the teacher.
Tell students that the left column shows the
expressions concerning days.
Explain that the right column shows the
dates.
Tell them to match the expressions in the left
column with the dates in the right column.
Ask them to match the expressions and the
dates in pairs.
Check the answers and give feedback if
necessary.
Exercise 3: Work in pairs.
Organize students into pairs again. Student As ask questions using the sentences
Tell Student As to ask questions using the given in Exercise 3.
sentences given in Exercise 3. Student Bs give responses based on the
Tell Student Bs to give responses based on calendar given in Exercise 1.
the calendar given in Exercise 1.
Ask two or three pairs to check their answers
and give them feedback if necessary.
Exercise 4: In pairs, students link each item with the
Ask students to read the items (a – j) first and appropriate word in the box.
then, let them read about the words in the They check their answers.
box.
Let them link each item with the appropriate
word in the box.
Ask them to read aloud the answers.
Check their answers and give feedback if
necessary.
Exercise 5: Students complete the diary entries (1 – 5)
Ask students to listen to a teacher talking with the appropriate expressions (a – h).
about her routine tasks carefully and They check their answers with the teacher.
complete her diary entries with the time They listen again and repeat the phrases after
expressions or routine tasks given. the speaker.
Play the recording at least three times or more
if necessary.
Check their answers and give feedback if
necessary.
Let them listen again and repeat the phrases
like “check students’ work, prepare lesson
plans, set questions and take classes”.
Elicit their ideas by asking them what their
routine tasks are.
Figure 4.3 (b). Selected sample structure – Constructive alignment98

98
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. p. 92.

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Teach Practise

Exercise 6:
Organize students into pairs.
Tell students to imagine that they are Students imagine themselves as a teacher
teachers. and tell his/her partner what he/she does on
Ask them to tell his/her friend what he/she Monday, using the information in Exercise
does on Monday, using the information in 5.
Exercise 5. Ask their teacher if they have any difficulty.
Ask two to three pairs to check their
answers and give them feedback if
necessary.

Exercise 7a:
Ask students to read the questions in the left
column and the answers in the right column. In pairs, students match the questions with
the answers.
Ask them to match the questions with the
answers. They check their answers with the teacher.
Check their answers and give them
feedback if necessary.

Exercise 7b:
Organize students into pairs. In pairs, students take turns to ask and
answer the questions in Exercise 7b.
Tell students to ask and answer the
questions in Exercise 7b.

Review

Summary of lesson Reflection on learning

 Time expressions  What does your class teacher teach?
 Daily activities of a teacher  What is your date of birth?
 Do you have the habit of writing a
diary?

Figure 4.3 (c). Selected sample structure – Constructive alignment99

99
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. p. 93.

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Recall that effective teaching and learning occur when teachers and students work
together to achieve learning outcomes. Through the content and knowledge of the
lesson, the teacher makes learning clear for the learner. Through pedagogy, the teacher
and students use a variety of approaches. Finally, assessment procedures are undertaken
so that the teacher and students give and receive clear and regular feedback.

Learning activity 4: Design task – Constructively aligning lesson elements

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to review a lesson’s intended
learning outcomes and assessment task and criteria for success to outline teaching and
learning strategies and activities that will support students to develop the requisite
knowledge and skills.

Read the lesson elements that are provided for you in Figures 4.3 (a), (b), and (c).
Step 1
Sequence teaching and learning activities that will support students to undertake the and
achieve the learning outcome and meet the criteria for success. Identify the teaching aids
and resources that are required for the teaching and learning activities.
Step 2
Ensure that the teaching and learning activities reflect the principles of effective teaching
and learning, i.e.,
 Teachers make learning outcomes clear
 Teachers and students use different teaching and learning approaches
 Teachers and students work together, and
 Teachers and students give precise mutual feedback.
Step 3
Reflect on whether the lesson have been approached using different teaching and
learning strategies, methods, and/or activities.
Try to answer the questions given as guidelines in the matrixes in Table 4.5. It will be
helpful to compare your proposed teaching and learning sequence with your peers.

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Table 4.5. Design task – Constructively aligning lesson elements

Lesson title: ……………….………………. Date: …………………………..

Learning outcomes What do you want your students to be able to do as a result of the
lesson?
How are the lesson outcomes linked to the curriculum outcomes?

Lesson content What are the key facts, concepts or procedures that you want your
learners to understand as a result of this lesson?

Introduction How will you get the learners motivated, curious and ready to learn?

Teacher activities Learner activities

What are you going to be doing during the lesson? What are your learners going to be
doing during the lesson?

Closure How will you bring the lesson to a logical conclusion?

Learner assessment How will you know whether your learners achieved what you wanted
them to achieve?

Lesson evaluation How will you evaluate the success of the lesson?

Review Questions
Question 1: How is the teaching of the 21st Century Skills arranged?

Question 2: What does assessment in middle school grades include?

Question 3: What is the heart of teacher planning? What does it include?

Question 4: When do effective teaching and learning occur?

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4.3. Lesson Planning

In this sub-unit, you will develop the Introduce–Teach–Practise–Review (ITPR) model
that is used in Myanmar’s Basic Education lessons. You will align the ITPR model and
the direct instruction model. You will consider the purpose of pedagogical models in the
context of lesson planning.
You will evaluate a lesson plan using IPTR model in terms of impact on student
engagement and learning. You will evaluate the fit between the Year 4 Lesson Plan
Template with a range of pedagogical models. You will arrive at a conclusion about
whether the Year 4 Lesson Plan Template privileges any specific teaching and learning
model.

4.3.1. Pedagogical models

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
 develop a lesson plan using ITPR model; and
 evaluate a lesson plan using ITPR model
Introduce-Teach-Practise-Review (ITPR)
In Myanmar’s Basic Education curriculum, one of the most common pedagogical
models that is used to structure a lesson is the Introduce–Teach–Practise–Review (ITPR)
model. In the ITPR model, the teacher:
 introduces the topic and links to prior learning
 teaches the new concepts or skills
 allows opportunity for students to practise, and
 concludes the lesson with review of student achievement of learning outcomes
and student reflection.
As indicated in the Basic Education Grade 7 English, Teacher’s Guide 100, each lesson
has four stages in the sequence: the Introduction Stage; the Teaching Stage; the Practice
Stage; and the Review Stage (ITPR). See Figure 4.4. Lesson Plans, Teacher’s Guide,
English, Grade 7.

100
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7.

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I Introduction This includes a check on Prior Learning. For example, the entry-exit
strategy will be used. Each lesson starts with warm-up exercises or class
discussion as an introduction.
ENTRY: What three expressions do you recall learning about
interviewing?
EXIT: What new expressions have you learned about interviewing?

T Teach This is mainly teacher-centered.

There are steps you will have to follow – how students will be organized
for the planned activities and how you will handle these activities?

P Practise This is mainly student-centered.

There are steps you students will have to follow – how students will
engage in the planned activities.

R Review This includes a Lesson Summary / Review Questions.

Teachers have to summarize each lesson and ask students questions to
reflect on their learning.

Figure 4.4. Lesson Plans, Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. 101

Learning activity 1. Developing a lesson plan using ITPR model

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to develop the direct instruction model
with ITPR and then to reflect on why teachers apply pedagogical models in lesson
planning.

Use Unit 2, Lesson 1: Keeping good habits from Textbook, English, Grade 7 in Basic
Education Middle School Curriculum.
Prepare a Lesson Plan by filling the following rubrics in Box 4.1. Lesson Plan.

101
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. p.14.

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Box 4.1. Lesson plan102

1. Preliminaries
Grade: ………; Subject: ……………; Unit: ………; Lesson: ……… Date: ………
Topic: …………… …………… …………… ……... No. of periods: ……………..

2. Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, students will be able to:

1. …………………………………………….
2. …………………………………………….
3. …………………………………………….
4. …………………………………………….
5. ……………………………………………etc.
The soft skills that will be practised are:
1. …………………………………………….
2. …………………………………………….
3. ……………………………………………. etc.

3. Lesson Objective
By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:
1. ……………………………………………. ……………………………etc.

4. Resources and Preparation

1. ……………………………………………. …………………………………
2. …………………………………………….………………………………….
3. ……………………………………………. ……………………………..etc.

5. Lesson Focus
This lesson focuses on ……………… … …………………………………………….
This lesson has ….. ………Exercises
Words and expressions ………………….…………………………………………etc.

102
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. p. 25.

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6. Introduction
………………………………………… ….…………………………………………….
………………………………………… ….…………………………………………….
……………………………………………. ……………………………………………etc.

7. Teaching (What the teacher does and what the students do.)
Teacher: Students:
Exercise 1 …………………………………………
…………………………………………… …………………………………………
Exercise 2 …………………………………………
…………………………………………… …………………………………………
Exercise 3 …………………………………………
………………………………………..etc. ………………………………………etc.
8. Practice (What the teacher does and what the students do.)
Teacher: Students:
……………………………………………. …………………………………………
……………………………………………. …………………………………………
……………………………………………. …………………………………………etc.

9. Review
Summary of lesson Reflection on learning
……………………………………………. …………………………………………
……………………………………………. …………………………………………
……………………………………………. …………………………………………
…………………………………………etc. ………………………………………etc.

Now, you have finished writing a lesson plan in line with the Introduce-Teach-
Practise-Review model, which is prescribed to use in Basic Education Primary, Middle
and High Schools in Myanmar. As a trainee pedagogue, you need a deeper
understanding of the processes in each stage of teaching. Thus, it is necessary to evaluate
whether this model meets the typical behaviours and elements of effective direct teacher
instruction.
Many researchers into teaching and learning have conducted studies which have
contributed to an understanding of the main behaviours and elements needed to have an
effective direct teacher instruction (DTI). It is a strategy in which the teacher directly or
explicitly tells learners a skill to be learnt, or explains a new idea of concept, in a
straightforward way.

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You can evaluate your lesson plan with the elements of an effective DTI lesson, and
examine it with the following questions.
1. Is the lesson clearly structured?
2. Are the presentations clearly structured?
3. Is the lesson paced to match student’s abilities to handle the content intelligently?
4. Does the teacher have a role to model or demonstrate a skill or procedure to the
class?
5. Does the teacher use conceptual mapping with graphic organizers?
6. Does the teacher do interactive questioning?
7. Does the teacher prepare, organize, and differentiate seatwork?
8. Does the teacher use workbooks or textbooks?
9. Does the teacher provide feedback on the activities that the children completed
during seatwork?

Learning activity 2. Evaluating a lesson plan written in line with the ITPR
model

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to evaluate the ITPR model with the
behaviour and elements of direct instruction model and then to reflect on why teachers
apply pedagogical models in lesson planning.

Evaluating the lesson plan written in line with the ITPR model with the phases of direct
teacher instruction (DTI).
Use Table 4.6. Lesson plan checklist - against direct teacher instruction 103 if the lesson
plan is set to fulfil the (40) key behaviours of direct teacher instruction.
Table 4.6. Lesson plan checklist104 - against direct teacher instruction
Evaluation
Phases Teacher’s Task and Students’ Task
Nil Yea Complete
1. Activate students’ prior knowledge and
  
experiences
2. Explain the purpose of the lesson   
3. State lesson objectives   
4. Provide an overview of the focus of the
  
Orientation

lesson
5. Explain why students need to learn this   
6. Link the new content to that learnt earlier or
to students’ experience   

103
Adapted from Kivunja, C. (2015). pp.128-129.
104
Author’s work, Used with generosity.

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7. Tell students what to do to achieve the

learning outcomes   
8. Explain the level of mastery they are
expected to demonstrate   
9. Explicitly define or explain new material or
  
content
10. Use clear illustrations and demonstrations   
11. Use small easy-to-learn steps   
12. Provide examples of new concepts and skills   
13. Demonstrate expected outcome or product   
14. Assist learning with appropriate resources   
Presentation

15. Give additional explanations   

16. Evaluate students’ understanding as the
lesson develops   
17. Keep the whole class on-task   
18. Demonstrate the skills, principles or concepts
students are to learn   
practice

19. Provide scaffolding for the students   

20. Provide maximum assistance   
21. Utilise visual aids   
22. Apply authentic examples   
Structured

23. Minimise possibilities of incorrect responses   

24. Provide ongoing feedback, reinforcing
  
responses
25. Students attempt the skills on their own   
26. Give students similar problems   
27. Give students increasing responsibility   
28. Ensure every student participates   
Guided Practice

29. Give students a worksheet to complete   

30. Ask students questions to verify their
  
understanding
31. Provide immediate feedback and assistance   
32. Monitor progress, checking accuracy   
33. Students work on their own   
34. Students independently practise and work
with the concept taught   
35. Students apply their new knowledge to new
Independent

situations   
Practice

36. Students are encouraged to work

individually, or in teams   
37. Create opportunities for students to display

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their completed work   

38. Monitor and correct misconceptions   
39. Assess and evaluate students’ work   
40. Provide feedback to enhance mastery   

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4.3.2. Differentiation of teaching and learning

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 reflect and compare middle school scenarios and explain elements of a lesson
that have been differentiated; and
 outline how selected middle school learning activity can be differentiated to
respond to diverse student’s needs and support learning.

Differentiated instruction
Recall that differentiation is a philosophy. It is a way to think about teaching and
learning. Learning to differentiate instruction requires you to think about what is
working and what is not working and for whom in the classroom.
Differentiated instruction is not a single strategy but rather a framework that teachers can
use to implement a variety of strategies, many of which are evidence-based. These
evidence-based strategies include:105
 Employing effective classroom management procedures,
 Grouping students for instruction (especially students with significant learning
problems),
 Assessing readiness,
 Teaching to the student’s zone of proximal development.
“When a teacher tries to teach something to the entire class at the same time, “chances
are, one-third of the kids already know it, one-third of the kids will get it, and the
remaining third won’t. So two-thirds of the children are wasting their time.” (Lilian
Katz, Professor Emeritus, College of Education, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign)106
Although differentiated instruction as a whole is yet to be validated by scientific
research, a growing body of evidence shows that the approach has positive effects on
student learning.
Teachers who differentiate instruction often:
 Use a variety of instructional approaches,
 Alter assignments to meet the needs of the students,
 Assess students on an ongoing basis to determine their readiness levels,
 Use assessment results to adjust instruction as needed,
105
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/di/cresource/q1/p01/
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 Provide a variety of options for how students can learn and demonstrate their
knowledge,
 Strive to make lessons engaging and meaningful,
 Employ different grouping formats for instruction (e.g., whole-class, small
groups, independent instruction) and use flexible grouping.107
The necessity for varying instruction to meet the needs of individual students led to the
concept of the differentiated classroom in which teachers engage students in instruction
through different approaches to learning, try to accommodate a range of students’
interests, present information with varying degrees of complexity, and provide differing
support systems.
‘Teachers who differentiate provide specific alternatives for individuals to learn as
deeply as possible and as quickly as possible, without assuming that one student’s road
map for learning is identical to anyone else’s’. 108
As teachers begin to differentiate instruction, there are three main instructional elements
that they can adjust to meet the needs of their learners:109
 Content—the knowledge and skills students need to master
 Process—the activities students use to master the content
 Product—the method students use to demonstrate learning
Differentiating instruction involves making changes to one or more of these elements.
There is no prescribed way to differentiate instruction: The changes a teacher makes to
each of the classroom elements depends on the needs of his or her students.
Considerations for furniture arrangement in a differentiated classroom110
Teacher’s desk
 Not in a central location but out of the way
 Away from students’ desks
Students’ desks
 Arranged so that the teacher can walk around and monitor students
 Options that address individual’s need for space or close proximity to peers
 One group of four to eight desks for students who need to work independently
(e.g., students who prefer to work alone, students who get overstimulated and
need down time

107
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/di/cresource/q1/p01/
108
Killen, R. (2016). p.23.
109
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Storage (e.g., bookcases, filing cabinets, shelves)

 Ample storage for a variety of materials and supplies
 Easily accessible and do not require walking through work areas
 If frequently used, located in a convenient location (e.g., next to work area)
 If not frequently used, located in an out-of-the-way location (e.g., a corner)
Small-group work areas
 Tables (rather than individual desks) to promote collaboration
 U-shaped tables to promote discussion among students
 Area rugs for use with younger students
Centers
 Visible to the teacher
 Out of the way so as to not distract other students

Learning activity 3. Performing differentiation

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to reflect on classroom scenarios
and explain how the teachers respond to students’ diverse needs and interests.

In Year 3, you learnt that an effective teacher differentiates the curriculum (i.e., content,
process, and product) and learning environment, in response to students’ readiness,
interests, and learning profiles. You will have to reflect and compare middle school
scenarios and explain elements of a lesson that have been differentiated.
Reflect on the scenarios in Table 4.7 and identify the elements that have been
differentiated. Discuss with reference to key concepts as mentioned above. An example
has been provided for you.

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Table 4.7. Middle school classroom scenarios

Scenario Explanation
In a Grade 7 setting, students can choose to Learning environment has been
undertake an English activity involving creating a differentiated in response to students’
poster about their favourite actor or actress and interests and learning profile.
describing the profile of their favourite star. The
teacher has set up learning stations with group
work in the classroom area.

In a Grade 7 setting, the teacher often facilitates

flexible groupings to target instruction and for
students to share ideas and work together.

In a Grade 7 setting, the teacher distributes some

papers to each group and tells students to create a
poster. The teacher supports students as they work
in groups. The teacher moves around and monitor
the class. The teacher reminds them to check their
posters and make sure all requirements are met. In
the presentation tasks, students make a poster using
the photo they have brought and the paper given by
the teacher to present to the class in person through
a poster display.

Learning activity 4. Plan – Basic Education Grade 7 English111

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to review a selected Grade 7
English lesson and outline how it can be differentiated to respond to diverse students’
needs and support learning.

1. Review the stages of the Grade 7 English lesson in Box 4.2.

2. Identify ways in which the lesson can be differentiated to respond to
diverse students’ needs and support learning.
3. Indicate how you have differentiated content, process, product, and/or the
learning environment.

111
Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. pp. 86-88.

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Box 4.2. Grade 7 English lesson

Project 2
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this this project, students will be able to:
• create a brochure for an interesting package holiday
• describe places
• describe things to do in a particular place
• successfully complete the project by working collaboratively in small groups
The soft skills that will be practised are:
• communication, collaboration and creativity.
Introduction
• Arouse students’ interest by asking the following questions:
Have you ever taken a trip?
Where have you been?
Differentiated introduction (with indication of whether content, process, product, and/or the
learning environment has been differentiated):

Teach Practise
Period 1: Students work in groups.
Form students into groups of four or five. They discuss the place they have been to,
Tell them to discuss the following points: what they saw there and what they did there.
 the place they have been to They read the instructions (Steps 1-4)
 what they saw there carefully.
 what they did there They discuss and write down the points to be
Ask them to read the instructions (Step 1-4) included in the brochure.
carefully. Each group assigns their members tasks.
Tell each group the points to be included in They generate some ideas on what they will
the brochure and how their members can be write for the brochure.
assigned tasks.
Explained that “package holiday” means a
holiday organized by a travel company at a
fixed price that includes the cost of travel,
hotel, etc.
Ask them to generate some ideas on what
they will write for the brochure.

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Ask them to bring some photos of the place

they choose.
Period 2: Each group makes a brochure using the
Distribute some papers to each group. photos they have brought and the paper given
Tell students to create a brochure. by the teacher.
Monitor the class and help them while they They check that their brochure has all the
are making a brochure. points from Step 3.
Remind them to include all the points from
Step 3.

Differentiated teaching (with indication of whether content, process, product, and/or the
learning environment has been differentiated):

Differentiated practice (with indication of whether content, process, product, and/or the
learning environment has been differentiated):

Review

 Display the posters in the classroom. Ask students to choose the best brochure.
 Think & talk: When students get back into their groups, ask them to discuss which
brochure is better or the best and how they will improve the brochures next time.

Differentiated reflection and evaluation (with indication of whether content, process, product,
and/or the learning environment has been differentiated):

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4.3.3. Assessment and evaluation

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 use the whole class and individual students’ profiles to plan a lesson for middle
school class;
 plan to assess throughout the learning and teaching sequence and review phase
of the middle school lesson; and
 develop the frame for teacher evaluation sheets that are linked to lesson
elements and selected pedagogical models.

Preparations for students’ profiles112

Student profiles are a means of collecting valuable information about students in your
class. The gathering of information for student profiles can be in a variety of different
forms, the most common being Inventories (social, reading, interest) and assessments
(report cards, parents, previous teachers).
The main types of information gathered in student profiles can be classified into two
main categories: social information and learner information.
Social information includes any relevant information regarding the social aspects of a
student. For instance, interests, family background (who they live with, siblings, etc.),
relationships (friends), social ability (easy to make friends, hard, knows social norms and
boundaries, etc.). This gives teachers an idea of how a student functions within a social
environment, as well as an insight into the students' social scene.
Learner information focuses on the ways a student learns best. The goal of a learner
profile is to help students understand how best they learn, and for teachers to use this
information to help students find a good fit in the classroom.
Learner profiles have 4 main areas of focus:
 Group Orientation (independent, group orientated, adult orientated etc.),
 Cognitive Style (creative vs. Conform, concrete vs. Abstract, interpersonal vs.
Introspective, etc.),
 Learning Environment (quiet, noisy, calm, flexible, fixed, etc.) and
 Intelligence Preference (analytic, practical, creative, verbal/linguistic, etc.).
Learner profiles do not have to be all encompassing in one document; often teachers will
use several types of assessments, questionnaires, or observations to gather information

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for a profile. From all the data gathered, teachers can then gather information into a more
detailed look at the student and class.
Student profiles are dynamic and change frequently; doing a student profile and the
beginning, mid and end points of a school year may produce remarkably different
results. It is important to keep this in mind when planning for a new school year, as the
previous year's profile will likely have changed.
It is important to note that student profiles are NOT a way of “labelling students”, but
rather a way to gather as much information as possible about how a student learns, and
the best path for them to choose.
Getting started with student profiles
 At the beginning of the year, gather information about your students: have
conversations with them and with their previous teachers and make notes on
important aspects of their learning
 Complete surveys with your students that gather important information
(questionnaires, mind maps, etc.
 Gather information and put in a class learning profile, where you can then look at
all students and make connections.
There are three facets to visual versus verbal learning: ability, style, and preference.
Individuals can be high or low on any or all of these facets as shown in Figure 4.5.

FACET TYPES OF DEFINITION

LEARNING

Cognitive Ability High spatial ability Good abilities to create, remember, and
manipulate images and spatial information

Low spatial ability Poor abilities to create, remember, and

manipulate images and spatial information

Cognitive style Visualizer Thinks using images and visual

information

Verbalizer Thinks using words and verbal

information

Learning Visual learner Prefers instruction using pictures

preference
Verbal learner Prefers instruction using words

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Figure 4.5. Richard Mayer’s Three Facets of the Visualizer–Verbalizer

Dimension113

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There is one learning styles distinction that has research support. Richard Mayer has
been studying the distinction between visual and verbal learners, with a focus on
learning from computer-based multimedia. Here, the assessment of learning styles is
carefully done and more valid than assessments based on many of the commercial
inventories. Mayer has found a visualizer–verbalizer dimension and that it has three
facets: cognitive spatial ability (low or high), cognitive style (visualizer vs. verbalizer),
and learning preference (visual learner vs. verbal learner), as shown in Table. 4.5. So,
the picture is more complex than simply being a visual or a verbal learner.
A student might have a preference for learning with pictures, but low spatial ability
could make using pictures for learning less effective. To complicate matters even more,
spatial abilities may be important for learning from static pictures but less important for
learning from animation; so, the type of learning materials matters, too.
Kolb believed that we cannot perform both variables on a single axis at the same time
(e.g., think and feel). Our learning style is a product of these two choice decisions. It’s
often easier to see the construction of Kolb’s learning styles in terms of a two-by-two
matrix. Each learning style represents a combination of two preferred styles. The matrix
also highlights Kolb’s terminology for the four learning styles; diverging, assimilating,
and converging, accommodating:114

Active Experimentation Reflective Observation

(Doing) (Watching)

Concrete Experience (Feeling) Accommodating (CE/AE) Diverging (CE/RO)

Abstract Conceptualization Converging (AC/AE) Assimilating (AC/RO)

(Thinking)

Figure 4.6. Kolb’s terminology for the four learning styles

Learning activity 5: Preparation of a learner profile

The purpose of this learning activity is for you to be able to use the whole class
and individual students’ profiles to plan a lesson for middle school class, and to plan to
assess throughout the learning and teaching sequence and review phase of the middle
school lesson.

You can survey your students’ talents by using Box 4.3. Evaluating students on
Gardner’s eight types of intelligence.
 Read these items and rate themselves on a 4-point scale.

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 Each rating corresponds to how well a statement describes him or her.

 (1 = not like me at all; 2 = somewhat unlike me; 3 = somewhat like me; 4 = a lot
like me)
 Total one’s score for each of the eight types of intelligence and place the total in
the box that follows the label for each kind of intelligence.
Box 4. 3. Evaluating students on Gardner’s eight types of intelligence115

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
4. Verbal Thinking 
1. I do well on verbal tests, such as the verbal part

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
of the SAT.

⃝1 2⃝ ⃝3 ⃝4
2. I am a skilled reader and read prolifically.
3. I love the challenge of solving verbal problems.

⃝1 2⃝ ⃝3 ⃝4
2. Logical/Mathematical Thinking 

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
4. I am a very logical thinker.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
5. I like to think like a scientist.
6. Math is one of my favorite subjects.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
3. Spatial Skills 
7. I am good at visualizing objects and layouts

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
from different angles.
8. I have the ability to create maps of spaces and

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
locations in my mind.
9. If I had wanted to be, I think I could have been
an architect.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Skills 

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
10. I have great hand-eye coordination.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
11. I excel at sports.
12. I am good at using my body to carry out an
expression, as in dance.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
5. Musical Skills 

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
13. I play one or more musical instruments well.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
14. I have a good “ear” for music.
15. I am good at making up songs.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
6. Insightful Skills for Self-Understanding 
16. I know myself well and have a positive view of

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
myself.

⃝1 2⃝ ⃝3 ⃝4
17. I am in tune with my thoughts and feelings.
18. I have good coping skills.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
7. Insightful Skills for Analyzing Others 

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
19. I am very good at “reading” people.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
20. I am good at collaborating with other people.
21. I am a good listener.

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
8. Naturalist Skills 

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
22. I am good at observing patterns in nature.
23. I excel at identifying and classifying objects in

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the

⃝1 ⃝2 ⃝3 ⃝4
natural environment.
24. I understand natural and human-made systems.
Which areas of intelligence are their strengths?
In which are they the least proficient?
It is highly unlikely that they will be strong in all eight areas or weak in all eight areas.
By being aware of their strengths and weaknesses in different areas of intelligence, you
can get a sense of which areas of teaching them will be the easiest and most difficult for
you.

Learning Activity 6: Learner Profile Format

1. Form pairs among your peers.

2. Fill in the information in Box 4.4. below that can be included in a learner profile.
3. Exchange your information with your friend.

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Box 4.4. Learner Profile

Name: …………………………… Date of Entry (DD/MM/YYYY): ………………...…

Age: …… Date of Birth (DD/MM/YYYY) …………………Grade: …… Section ……

Address: ………………………………………………………..……………………..

Family ………………..….. ………………..….. …………………

(who he/she lives with)  Father  Mother  Guardian

Relationships: ……….……………….. ……………….. ……………….. ………………..

(friends)  Best friend 1  Best friend 2  Close friend 1  Close friend 2

Learning style: (Visual  : Auditory  : Kinesthetic )

Thinking styles:
(concrete  vs. abstract : random  vs. sequential : divergent  vs. convergent )

Strengths: ……………….. ……………….. ……………….. ………………..

Challenges: ……………….. ……………….. ……………….. ………………..

Interests/Hobbies: ……………….. ……………….. ………………..

Wishes: ……………….. ……………….. ……………….. ……………….. ……

(for personal) (for class life)

Dreams: ……………….. ……………….. ……………….. ……………….. ……

Goals: ……………….. ……………….. ………………..……………….. ………………..

(learning) (personal)

Teacher Name: ……………..…………Signature: ………………… Date:………………..

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Authentic assessment
Recall that assessment should be built into curriculum design and relate directly to the
curriculum aims and learning outcomes.
Diagnostic assessment is used to assess prior learning and misconceptions.
Summative assessment is an evaluation administered to measure student learning
outcomes, typically at the end of a unit or chapter. Often used to evaluate whether a
student has mastered the content or skill.
Formative assessment is a system of providing continual feedback about preconceptions
and performances to both learners and instructors; an ongoing evaluation of student
learning.
Authentic assessments are characterized by open-ended tasks that require students to
construct extended responses, to perform an act, or to produce a product in a real-world
context—or a context that mimics the real world.
Examples of authentic assessments include projects, portfolios, writing an article for
newsletter or newspaper, performing a dance or drama, designing a digital artifact,
creating a poster for science fair, debates, and oral presentations.
Criteria for authenticity in authentic assessment116
Authentic assessment “is realistic”. This means that the authentic task or tasks must
replicate how a student’s knowledge, skills, and/or dispositions are assessed in a real-
world context.
The authentic task or tasks require students to make good judgments and be creative and
innovative in solving complex and non-routine problems or performing a task in new
situations. Hence, authentic tasks serve as an effective tool for assessing students’
demonstrations of critical thinking, complex problem solving, and creativity and
innovation. These are some of the essential 21st century competencies.
An authentic assessment or task enables students to deeply engage in the subject or
discipline through critical thinking and inquiry. A multifaceted scoring system is used
for authentic assessment, and scoring criteria must be transparent. Student self-
assessment must play a pivotal role in authentic assessment.
The reliability or defensibility of teachers’ professional judgment or scoring of student
performance or work is achieved through social moderation, in which teachers of the
same subjects gather to set criteria and standards for scoring, and to compare their
scores.

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Evaluating performance
Though students will work on different activities and demonstrate their knowledge
through a variety of products, teachers can accurately evaluate student performance
using one of several recommended methods:
 Rubrics: A rubric is an objective set of guidelines that defines the criteria used to
score or grade an assignment. It describes the requirements of the assignment and
clearly outlines the points the student will receive based on the quality of his or
her work.
 Portfolios: A portfolio is a collection of artifacts, or individual work samples,
that represent a student’s performance over a period of time. In general, this type
of assessment allows teachers to more accurately evaluate a student’s mastery of
content or a skill than a single assessment such as a test that captures one
moment in time. A portfolio also allows a student to reflect on his or her
performance over time and to perhaps establish future goals.
 Self-assessment: Student self-assessment is the process of students using specific
criteria to evaluate and reflect on their own work. In doing so, students become
more responsible for their own learning and may be more prepared to work with
the teacher to develop individual learning goals.
Assigning Grades
In addition to evaluating performance, teachers must also assign grades for each
instructional period. Typically, teachers consider three factors when they assign grades:
 Achievement (i.e., how the student is performing in relation to expected grade-
level goals)
 Growth (i.e., the amount of individual improvement over time)
 Habits (e.g., participation, behavior, effort, attendance)

Learning activity 7: Framing – teacher evaluation questions

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to outline a lesson scenario and
frame teacher evaluation questions which link to the specific pedagogical model that has
been selected for the lesson.

Refer to Annex 2: Year 3 Lesson Plan Template.

Box 4.5. presents an example of teacher evaluation questions for a Teacher’s Guide,
English, Grade 7 direct instruction lesson that focuses on Listening and speaking skills
development.

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Box 4.5. Teacher evaluation questions of effectiveness of lesson

Lesson scenario: Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7, Lesson 1: Seeing a doctor,
focusing on Listening and speaking skills development
Pedagogical model: Direct instruction

□ Did the students have the pre-requisite skills and knowledge? (Yes  No )
□ Were the lesson outcomes and success criteria communicated clearly to students?
(Yes  No )
□ Was the modelling or demonstration effective? (Yes  No )
□ Were the skills broken into small enough steps? (Yes  No )
□ Was each step learned before the next was taught? (Yes  No )
□ Were the examples effective? (Yes  No )
□ Was the content provided in a clear and sequenced way? (Yes  No )
□ Were effective questions asked to check for students’ understanding? (Yes  No
)
□ Was there sufficient guided practice? (Yes  No )
□ Was guided practice monitored closely? (Yes  No )
□ Was the independent practice sufficient? (Yes  No )
□ Did students achieve learning outcomes? (Yes  No )
□ Did students meet success criteria? (Yes  No )

You may wish to focus on the Danielson’s Frameworks for Teaching. 117 Especially on
the first three domains: Planning and Preparation, Classroom Environment, and
Instruction.
The Framework for Teaching identifies those aspects of a teacher’s responsibilities that
have been documented through empirical studies and theoretical research as promoting
improved student learning. While the Framework is not the only possible description of
practice, these responsibilities seek to define what teachers should know and be able to
do in the exercise of their profession.
The Framework has four domains or areas of responsibility: Planning and Preparation,
Classroom Environment, Instruction, and Professional Responsibilities. Each domain is
further divided into components, in Figure 4.7.

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Domain 1: Planning and Preparation Domain 2: Classroom Environment

1a Demonstrating Knowledge of Content 2a Creating an Environment of Respect
and Pedagogy and Rapport
1b Demonstrating Knowledge of 2b Establishing a Culture for Learning
Students
1c Setting Instructional Outcomes 2c Managing Classroom Procedures
1d Demonstrating Knowledge of 2d Managing Student Behavior
Resources
1e Designing Coherent Instruction 2e Organizing Physical Space
1f Designing Student Assessments
Domain 3: Instruction Domain 4: Professional Responsibilities
3a Communicating with Students 4a Reflecting on Teaching
3b Using Questioning and Discussion 4b Maintaining Accurate Records
Techniques
3c Engaging Students in Learning 4c Communicating with Families
3d Using Assessment in Instruction 4d Participating in a Professional
Community
3e Demonstrating Flexibility and 4e Growing and Developing
Responsiveness Professionality
4f Showing Professionalism

Figure 4.7. Danielson’s frameworks for teaching.

In Box 4.6., outline a lesson scenario from a middle school Teacher’s Guide, and frame
teacher evaluation questions that link to the specific pedagogical model that has been
selected for the lesson.
Box 4.6. Teacher evaluation of effectiveness of lesson
Lesson scenario:
Pedagogical model:

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Review Questions
Question 1: What are the soft skills that will be practised?

Question 2: What is direct teacher instruction (DTI)?

Question 3: Why is it necessary to evaluate whether Introduce-Teach-Practise-

Review model meets the typical behaviours and elements of effective
direct teacher instruction?

Question 4: What is the benefit of differentiated instruction?

Question 5 What is the main concept of the differentiated classroom?

Question 6: What are the main instructional elements that you can adjust to meet the
needs of your learners as you begin to differentiate instruction?

Question 7: What are the main areas of focus in learner profiles?

Question 8: What plays a pivotal role in authentic assessment?

Question 9: What are the recommended authentic assessment methods that you can
accurately evaluate your student performance?

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4.4. Modification of Lesson Planning

In this sub-unit, you will have to construct a lesson planning to analyze the student
profile considerations, and write a lesson planning to achieve the objectives of respective
subjects in terms of students’ profile considerations.

4.4.1. Modifying the existing lesson plan

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 construct the lesson planning to analyze the student profile considerations; and
 write the lesson planning to achieve the objectives of respective subjects in terms
of students’ profile considerations.
Inputs to the planning process118
As a beginning teacher, you will need four inputs to the planning process to complete
your unit and lesson plans: knowledge of goals and objectives, knowledge of your
learners, knowledge of the subject matter, and knowledge of teaching methods.
Recall that some of the characteristics of your learners that will influence your
instruction are their specific abilities, prior knowledge, learning styles, and home and
family lives. These are the “windows” through which you will see the special needs of
your learners and begin to plan for them.
A third input to the planning process is knowledge of your academic discipline and
grade level. As a student, you have spent much time and effort becoming knowledgeable
in the subjects you will teach.
A fourth input to the planning process is your knowledge of teaching methods. With
this knowledge comes an awareness of different teaching strategies with which you can
implement the key and helping behaviors. Also included under teaching methods are
your decisions about the following:
 Appropriate pacing or tempo (the speed at which you introduce new material)
 Mode of presentation (direct presentation versus group discussion versus web-
based instruction)
 Class arrangement (small groups, full class, independent work)
 Classroom management (raise hand, speak out)

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Your decisions pertaining to the above four inputs to planning should work together to
form a well thought out plan from which you will teach your lesson objectives.
Shulman (1986) introduced the concept of Pedagogical Content Knowledge119.
Shulman noted that a teacher’s subject knowledge and pedagogical (methods)
knowledge were being treated as mutually exclusive domains in many teacher education
programs. The consequences of such a dichotomy led to the development of teacher
education programs in which the focus on subject matter and pedagogy were treated
separately as different courses and subjects, and, therefore, often failed to consider the
necessary relationship between the two.
PCK is another type of knowledge important for effective teaching that combines these
formerly separate knowledge bases into a single knowledge base that can help teachers
know what teaching approaches best fit the subject matter being taught (for example,
math versus science; language arts versus social studies) and know how the teaching of
different elements of a subject can be enhanced with the use of certain teaching methods
(for example, methods for teaching facts versus concepts versus principles).
PCK focuses on the identification of pedagogical techniques that make subject matter
easier to learn. It also represents the blending of content and pedagogy into an
understanding of how particular topics or problems should be organized and adapted to
the diverse interests and abilities of learners. These developments have led to the now
widely accepted practice that specific content methods courses should follow a general
methods course to better prepare teachers for the pedagogical content knowledge they
will need to teach effectively in their specific fields.
As you noted, before you can prepare a lesson, you must decide on your instructional
goals and objectives. These planning decisions are crucial for developing effective
lesson plans, because they give structure to lesson planning.
You probably regard your content and method knowledge as hard won during four years
of professional training. To be sure, it is—but you have only just begun. Your
knowledge of content and methods will change with the interaction of your formal
university training and your actual practicum classroom experience.
This change will result in what is called reflective practice, fueled by your tacit, or
personal, knowledge gained from your day-to-day experience. Tacit knowledge
represents your reflection on what works in your classroom, discovered over time and
through personal experience. Through everyday experiences, such as observing and
consulting with other teachers, teaching, lesson planning, and testing and grading, you
will accumulate tacit knowledge and reflect on new ways of doing things that can guide
your actions as effectively as knowledge from texts and formal training. This
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knowledge, if you take the time to reflect on it, will add to the quality of your planning
and decision making by bringing variety and flexibility to your lessons, leading to
revisions and refinements that can improve your unit and lesson planning. Tacit
knowledge, because it comes from your own experience, can make your planning less
rigid and repetitious and, over time, add fresh insights to your personal teaching style.
Thus, there is a fifth input to the planning process, shown in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.8. Inputs to the planning process120

Learning activity 1: Tackling lesson-planning questions

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to construct the lesson planning to
analyze the student profile considerations.

1. To begin, you can achieve the tightly knit relationship between what you do and
what your students are thinking by considering the following questions.
2. Choose a lesson from a unit from your middle school textbook.
3. Try to master the lesson content thoroughly.
4. Then, try to answer the followings questions.
5. Your answers to these questions will serve you well in the lesson-planning steps
that follow.
(a) Why should your students care or want to know about this topic?
(b) What do you want your students to know and be able to do?
(c) Which of their needs, experiences, and prior learnings will be a
foundation for this lesson?

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(d) To what national standards and curriculum guide content will this content
relate?
(e) What engaging and worthwhile learning activities will you ask your
students to complete that meet their needs, experiences, and prior
learning?
(f) What instructional activities will you use to bring out these needs,
experiences, and prior learning and to provide evaluative feedback?
(g) How will you know when your students have achieved the goal of the
lesson?
The important process of unit and lesson planning begins with implementing the five
planning inputs in Figure 4.8. This stage of the planning process takes a system
perspective, meaning your lessons will be part of a larger system of interrelated learning
called a unit. Unit planning, therefore, begins with the experiences of your learners and
their learning needs to inform the design of your lessons, followed by an understanding
of your competency standards, the content you will teach, and the teaching methods
from which you can choose.
Teacher’s Unit and Lesson Plans
 Describes how curriculum guide goals are implemented daily
 Refers to topics to be covered, materials needed, activities to be used
 Identifies evaluation strategies
 Notes adaptations to special populations
Thus, you need to consider the following in your unit and lesson planning:
 Objectives
 Learners
 Content
 Outcomes.
In order to make lesson plans, here are the steps to consider.
1. Determining where to start
2. Providing for learning diversity
3. Events of instruction
4. Getting started:

Learning activity 2: Writing a lesson plan in terms of students’ profile

considerations

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The purpose of this learning activity for you is to write a lesson plan to achieve the
objectives of respective subjects in terms of students’ profile considerations.

1. Pair with your colleague in your class. Or your Teacher Educator will assign you
into pairs.
2. Choose a subject you specialized in your Year 4 study.
3. Choose a unit from the textbook prescribed for a grade at the middle school level.
4. Choose a lesson from a unit and learn it thoroughly.
5. Now, you write a lesson plan of your own for your Year 4 Practicum.
6. Use Table 4.8.
Table 4.8. Year 4: Lesson Plan Template

Year 4: Lesson Plan Template

Subject: Teacher: Date:
Lesson Level: Primary/Middle/High School, etc.
Unit Title: Time:
Lesson Area:
Lesson Title: Time: 50 minutes
Resources and Preparations for Differentiated Learning:
General:
Visual:
Auditory:
Kinesthetic:
Integration of Technology
Type of Instruction: Teaching Method:
1. Gaining Attention: (1-5) Teacher:
min Learner:
2. Informing learners of the Teacher:
objectives: (1-3) min Learner:
3. Stimulating Recall of Teacher:
Perquisite Learning:
(5-10) min Learner:
4. Presenting the Content: Teacher:
(10-20) min Learner:
5. Eliciting the Desired Teacher:
Behavior: (10-20) min Learner:
6. Providing Feedback: Teacher:
(5-10) min Learner:

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7. Assessing the Lesson Teacher:

Outcome: (1-5) min Learner:
8. Assignment: (1-3) min
9. Reflection and Evaluation:
10. Area of Revision for
Improvement:

Review Questions
Question 1: What are the main inputs to the planning process to complete your
unit and lesson plans?

Question 2: What is tacit knowledge?

Question 3: What do you need to consider in your unit and lesson planning?

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Unit Summary
Key messages

 Different types of lessons (theory, practical, field trip and so on) and
different teaching strategies (direct instruction, group work and so on) will
require different approaches.
 The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already
knows.
 To achieve necessary foundational knowledge, skills and attitudes as a
preparation for academic or vocational learning is one of the aims of middle
school education.
 Effective teaching and learning occurs when teachers and students work together
to achieve learning outcomes.
 Pedagogical content knowledge focuses on the identification of pedagogical
techniques that make subject matter easier to learn.
 Pedagogical content knowledge represents the blending of content and pedagogy
into an understanding of how particular topics or problems should be organized
and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners.
 Tacit knowledge represents your reflection on what works in your classroom,
discovered over time and through personal experience.
 Tacit knowledge can make your planning less rigid and repetitious and, over
time, add fresh insights to your personal teaching style.
 The stage of the planning process takes a system perspective, i.e., lessons will be
part of a larger system of interrelated learning called a unit.
 Unit planning begins with the experiences of the learners and their learning needs
to inform the design of lessons, followed by an understanding of competency
standards, the content to be taught, and the teaching methods from which one can
choose.

Unit reflection

1. What are the benefits of planning lessons ahead of the teaching periods?
2. What is your responsibility when all students can learn and succeed, but not on
the same day in the same way?
3. What happens when teachers and students work together to achieve learning
outcomes?
4. What is the consequence in many teacher education programs that a teacher’s
subject knowledge and pedagogical (methods) knowledge were being treated as
mutually exclusive domains?

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Further reading

4.1. Evidence-informed planning

Ausubel, D. (1968). Educational psychology. A cognitive view. New York: Holt,

Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Killen, R. (2016). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice.
Melbourne: Cengage Learning.
Weller, D. (2019). Lesson planning for language teachers: Evidence-based techniques
for busy teachers. Devon: Stone Arrow Ltd.

4.2. Curriculum elements and constructive alignment

Department of Basic Education, Curriculum and Textbook Committee. (2020).

Teacher’s Guide, English, Grade 7. Ministry of Education.
https://zbook.org/read/eebfb_myanmar-national-curriculum-framework-5-version.html

4.3. Lesson planning

Killen, R. (2016). Effective teaching strategies: Lessons from research and practice.
South Melbourne: Cengage Learning.
Kivunja, C. (2015). Teaching, learning and assessment: Steps towards creative practice.
Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Koh, K. H. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.22.
Santrock, J. W. (2017). Educational psychology: theory and application to fitness and
performance. New York: McGraw Hill Education.
Woolfolk, A. (2016). Educational psychology. Boston: Pearson Education Ltd.
https://edpd593finalproject.weebly.com/
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/di/cresource/q1/p01/
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/di/cresource/q1/p01/
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/di/cresource/q2/p04/#content
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/di/cresource/q3/p10/#content
https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html
https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html

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4.4. Modification of lesson planning

Borich, G. D. (2017). Effective teaching methods: research-based practice (Ninth

edition). Pearson Education Ltd: Boston.:
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching.
Educational Researcher, 15(2) 4-14.
Woolfolk, A. (2016). Educational psychology. Boston: Pearson Education Ltd.

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Unit 5. Educational Psychology

You have studied about Educational Psychology from year1 to year 3. It includes what is
Educational Psychology, major fields of Educational Psychology, importance of
Educational Psychology and relating psychology, learning and teaching. In this unit, you
will learn more about the importance of educational psychology in teaching and
learning. This unit will also expand your knowledge of learning theories. You will learn
about mental health and adjustment in teaching and learning, the importance of
personality traits, and importance of guidance and counseling in teaching and learning.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 reflect and analyze the conceptual understanding of educational psychology in
teaching and learning;
 reflect on the key principles of learning theories;
 analyze the strengths and weakness of learning theories;
 design a lesson plan using different learning theories;
 reflect on mental health and strategies for supporting students’ mental health;
 discuss the factors affecting teachers’ mental health;
 explain the conception of adjustment;
 explain and discuss the different types of adjustment mechanisms;
 identify and provide an example of the characteristics of well-adjusted and
maladjusted students;
 apply the strategies to help maladjusted students;
 discuss the characteristics of personality;
 identify the personality attributes;
 clarify the different types of personality;
 explain and illustrate the importance of personality traits;
 illustrate personality trait dimensions;
 define and provide the concepts of guidance and counseling with suitable
examples;
 explain and discuss when guidance and counseling is needed;
 describe the different types of guidance;
 demonstrate understanding the principles of guidance;
 explain and illustrate the types and principles of counseling;
 explain counseling techniques in teaching and learning; and
 discuss the importance of guidance and counseling program in schools.

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Competencies Gained

 A 1.1 Demonstrate understanding of how students learn relevant to their age

and developmental stage
 A 1.2 Demonstrate understanding of how different teaching methods can
meet students’ individual needs
 A 3.2 Demonstrate respect for the social, linguistic, and cultural diversity of
the students and their communities
 A 4.1 Demonstrate understanding of the structure, content and expected
learning outcomes of the basic education curriculum
 A 5.1 Demonstrate understanding of the subject matter to teach the assigned
subject/s for the specified grade level/s
 A 5.2 Demonstrate understanding of how to vary delivery of subject content
to meet students’ learning needs and the learning context
 B 1.2 Demonstrate capacity to apply educational technologies and different
strategies for teaching and learning
 B 1.3 Demonstrate good lesson planning and preparation in line with
students’ learning ability and experience
 B 2.1 Demonstrate capacity to monitor and assess student learning
 B 3.1 Demonstrate capacity to create a safe and effective learning
environment for all students
 B 3.2 Demonstrate strategies for managing student behavior
 C 1.2 Demonstrate understanding of the underlying ideas that influence one’s
practice as a professional teacher
 C 3.1 Demonstrate a high regard for each student’s right to education and
treat all students equitably

Key Terms

Adjustment, adjustment mechanism, counseling, guidance, learning,

maladjustment, mental health, personality, personality traits.

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5.1. Assuring Understanding of Educational Psychology

In this sub unit, you will assure your understanding of educational psychology by
studying the application of educational psychology in teaching and learning.

5.1.1. Applying educational psychology in teaching and learning

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

 reflect and analyze the conceptual understanding of educational psychology in
teaching and learning.

The application of educational psychology in teaching and learning

Education and psychology is interdependent. One psychologist said that I do not

understand how a teacher could teach without the knowledge of educational psychology.
Psychology had changed the spirit of education and it gives new meaning to learning in
classroom. Psychology gives education the theory of individual differences that every
child has different mental ability and learns with different pace. It is very essential for a
teacher to teach his/her students according to their abilities. Educational psychology
helps the teacher in doing so. It enables the teacher to teach how and why? Just as the
field of educational psychology has been affected by the advances in cognitive
psychology, the field of developmental psychology has been transformed in recent years
by a life-span developmental perspective that argues for a few of teachers as who
continue to learn and develop throughout their teaching career.
Educational Psychology is one of the branches of applied psychology. It is an attempt to
apply the knowledge of psychology to the field of education. It consists of the
application of the psychological principles and techniques to human behavior in
educational situations. In other words, Educational Psychology is a study of the
experiences and behavior of the learner in relation to the educational environment.
Educational Psychology studies the learner-his development (physical, mental or
intellectual, emotional, social), needs and individual differences; the learning process -by
which learning can be made more effective; the learning situation-including group
dynamics as they affect learning. The purpose of Educational Psychology is to help the
teacher to develop the better understanding of education and its processes.
Educational psychology supplies all the information, principles, and techniques which
may help a teacher in his better teaching and a learner for his better learning. It helps the

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teacher to understand the development of his pupils, the range and limits of their
capacities, process by which they learn and then social relationship.
Educational psychology with its broad coverage of the content material principles,
theories, techniques and applied experiences first analyses the task of the teacher’s
teaching and then in its light tries to supply the knowledge and skills needed by the
teacher. It supports the teachers in respect to their classroom teaching and other activities
needed for helping the students in their desirable behavior modification and all round
growth and development. Educational Psychology equips the teacher – to know the
learner, to select and organize learning experiences, to suggest art and techniques of
learning as well as teaching, to arrange learning situations or environment, to acquaint
them with the mechanism of heredity and environment, helping in maintaining disciples,
rendering guidance services, helping in evaluation and assessment, solving classroom
problems, and knowing about themselves.121
In modern society, teachers must be well-qualified to assume their responsibilities. The
curriculum and instructional approaches of teacher educational program are significant
for the education of prospective teachers. The psychology of teacher’s learning
constitutes an important new domain of knowledge in educational psychology. The
knowledge of theories and research findings on the psychology of teacher’s learning
may be meaningful and important for students in teacher education, and further, may
enhance their teaching practice. Knowledge of the psychology of teacher’s learning may
enhance the ability of faculty to teach educational psychology more effectively in
teacher preparation programs.

Learning Activity 1: Group work – Reflection on contribution of Educational

Psychology in teaching and learning

The purpose of this activity for you is to reflect and discuss the contribution of
Educational Psychology.
1. You will think about the nature of Educational Psychology that you have studied
at Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3.
2. You will consider the functions of Educational Psychology which contribute in
teaching and learning and you will think about the facts in the following areas:
learner, learning situation, learning process and teacher.
3. You will fill the salient points which you have studied in educational psychology
concerning with the four areas.

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Table 5.1. Contribution of Educational Psychology in teaching and learning

Areas Salient points you have studied in Educational psychology
Learner

Learning situation

Learning process

Teacher

5.1.2. Theories of learning and implications for teaching

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 reflect on the key principles of learning theories;
 analyze the strengths and weakness of learning theories;
 design a lesson plan using different learning theories.
You have learned four perspectives on learning; behaviourism, cognitivism and
constructivism and humanistic perspective in Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3.
Revisiting to learning theories
Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given
fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience.122
Learning theories emerged in the 20 th century with three major theoretical frameworks
reshaping the whole learning narrative: behaviorist learning theory, cognitivist learning
theory and constructivist learning theory. There are referred as traditional learning
theories of the contemporary world which reflect how human study and understanding of
learning have developed over the years. Educational theories influence learning in a
variety of ways. For teachers, learning theory examples can impact their approach to
instruction and classroom management. Finding the right approach can make the
difference between an effective and inspiring classroom experience and an ineffective
one.
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Behaviorism
Behaviorism was powerful force in psychology in the first half of twentieth century, and
most older theories of learning are behavioral. Behaviorism is the science of observable
behavior. Behavioral theories contend that explanations for learning need not include
internal events (e.g., thoughts, beliefs, feelings), not because these processes do not exist
but rather, because the causes of learning are observable environmental events. 123 As
simply psychology puts it “behaviorism is only concerned with observable stimulus-
response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.

Figure 5.1. Behaviorism (Credit: Penn State World Campus)

Control behavior is located in the environment. For behaviorists, learning is synonymous
with behavior change. Learning is based on a system of routines that drill information
into a student’s memory bank, as well as positive feedback from teachers and
educational institution itself. If students do an excellent job, they receive positive
reinforcement and are signaled out for recognition. Classical conditioning involves
involuntary behavior. An unconditioned stimulus that evokes an unconditioned
(involuntary) response is paired with a neutral stimulus until the neutral stimulus evokes
the same response. This conditioned can be extinguished by ceasing to pair the
unconditioned and conditioned stimuli. Operant conditioning involves voluntary
behavior. Reinforcement increases the probability of a behavior occurring, and
punishment decreases its probability. Negative reinforcement refers to increasing the
probability of a behavior by removing aversive stimuli. Shaping is used to train behavior
that does not spontaneously occur, by reinforcing behavior that come closer and closer to
the target behavior. Continuous reinforcement is best for training new behavior.
Intermitted reinforcement is best for maintaining existing behavior. Extinction results
when reinforcement ceases. Teaching is viewed as the arrangement of reinforces. One
application of operant conditioning is direct instruction. It is effective for teaching basic
skills and concepts, particularly to high- risk students.
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Cognitivism.
Developed in the 1950s, this theory moves away from behaviorism to focus on the
mind’s role in learning. Cognition refers to all the processes by which the sensory input
is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered and used. Cognitivism focuses on
an observable change in mental knowledge. Cognitive theories stress on the acquisition
of knowledge and skills, the formation of mental structure, and the processing of
information and beliefs. From a cognitive perspective, learning is an internal mental
phenomenon inferred from what people say and do. A central theme is the mental
processing of information; Its construction, acquisition, organization, coding, rehearsal,
storage in memory, and retrieval or no retrieval from memory. Although cognitive
theorists stress the importance of mental processes in learning, they disagree over which
processes are important.124

Figure 5.2. Cognitivism (Credit: Penn State World Campus)

According to the International Bureau of education; in cognitive psychology, learning is
understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner is an information-processor who
absorbs information, undertakes cognitive operations on it in memory. Learning is based
on mental structure, strategy and organization not on the S-R model. Learners are not
merely passive organism who merely respond to stimuli in a certain way but think about
things, select out and process information. Hence, learner is information processor.
Accordingly, cognitive psychology is a school of thought is psychology that examines
internal mental processes such as problem, solving, memory, and language. Learning
relies on both external factors (like information or data) and the internal thought process.

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Learning activity 2: Group work- Reflection on key principles of learning

theories based on behaviorism and cognitivism in teaching and learning.

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to reflect on the key principles of learning
theories based on behaviorism and cognitivism.

1. You have to think about the key principles of learning theories based on
behaviorism and cognitivism concerning with four areas: view of knowledge,
view of learning, view of learning motivation and implication for teaching.
2. You will fill the key principles in the following Table 5.2.
Table 5.2. Key Principles of Learning Theories based on Behaviorism and
Cognitism
Areas Key principles of Behaviorism Key principles of Cognitism
View of Knowledge

View of Learning

View of Motivation

Implications for teaching

Constructivism
Constructivist approaches to teaching emphasize top-down rather than bottom-up
instruction. The top-down means that students begin with complex problems to solve
and then work out or discover (with teacher’s guidance) the basic skills required. For
example, students might be asked to write compositions and only later learn about
spelling, grammar, and punctuation. This top-down processing approach is contracted
with the traditional bottom-up strategy, in which basic skills are gradually build into
more complex skills. In top-down teaching, the tasks students begin with are complex,
complete, and authentic, meaning that they are not parts or simplifications of the tasks
that students are ultimately expected to perform but are the actual tasks. The learner
builds upon his or her previous experience and understanding to construct a new

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understanding. The passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be
filled with knowledge, explains simply psychology, “whereas constructivism states that
learners construct meaning only through active engagement with the world (such as
experiments or real-world problem solving)”.

Figure 5.3. Constructivism (Credit: Springer Link)

Constructivist approaches to teaching typically make extensive use of cooperative
learning, on the theory that students will more easily discovered and comprehend
difficult concepts if they can talk with each other about the problems.
Humanism
Humanism emphasizes the unique qualities of humans especially their thought, feeling,
attitude, value and potential for personal development. Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow, both are humanistic psychologists, viewed personality based on humanism.
Humanism is a “learner- centric approach” in which the potential is the focus on rather
than the method or material. With the understanding that people are inherently good,
humanism focuses on creating an environment conducive to self-actualization. In doing
so, learners’ needs are met their own goals while the teacher assists in meeting those
learning goals.

Learning activity 3: Group work-Analyzing strengths and weakness of

learning theories based on constructivism

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The purpose of this activity for you is to analyze strengths and weakness of learning
theories based on constructivism.

1. You have to reflect on learning theories which you studied from Year1 to Year 3.
2. You have to think about the strengths and weakness of learning theories based on
constructivism.
3. You have to fill the ideas in the following table.
Table 5.3. Strengths and Weaknesses of Learning Theories based on
Constructivism

Strengths Weaknesses

Learning activity 4: Individual work-Applying the knowledge of the

implications of learning theories to plan a lesson

The purpose of this learning activity is for you to apply your knowledge of the
implications of learning theories to plan a lesson.

1. Plan one 45- minute lesson by using the simplified lesson plan template in year 3
for the activity.
2. Choose the curriculum area of your choice from Grade 9. It must be consistent
with learning goal of lesson.
3. Your lesson will include an introduction, body, review. You need to express
teaching learning strategies methods and techniques.

Review Questions

Question 1: What are the four main schools of thought in Educational Psychology?

Question 2: What are the critiques of behaviorism?

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Question 3: What are the basic tenets of constructivism?

Question 4: What are the general implications of learning theories based on

humanistic perspective?

5.2. Mental Health and Adjustment

You have learned about student mental health in year 3 including prevalence of mental
health, supporting student mental health and factors that influence student mental health.
In this sub unit, you will learn about mental health and education, causes of abnormal
mental health of teachers, adjustment, methods of adjustment and, causes of
maladjustment.

5.2.1. Mental health and implications for teaching and learning

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 reflect on mental health and strategies for supporting students’ mental health; and
 discuss the factors affecting teachers’ mental health.

Revisiting mental health

Mental health is the ability to adjust satisfactorily to the various strains of the
environment. Mental health and education are closely related with each other. For any
type of education, sound mental health is the first condition. Mental health is an
inseparable part of education. Learning is dependent on sound mental health. Research
studies have proved that learning is not activity of single function but is bound up with
total personality of the learner.
Mental Health and Education
Mental health and education are closely related to each other. For any type of education,
sound mental health is the first condition. Mental health is an inseparable part of
education. Learning is dependent on sound mental health. All psychologists, teachers
and mental hygienists agree that primarily family living and experiences play most
crucial role in the development of harmonious personality in children, but in recent
years, due to the rapid industrialization, the family is disintegration and is not in a
position to play its role effectively. Consequently, the school assumes great
responsibility in the process of harmonious development of personality. The various

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measures, which can be taken in school for the proper development of physical, mental,
and spiritual abilities of children, are as follows:125
1. School environment. School environment plays an important role in the
development of positive attitudes. It should provide feeling of security in each and
every student irrespective of their religion or socio-economic conditions. It should
provide Conductive environment for learning free from fear, tension and frustration.
2. Provision for curricular activities. The school should organize a number of
curricular activities suiting to the needs of individual students to release their pent up
emotional feeling, dramas educational exhibitions and well magazines, etc.
3.Teacher’s role. Teachers must have the knowledge of fundamental principles of
human behavior to tackle the problem of his students. He must take interest in
students and their welfare. His behavior with students should be of a friend,
philosopher and guide. He should not show partially or favor to any student. He
should try to develop a philosophy of life in his students. He should create
confidence in his students to face the realities of life. Students should not be
criticized unnecessarily and no sarcastic remarks should be passed against any
students. Teacher can play an important role in developing cooperation, team spirit
and group participation in his students. Conductive social climate should be created
in the class and the school.
4. Freedom of expression. Children should be provided an opportunity in the class to
express their views freely on problems.
5. Variety of interests. Teachers should try to develop a variety of interest in his
students such as games, reading and hobbies of different types, which may help in
the development of sound attitudes. Teachers should appropriate and encourage
worthwhile activities of his students.
6. Reading for mental health. Teacher should select books which are appropriate to
specified age levels and students be advised to read those books.
7. Classes in human relations. The school should organize classes in human
relations. Daily life problems should be discussed. The importance of how to live
should be emphasized. Students should also be invited to discuss freely their
problems.
8. Provision for sex and moral education. Most of the problems of adolescents are
concerned with sex and moral conflicts which cause mental disturbances. It will be
great use if sex and moral education are made in an integral part of regular
curriculum.

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9. Art and craft. Writing for understanding and release of emotional tension can also
be used in mental hygiene program.
10. Guidance. School should organize guidance services for the benefits of students.
Guidance of three types: personal, recreational and vocational.

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Learning activity 1: Individual work and Group work – Strategies for

supporting students’ mental health

The purpose of this activity is to reflect on mental health and strategies for supporting
students’ mental health in school.

1. Focus your attention on what factors affect the mental health of children in
school.
2. Brainstorm the strategies for supporting student’s mental health.
3. The table describes the main factors which affect to the mental health of the
students and you need to fill the strategies to support students’ mental health.
Table 5.4. Strategies for supporting students’ mental health

Factors Strategies
School

Family

Community

Causes of Abnormal Mental Health of the Teachers

Teacher is a member of larger society. He/she also develops maladjustment as people in
society develop in modern times. There are many factors and conditions, which cause
maladjustment in teachers. Some of the important factors are described below. 126
1. Lack of professional aptitude and spirit. Teaching is a profession not because an
individual is interested in teaching but because he/she could not get entry in other
executive posts irrespective of their personal competencies but when they are rejected
from these jobs, they accept teaching as a last resort to earn their livelihood.
Consequently, they lack professional aptitude and devotion their profession.

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2. Over pressure of required work. People, especially those who had little experiences
with children think of that teaching is an easy job. Although the actual work of teaching
involves short hours as compared with some other occupations, the need for constant
concentration throughout the school day and numerous tasks and duties make a teacher
completely exhausted after a day’s work. During the night, the routine of lesson planning
for the next day makes a teacher’s job more frustrating. The significance of this factor in
tending to produce mental disorder in the teacher depends upon the pressure in specific
school and classroom situation.
3.Under Pay. The average salary of a teacher is not consistent with his responsibilities.
Although this condition is the same in all countries of the world, teachers in general feel
that they are inadequately paid, thus giving rise to conditions unfavorable for the good
mental heath of teachers.
4. Constant sharing of the burden of others. Another factor, which adds to the
maladjustment teachers, is the fact that they often have to share the burdens of his pupils
and sometimes even those of parents.
5. Restrictions on out-of-school activities. By tradition and custom the teacher is often
denied the right to manage his or her own personal affairs. Sometimes he/she cannot
wear the cloths he/ she likes. He/she is required to be religious and contribute to every
charity. He/she must associate with some people in the community but not with others.
6. High moral expectations. The society expects that the teacher should be a saint. The
teacher must present a model of his ideal behavior before the students for imitation. He
is one of the member of the society and it is natural that the evils of social environment
may also affect his personality.
7. Necessary attention to many details. The professional loads of the teachers which
involves so many attentions to details, is sufficiently great to create a strong need for
recreation for a teacher to be mentally healthy. Yet many communities are without such
facilities.
8. Lack of recreational facilities. There are many institutions which do not have
recreational facilities.

Learning activity 2: Group Work – How to improve mental health of teachers

The purpose of this activity is to discuss how to improve mental health of teachers.

1. You think about how to improve mental health of the teacher based on the factors
given in table.
2. Discuss about what is needed to be good relationships between teachers and
teachers, and then teachers and principals.

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3. You think about professional growth of teachers and the community relation with
teachers.

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Table 5.5. How to Improve Mental Health of the Teachers

Factors How to improve mental health of teachers

Factors in school
(i)Teacher-Teacher relation
(ii) Teacher-Principal relation
(iii) Professional growth

Factors outside the school

-community relation

5.2.2 Adjustment in teaching and learning

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the unit, you will be able to:

 explain the conception of adjustment;
 explain and discuss the different types of adjustment mechanisms;
 identify and provide an example of the characteristics of well-adjusted and
maladjusted students; and
 apply the strategies to help maladjusted students.

Crow and Crow defined adjustment as the maintenance of a harmonious relationship

between man and his environment127. An individual needs to change or modify himself
in some way or the other to fit into or accommodate himself with his environment. As
the conditions in the environment are changing all the time, adjustment is also a
continuous process. Adjustment is the interaction between a person and his environment
how one adjusts in a particular situation depends upon one’s personal characteristics as
also the circumstances of the situations. In other words, both personal and environmental
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factors work side by side. There were various areas where the individual has to adjust to
his social, emotional, educational and health aspects of life.
Psychologists have interpreted adjustment from two important points of view 128, one,
adjustment as an achievement and another, adjustment as a process. The first point of
view emphasizes the quality of efficiency of adjustment and the second lays emphasis on
the process by which an individual adjusts in his external environment.
Adjustment as achievement
Adjustment as achievement means how efficiently an individual can perform his duties
in different circumstances. Business, military, education and other social activities need
efficient and well-adjusted men for the progress of nation.
Criteria for good adjustment
Four criteria have been evolved by Psychologists to judge the adequacy of adjustment.
They are as follows:
(i) Physical health. The individual should be free from physical ailments like
headaches, ulcers, in digestion, and impairment of appetite. These symptoms
in individual have sometimes psychological origin and may impair his
physical efficiency.
(ii) Psychological comfort. One of the most important facts of adjustment is that
individual has no psychological diseases, compulsion, anxiety and depression
etc These psychological diseases if occur excessively cause to seek
professional advice.
(iii) Work efficiency. The person who makes full use of his occupational or social
capacities, may be termed as well-adjusted in his social set up.
(iv) Social acceptance. Everybody wants to be socially accepted by other persons.
If a person obeys social norms, beliefs and sets of values, he may be called
well adjusted but he satisfies his needs by antisocial behavior means then he
is called maladjustment.
Adjustment as Process
Adjustment as process is of major importance for psychologists, teachers, and parents.
The child at the time of his birth is absolutely dependent on others for the satisfaction of
his needs, but gradually with the age he learns to control his needs. His adjustment
largely depends on the interaction with the external environment. The nature of
adjustment process decides by a number of factors, particularly, internal needs and
external demands of the child. When a conflict occurs between internal needs and
external demands, in such conditions, there are three alternatives, one, the individual

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may inhibit or modify his external need or demand and second, he can alter the
environment and can satisfy his demands and third alternative, is that he can use some
mental mechanisms to escape from the conflicting situation and may be able to maintain
the balance of his personality.
Piaget (1952) has studied the adaptive process from different angles. He used the term
accommodation and assimilation to represent the alternation of oneself environment as a
means of adjustment. A person, who carries his values and standard of conduct without
any change and maintains these in spite of major changes in the social climate, is called
assimilator. The man, who takes his standard from social context and changes his beliefs
in accordance with the altered values of the society, is called accommodator.
Methods of Adjustment
In order to lead a healthy, happy and satisfying life one has to learn the various ways of
adjustment, i.e. coping with one’s environment as effectively as possible. Also he has to
safeguard his self against training turning into a maladjusted and abnormal personality.
The methods used for keeping and restoring harmony between the individual and his
environment can be grouped into two categories, direct methods and indirect methods.129
(1) Direct methods. Direct methods are those methods which are employed by the
individual intentionally at the conscious level. They are rational and logical and help in
getting permanent solution of the problem faced by the individual in a particular
situation. These methods include the following:

(a) Increasing trials or improving efforts. When one finds it difficult to solve a
problem or faces obstacles in the path, to cope with his environment he can
attempt with a new zeal by increasing his efforts and improving his behavioral
process.
(b) Adopting compromising means. For maintaining harmony between his self and
the environment one may adopt the following compromising postures.
(i) He may altogether change his direction of efforts by changing the
original goals.
(ii) He may seek partial substitution of goal.
(iii) He may satisfy himself by an apparent substitute for the real thing.
(c) Withdrawal and submissiveness. One may learn to cope with one’s environment
by just accepting defeat and surrendering oneself to the powerful forces of
environment and circumstances.
(d) Making proper choices and decisions. A person adapts himself to, and seeks
harmony with, his environment by making use of his intelligence for the proper

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choices and wise decisions particularly when faced with conflicting situations
and stressful moments.
(2) Indirect Methods of achieving adjustment. Indirect methods are those methods by
which a person tries to seek temporary adjustment to protect himself for the time being
against a psychological danger. These are purely psychic or imaging those things would
happen according to his wishes. That is why these are called defense or mental
mechanisms employed in the process of one’s adjustment to one’s self and the
environment. A few important mechanisms are:

(a) Repression. Repression is a mechanism in which painful experiences, conflicts

and unfulfilled desires are pushed down into our unconscious. In this way, one
unconsciously tries to forget the things that might make him anxious or
uncomfortable. One tries to get temporary relief from the tension or anxiety by
believing that the tension producing situation does not occur.
(b) Regression. Regression means going backward or returning to the past. In this
process, an individual tends to regress to his early childhood or infantile
responses in order to save himself from mental conflicts and tension. A man
failing in his love affair resorts to regression when he exhibits his love for dolls.
Similarly an elder child may regress and start behaving like an infant when a new
sibling is born and he feels neglected.
(c) Compensation. This is a mechanism by which an individual tries to balance or
cover up his deficiency in one field by exhibiting his strength in another field.
For example, an un attractive girl who becomes a book worm to secure a position
in the class is making use of such mechanism in order to attract attention which
she is unable to do with her looks.
(d) Rationalization. This is a mechanism in which a person justifies his otherwise
unjustified behavior by giving socially acceptable reasons for it and thus attempts
to defend himself by inventing plausible excuses to explain his conduct. A child
makes use of rationalization when he tries to extend lame excuses for his failure.
He may blame the teacher or parents or his poor health and thus try to disguise
his own weakness or deficiency.
(e) Projection. Through projection one tries to see or attribute one’s own inferior
impulses and traits in other person sees and criticizes awkwardness in others.
Similarly, a student who has been caught in the examination for cheating may
satisfy himself by saying that others had also cheated. A person with strong
unsatisfied sexual impulses may denounce others for their sexual aims or may try
to think in terms of sex for everything in the world around him. In this way one
tries to overlook or defend one’s shortcomings and inadequacies by emphasizing
that others are worse than he is.

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(f) Identification. In using this mechanism an individual is found to achieve

satisfaction from the success of other people, groups or institutions by identifying
himself with them. An artist who has not yet achieved success in his field may
identify himself with a well-known, well-established artist. One may identify
oneself with one’s school and feel proud of its fame and reputation. Similarly,
hero worship is also a sort of identification when an individual identifies himself
with a popular leader or cine actor. He imitates his characteristics, dress and
mannerisms and tries to revel in his accomplishments and successes.
(g) Withdrawal. In using this mechanism an individual tends to withdraw himself
from the situation that causes frustration or failure. He makes himself feel safe
and secure by running away from the problem. For example, a child may refuse
to participate in games for fear of failure and deceive himself by believing that he
could have done well if he had participated. Daydreaming or fantasy also is a sort
of withdrawing behavior in which one withdraws oneself into a world of fantasy
or make believe. Thus, instead of feeling threatened by the realities one may
become satisfied with unreal, imaginary success in the world of make-believe
and imagination.
(h) Sympathism. Sympathism is a defense mechanism in which an individual tries to
get satisfaction by seeking sympathy and pity for his own failures and
inadequacies. Such persons always magnify the difficulties or obstacles in the
path o their success and thus convince others to feel sorry for them. For example,
a housewife who is not bringing up her children well may try to evoke others ,
sympathy by telling them how overworked she is because the members of her
family do not cooperate with her or how the family is passing through hard times.

All the foregoing defense mechanisms are used unconsciously by a person to protect
himself (although only for the time being), against psychological dangers. A defense
mechanism may be regarded as a temporary defense against anxiety and inadequacies.
Moreover, the use of such a mechanism may create new difficulties for the individual
who uses it. It is a situation similar to the one in which a person tells a lie to save him
from a difficult situation and obtains a temporary respite, but subsequently finds himself
in an awkward situation because of his false statement. Therefore, we must keep a close
watch on our children to see that they do not make frequent use of such defense
mechanism.

Learning activity 3: Group work – Different types of adjustment mechanisms

The purpose of this activity is to explain and discuss the different types of
adjustment mechanisms.

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1. You think about the mechanisms that you use frequently and in which situation
and when you use them.
2. You will discuss with your group members and then summarize the responses
and describe the adjustment mechanisms and the situations when you use.
Example can be seen in the table below.

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Table 5.6. Different types of adjustment mechanisms

Mechanisms Which situation and when you use

Withdrawal I refuse to take part in essay competition because I am afraid that my
peers laugh at me when I do not get prize.
Repression

Regression

Compensation

Projection

Identification

Rationalization

Sympathism

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Characteristics of a Well-adjusted Person

A well-adjusted person is supposed to posses the following characteristics130:
1. Awareness of his own strengths and limitations. A well adjusted person knows
his own strengths and weakness. He tries to make capital out of his assets in
some areas by accepting his limitations in others.
2. Respecting himself and others. The dislike for one-self is a typical symptom of
maladjustment. An adjusted individual has respect for himself as well as for
others.
3. An adequate level of aspiration. His level of aspiration is neither too low nor and
too high in terms of his own strengths and abilities. He does not try to reach for
the stars and also does not repent over selecting an easier course for his
advancement.
4. Satisfaction of basic needs. His basic organic, emotional and social needs are
fully satisfied or in the process of being satisfied. He does not suffer from
emotional cravings and social isolation. He feels reasonably secure and maintains
his self-esteem.
5. Absence of a critical or fault-finding attitude. He appreciates the goodness in
objects, persons or activities. He does not try to look for weakness and faults. His
observation is scientific rather than critical or punitive. He likes people, admires
their good qualities, and wins their affection.
6. Flexibility in behavior. He is not rigid in his attitude or way of life. He can easily
accommodate or adapt himself to change circumstances by making necessary
change in his behavior.
7. The capacity to deal with adverse circumstances. He is not easily overwhelmed
by adverse circumstances and has the will and the courage to resist and fight
odds. He has an inherent drive to master his environment rather than to passively
accept it.
8. A realistic perception of the world. He holds a realistic vision and is not given to
flights of fancy. He always plans, thinks and acts pragmatically.
9. A feeling of ease with his surroundings. A well-adjusted individual feels satisfied
eith his surroundings. He fits in well in his home, family, neighborhood and other
social surroundings. If a student, he likes his school, school-mates, teachers, and
feels satisfied with his daily routine. When he enters a profession, he has a love
for it and maintains his zeal and enthusiasm despite all odds.
10. A balanced philosophy of life. A well adjusted person has a philosophy which
gives direction to his life while keeping in view the demands of changed
situations and circumstances. This philosophy is centered around the demands of
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his society, culture, and his own self so that he does not clash with his
environment or with himself.

Learning activity 4: Group work – Identifying and providing examples of the

characteristics of well-adjusted and maladjusted
students

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to identify and provide examples of the
characteristics of well-adjusted and maladjusted students.
You will study the characteristics of well-adjusted students and then you will think about
the characteristics of maladjusted students.
Maladjustment
Maladjustment refers to a disharmony between the person and his environment.
Maladjustment refers to the inability to react successfully and satisfactorily to the
demand of one’s environment. Maladjustment is a complex problem of human behavior.
It is the outcome of multifactor interacting with the developing personality of the child.
Causes of Maladjustment
There are numerous factors in home, society and school which lead to maladjustment.
The various conditions 131which lead to frustration of needs are the basic causes of
maladjustment.
(ii) Physique. The physique and appearance play an important role in the social
development of the child. If the child is physically weak, ugly, and sensory
handicaps, he/she may be shunned by others. Comments by parents, siblings
and strangers affect the behavior of ugly, weak, handicapped children. They
develop a number of problems resulting in maladjustment.
(iii) Long sickness or injury. Long sickness of a child affects his social
development and academic achievement in school.
(iv) Poverty. There is a positive correlation between poverty and maladjustment
in children. Highest percentage of maladjustment children comes from low
socio-economic conditions. But it is not necessarily true that all children who
come from under privileged class are maladjusted. The crucial factor in poor
home is that parents cannot even fulfill the legitimate needs of their children.
Frustration of needs leads to maladjustment behavior.
(v) Broken Home. Children who come from broken homes that have been broken
by death of parents, divorce, and separation, physical or mental handicaps of
parents are often more maladjustment than children from more stable home.

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Children in broken homes do not get the affection, love, sympathy and
security. Parents or other members of the family also provide conditions
which affect the security, affection, mental stability and fulfillment of needs
of children.
(vi) Personal inadequacies. In addition to physical appearance, there are certain
other inadequacies in children which frustrate their needs and create constant
anxiety. The parents who are ambitious and set high goals for their children
irrespective of their physical and mental abilities create frustration on their
children.
(vii) Parental attitudes. The important factor which affects the maladjustment is
the attitudes of parents towards their children. The rejected child develops
feeling of insecurity, helpless and loneness. Rejection and lack of affection
may lead to maladjusted behavior. Over protection of the child may lead to
lack of responsibility, lack of socialization, aggressiveness, selfishness and
general infantile behavior which may put the child into trouble in social
environment.
(viii) Value placed on sex of the child. Parents differentiate between their son and
daughter. Sons are preferred to daughters in some society. This partial
treatment to girls may lead to maladjustment.
(ix) Adoption. Generally, adopted children are maladjusted when they come to
know the fact. If a child is adopted in early infancy and problem of adoption
is psychologically dealt with, then adopted children resemble to their foster
parents in many qualities. There are many other factors which contribute to
the problem of maladjustment such as relationship among brothers-sisters,
position of the child in the family.
(x) Emotional shock. Children, who experience emotional shocks as deaths,
accident, riots, flood etc, may manifest maladjustment in their behavior.

Learning activity 5: Group work – Applying the strategies to help

maladjusted students

The purpose of learning activity for you is to apply the strategies to help maladjusted
students.

First you will study the causes of maladjustment and then you think about the strategies
to help the students.

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Table 5.7. The strategies to help maladjusted students

Causes Strategies
Long sickness or injury

Poverty

Personal inadequacies

Emotional shock (flood,

riots, accidents, death of
parents…)

Review Questions
Question 1. What factors affect on mental health of students?

Question 2. What are the causes of mental illness of the teachers?

Question 3. What are the various measures of which can be taken in school for the
proper development of children?

Question 4. What are the various causes of maladjustment in school?

Question 5. What are the characteristics of well-adjusted person?

Question 6. Describe the adjustment mechanisms.

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5.3. Personality
5.3.1. Nature and characteristics of personality

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 discuss the characteristics of personality; and
 identify the personality attributes.

Research studies have proved that learning is not activity of single function but is bound
up with total personality of the learner. The school assumes great responsibility in the
process of harmonious development of personality. Children spend six to seven hours in
school. Schools are in a position to help in the development of children’s potentialities
by catering to their needs. Various measures can be taken in schools for the proper
development of physical, mental, and spiritual abilities of children. Personality is the
stable of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and
differences in the psychological behaviors (thoughts, feelings and actions) of people that
have continuity in time and that may or may not be easily understood in terms of the
social and biological pressures of the immediate situation alone. The following things
are about the nature and characteristics of personality.132
1. The personality is something unit and specific. Every one of us is a unique pattern in
ourselves. No two individuals, not even identical twins, behave in precisely the same
way over any period of time. Every one of us has specific characteristics for making
adjustments.
2. Second main characteristics of personality is self-consciousness. The man is described
as a person or to have a personality when the idea of self enters into his consciousness.
3. Personality includes everything about the person. It is all that a person has about him.
It includes all the behavior patterns, i.e. conative, cognitive and affective and covers not
only the conscious activities but goes deeper to semi- conscious and unconscious also.
4. It is not just a collection of so many traits or characteristics which is known as
personality. By counting the bricks only how we describe the wall of a house? It needs
something more and actually personality is more than this. It is an organization of some
psycho- physical system or some behavior characteristics and functions as a unified
whole. Just as to tell what an elephant is, we cannot say that it is like a pillar only by
examining the legs. In the same way by looking through, one’s physique or sociability,

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we cannot pass judgment over one’s personality. It is only when we go carefully all the
aspects- biological as well as social- we can make an idea about his personality.
5. Personality is not static, it is dynamic and ever in process of change and modification.
As we have earlier said that personality is all that a person has about him. It gives him all
that is needed for his unique adjustment in his environment. The process of making
adjustment to environment is continuous. One has to struggle with the environment as
well as the inner forces throughout the span of his life. As a result. one has to bring
modification and change in one’s personality patterns and it makes the nature of
personality dynamic instead of static one.
6. Every personality is the product of heredity and environment. Both contribute
significantly towards the development of the child’s personality.
7. Learning and acquisition of experiences contribute towards growth and development
of personality. Every personality is the end product of the process of learning and
acquisition.
8. Every person’s personality has one more distinguishing feature that is, aiming to an
end-towards some specific goals. A man’s personality can be judged through a study and
interpretation of the goals he has set for himself to achieve and the approaches he makes
to the problems o his life.
There are thousands of words you might use to describe yourself –outgoing, kind,
patient, explosive, talkative, creative, no fearful or anxious, confident, reasonable, quiet,
obedient, not aggressive, competitive, antisocial cheerful, unable to concentrate etc.

Learning activity 1: Individual – Identifying the personality attributes

The purpose of learning activity for you is to identify the personality attributes.

1. You will look at the table which describes some personality characteristics.
2. Which of these do you have?
3. Look at the list and think about a time in your life when you showed this
personality characteristic and tell a story about that time. This may take some
time, but it may be fun for you to recall your own past personality-driven
experiences and acts.

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Table 5.8. My Personality Attributes

My personality attributes When I show this

Androgyny
Imagination
Introversion
Intuitions
Openness to experiences
Conscientiousness
Creativity
Perceptiveness
Persistence
Preference for complexity
Resilience
Risk-taking
Self discipline
Perfectionism(self)
Tolerance for ambiguity
Motivation to create
Intensity
Independence

5.3.2. Types of personality

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson , you will be able to:

 clarify the different types of personality; and
 identify the personality types you possess.

Jung (1875-1961) classified the individuals by definite personality types. Jung associated
a person’s introvert and extrovert orientation with four main behavioral functions;
namely, thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition, resulting in the following eight
personality types133.
1. The introverted thinking type
2. The extroverted thinking type
3. The introverted feeling type
4. The extroverted feeling type
5. The introverted sensational type
6. The extroverted sensational type
7. The introverted intuitive type

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8. The extroverted intuitive type

Table 5.9. Jung’s Description of Personality Types

Introverted thinking type Extroverted thinking type
a. More theoretical, detached and aloof a .Realistic and practical
b. Afraid of external realities b. Support theory with facts
c. Tactless and cold c. Propagates his views with insistence
and vehemence
Introverted feeling type Extroverted feeling type
a. Day dreamer a. More social
b. Strong feelings, likes and dislikes b. Objective in his outlook and admire
things of others
c. Does not express his feelings to other c. Helpful nature and feels for the
suffering of others
d. May feel strongly but does not resort to any d. Expresses his feelings externally
steps instead of suffering internally.
Introverted sensational type Extroverted sensational type
a. Possesses refined tastes and interest but quite a. Good eaters accepting any thing
choosy and fussy about the things he likes eatable at any moment
b. Learn and think as he does not eat well b. Easily bored and demand constant
c. Dissatisfied, broody and rather sad in the general emotional sensation
appearance c. Carefree, friendly and talkative
d. Better in writing than speaking and interested in d. No patience for abstract or theoretical
books and magazines ideas
Introverted intuitive type Extroverted intuitive type
a. More subjective and more concerned with a .More outwardly, optimistic and
probabilities than actualities change seeker
b. Moody, unstable and temperamental b .Attractively by future possibilities of
c. Behaves like the theoretical scientists and gain and can take risk or gamble
prophets c. Quite set in intuitive judgement of the
d. Quite instable in their friendship or loyalty future course of activities.

Learning Activity 2: Pair Work – Identifying the personality type you possess

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to identify the personality type you
posses.

1. Think about yourself which personality type you possess in concerning with
person’s introvert and extrovert orientation with four main behavioral functions;
namely, thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition.
2. Mention your personality type as mentioned in table 5.9.

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5.3.3. Personality Traits

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

 explain and illustrate the importance of personality traits; and
 illustrate personality trait dimensions

Personality is a constellation of traits that distinguishes one person from another.

Personality traits refer to individual differences in the tendency to behave, think and feel
in a certain constant ways134. In modern psychology, trait approach is used to understand
the development personality. Trait may be defined as a property within the individual
that accounts for his unique but relatively stable reactions to environment. Walter Michel
in his book, introduction to personality, defined “trait is a continuous dimension on
which individual differences may be arranged quantitatively in terms of the amount of
the characteristics, the individual has.135
Psychologists have identified five broad traits that account for most of the words people
to use to describe adults and children. They are known as the Five-Factor model (FFM)
or the Big five. Five traits that account for much of the variation in personality are
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (OCEAN)136.

Figure 5.4. The Big 5 Personality Traits (Credit: LinkedIn)

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1. Openness to experience. It is a personality trait that includes curiosity, exploration,

imaginative dreaming, creativeness, good self-expression, and being smart. Open people
are smart (but may not necessarily get good grades), creative and curious. They enjoy
exploring new situations, express themselves well, and get lost in thought and wrapped
up in projects.
2. Conscientiousness. It is a personality trait contrasted with lack of direction. It includes
getting things done, not giving up easily, being dependable, planning ahead, and
orderliness. Conscientious people are neat, orderly, and reliable. They get things done,
do not give up easily, set high standards for themselves and think before acting.
3. Extraversion. It is a personality trait contrasted with social inhibition. It includes high
energy; talkativeness; emotional expressiveness; and being fast-paced, reactive, and full
of life. Extraverts are energetic, talkative, sensation seeking, and full of life. They react
quickly and show emotions openly.
4. Agreeableness. It is a personality trait contrasted with antagonism. It includes
thoughtfulness, warmth, kindness, cooperation, and getting along with emotional
stability. It includes nervousness, worry, perseverating or falling apart under stress,
insecurity, and needing reassurance. Agreeable people are thoughtful of others, warm,
kind and helpful, and cooperative. They are liked by others.
5. Neuroticism (versus emotional stability). Neurotic people are anxious and insecure.
They worry excessively. Go to pieces or get sick under stress, and feel hurt easily.
These Five-Factor Model will be studied in detail in Unit 10, lesson 5.3.1.
Some properties of traits137
1. Sociability: Traits are sociable. They can be measured and scaled quantitatively.
2. Inference from behavior. Personality traits are not directly observable but they
are manifested in a number of activities and verbal expression.
3. Flexibility: Traits are not stable in nature. Traits are flexible in childhood. They
become stable with the maturity of the person in age but some variability is
always there.
4. Universality: There are certain traits which are universal in nature as height and
weight.
5. Functional unity: The trait must have functional unity. It means that there must
be different indications which may vary or are manifested consistently in
behavior of the individual.
6. Traits are higher order habits: Guthrie conceived that a trait is a higher order
habit which recurs in the behavior frequently.

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7. Traits are mental sets: Some psychologists define trait as a mental set. It is a
readiness to respond to any situations in a consistent way. There is generalized
tendency in some people to be annoyed easily.
8. Traits are frame of reference: Personality of an individual is an organized whole
of beliefs, emotions etc. about the environment.
9. Traits are learned: Traits are learned in the interaction with the environmental
stimuli. They are biologically determined as neuroticism and other traits which
depend on the disposition and intellectual potentialities of the individual.

Learning activity 3: Think-pair-share – Illustrating personality trait

dimensions

The purpose of learning activity for you is to be able to illustrate personality trait
dimensions.

1. Rate yourself on a 3-point scale(low, mediocre, high) on the five traits (openness,
conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (OCEAN))).
2. Do the same for a child you know well?
3. What traits does each of you have?
4. Which personality traits do you observe in each of your students in your bloc
teaching time?
5. Can you respond appropriately to the students who fit into the personality traits?

Review Questions
Question 1: What is personality? Explain features and characteristics of

Question 2. What are personality traits? Discuss some of the important features of traits.

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5.4. Guidance and Counseling

In this sub-unit, you will explore the concepts of guidance and counseling, and the need
of guidance and counseling services in school. It is important for student teachers to
study the principles of guidance and counseling, and techniques of counseling which are
useful for them to guide their students.

5.4.1. The importance of guidance and counseling in teaching and learning

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 define and provide the concepts of guidance and counseling with suitable
examples;
 explain and discuss when guidance and counseling is needed; and
 describe different types of guidance.

Meaning of guidance and counseling

Guidance in education refers to the planned preparation of knowledge, information or
counsel to individuals groups in order to give enough material on which they can make
choices or decisions.138 The guidance refers to advice or information provided by a
person of experience, to solve problem or to improve something. The guidance refers to
the process of helping individuals to discover and develop their potential.
Counseling may be described as a method of relation and responding to others with the
aim of providing them with opportunities to explore , to clarify, and to work towards
living in a more personally satisfying and resourceful way. Counseling may be applied
to individuals, couples, families, or groups, and may be used in widely differing context
and settings.
Counseling in education can be defined as an interaction that develops through a
relationship between a counselor and a person who is in a temporary state of indecision,
confusion, or distress and which assists the individual in making his own decisions and
choices, resolving his confusion or copying with a stress in a personally realistic and
meaningful way, which taking into account his emotional and practical needs, as well as
the likely consequences of his behavior139.
Counseling is the part of guidance which brings the programme nearest to the students. It
involves the use of all the standard techniques of obtaining information about students,
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then making a study of the available information and development. In short, counseling
is a method of using the techniques and tools of guidance with individual students and
groups of students.
When Guidance and counseling is needed?
Counseling is specially needed at times of crisis or change, such as severe or traumatic
accident, bereavement, disablement, life-threatening illness, loss of employment or of
home, marital difficulties or other broken relationship which disrupt the previous pattern
of life. People may find themselves unable to respond adequately to such situation or to
adapt their mode of life to the changed circumstances.
Other groups with particular counseling needs include young adults in the transition
from school or college to the world of work; the socially disadvantaged; delinquents and
drug addicts; immigrants and refugees; the elderly and terminally ill. Whereas
counseling is primarily non-directive and non-advisory, some situations require positive
guidance by means of information and advice.
Guidance may be needed towards further education and training, vocational or
occupational choice, health education and social education, and towards the help and
opportunities available for disabled or unemployed people and for immigrants or
refugees.
The need of guidance140 is something that cannot be ignored by anyone. Furthermore, it
helps in the development of education, vocational and psychological skills in an
individual. Most noteworthy, guidance would help an individual to achieve an optimal
level of happiness and peace in life. Moreover, an individual who receives proper
guidance would surely contribute significantly to society. A properly guided individual
would be able to shape his destiny. Guidance ensures that each individual’s choices must
serve the interest of society as well as the interest of the individual.
Guidance certainly has an enormous need in every individual’s life. Below are some
factors which highlight the need of guidance:
Different stages of development – The division of an individual’s life can take place
into various stages. These stages are infant, childhood, pre- adolescent, adolescence
and manhood. So, an individual needs guidance in every stage of life. Maximum
guidance is required during the adolescence stage.
Differences among persons – Psychology inform us that no individuals are
alike. Furthermore, no two individuals get similar opportunities in life. Therefore,
every individual requires guidance, in order to find out the most suitable profession
for him.

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Career maturity – Guidance is certainly essential for the development of a positive

work attitude. Furthermore, guidance would help build suitable habits and values
towards one’s work or profession. This is because guidance increases the awareness
of one’s world of work. Also, an individual is able to plan and prepare for his work
or profession efficiently due to guidance.
Educational growth – Guidance certainly helps in the development of educational
skills and abilities. Above all, these skills would facilitate learning and achievement.
Different types of Guidance
Educational Guidance: It is a process concerned with bringing about a favorable
setting for the individual’s education and includes the assistance in the
(i) choice of subject
(ii) use of libraries, laboratories
(iii) workshops
(iv) development of study habits
(v) evaluation techniques and adjustment of school life with other activities.
Vocational guidance: It is the assistance rendering the problems:
(i) relating the choice of vocation
(ii) preparing for it
(iii) entering the job,
(iv) achieving adjustment for it
(v) making individuals familiar with the world of work and with its diverse
requirements
(vi) to place at the disposal of the individual all possible aids in making correct
appraisal of his strengths and weaknesses.
Personal guidance: It deals with the problems of personal adjustment in different
spheres of life. Mainly it works for the individual adjustment to his social and
emotional problems such as:
(vi) to assist the individual gradually to develop his life goals that are socially
desirable and individually satisfying
(ii) to help him to plan his life so that these goals may be attained
(iii) to help him grow consistently in ability to adjust himself creatively to his
developing life goals
(iv) to assist the individual to grow consistently in ability to live with others,
(v) to help him grow in self-directive ability.

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Learning activity1: Group work – Examining differences between guidance

and counseling

The purpose of learning activity for you is to examine differences between guidance and
counseling in order to understand the concept of guidance and counseling.

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1. You will study the concept of guidance and counseling. There are similarities and
differences between guidance and counseling.
2. You will think about differences between guidance and counseling according to
the facts given in Table 5.10.
Table 5.10. Differences between Guidance and Counseling

Facts(Basis for comparison) Guidance Counseling

Provided by

Privacy

Mode

Decision

5.4.2. Strategies and principles of guidance

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 demonstrate understanding the strategies and principles of guidance.

Strategies of guidance
Strategies are important to perform the task to get the best outcome of it. Furthermore, to
guide a person, strategies play important . So that the task assigned to the person gets
performed in an efficient manner. Many people build techniques for group and
individual guidance. 141

1. Techniques for Group Guidance

The group guidance is a service by guidance personnel to solve common problems of a
group. The strategies for group guidance are: Lectures or Talks, Demonstrations and
role-plays, and Orientation classes.

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Lectures or Talks – The lectures or talks play a vital role in guiding a person. When
group needs some guidance then lecture is the primary way to solve a common group
problem. Moreover, in order to understand their problems, a question hour should take
place. This will further help in delivering the favorable and best solution to the group.
Hence, lecture is a coherent way for the guidance of a group.
Demonstrations and role-plays – “Actions speak louder than words.” Therefore
demonstrations and role-plays are one of the best ways to counsel a person. Moreover, it
takes less time and is more captivating. This technique makes the guidance of a group
more engaging and energy–efficient. As it requires more than one person, the work gets
divided among people.
Orientation classes – Orientation class is necessary to guide a group in a new
environment. Consequently, each of the individuals in a group needs instructions to
perform a specific task. This can be done by organizing orientation classes for the group.
So, they may get all the proper guidelines and clear all their doubts before the initiation
of the task.
2. Techniques for Individual Guidance
Individual guidance is the advice or a strategy designed for a particular individual to
solve his problems. Moreover, it is the interaction with a person to explore his or her
ideas, behaviors and feeling. There are various strategies for individual guidance;
Spheres of influence, Immediacy, Proxemics, Congruence and Hierarchy of needs.
Spheres of influence – This strategy figures out the strengths and weaknesses of a
person. In order to excel in a particular field, a person needs to know himself. Guidance
counselors use this technique to motivate and advise a particular person. Moreover, the
individual guidance needs proper handling of the emotions of a person and works
according to it.
Immediacy – Informing a person about the current situation makes him work better
towards the task .Moreover, it builds a level of trust within him which will work
positively towards his goal.
Proxemics – It is the strategies of the studying the body language of a particular person.
As a result, the guidance counselor will get to know about the emotional and mental
condition of the client. Furthermore, it will also help him to plan his reactions so that the
guidance could run smoothly.

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Congruence – This deals with the feedback of the counselor. The feedback of the
counselor should be genuine. As a result, it will help in the progression of the client.
Furthermore, it will make him understand the current and find possible ways to make it
better.
Hierarchy of needs – To know a client’s needs is essential. Moreover, the client’s needs
include emotional, psychological needs and safety needs. Furthermore, self-esteem and
self- actualization needs are also important. This will help in the progress of the client.
Further, it can help in changing the counseling if it needs any improvement.
Principles of Guidance
The principles of guidance certainly form the basis of the need of guidance.
Furthermore, principles of guidance are important principles without which guidance
cannot take place. Below are the principles o guidance142.
Principle of all-round development – Guidance must take into account the all-round
development of a person. Furthermore, guidance must ensure this desirable adjustment
in any specific area of the individual’s personality.
Principle of human uniqueness – Certainly no two individuals are alike. Moreover,
individuals differ in mental, social, physical, and emotional development. Moreover,
guidance must recognize these important differences and guide individuals according to
their specific need.
Principle of holistic development – This principle states that guidance must take place in
the context of total personality development. Moreover, a child grows as a whole. Also,
if one aspect of personality is in focus, then the other areas of development must be kept
in mind. Most noteworthy, these other areas of development indirectly influence the
personality.
Principle of cooperation – This principle states that there cannot be any force on any
individual regarding guidance. Moreover, the cooperation and consent of the individual
is a pre-requisite for providing guidance.
Principle of continuity – The principle says that the guidance must take place as a
continuous process to an individual. Also, this guidance must take place in different
stages of the individual’s life.
Principle of extension – In this principle, there should not be a limitation of guidance to
a few individuals. Most noteworthy, the extension of guidance must be to all individuals
of all ages.

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Principle of adjustment – It is certainly true that guidance influence every aspect of an

individual’s life. However, guidance is chiefly concerned with a person’s mental or
physical health. Furthermore, this adjustment takes place at school, home, society, and
vocation.

Learning activity 2: Think-pair-share – Understanding the strategies and

principles of guidance

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to understand the strategies and principles
of guidance.

1. You will study the strategies of guidance and principles of guidance.

2. You will think about the strategies which you have experienced when you are
students in school for group guidance and individual guidance.
3. You will response for educational guidance, vocational guidance and personal
guidance.

5.4.3. Types and principles of counseling

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:
 explain and illustrate the types and principles of counseling.

Types of counseling

Guidance and counseling includes a variety of group oriented designed to enhance

client’s attitudes and values and refers to and individualized, small-group or class
process that assists students with specific personal/social issue and difficulties and
educational or career issues.
Individual Counseling: Individual counseling is an intervention process which facilities
meaningful understanding of the self and environment and/or clarification of goals and
values for further behavior.
Individual counseling involves one-to-one sessions between the guidance counselor and
client.
The counseling session may involve the following process:
- Establish the broad purpose of the session
- Create a friendly and encouraging atmosphere
- Gather information
- Identify the needs of the client

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- Give information
- Summarize topics and issues covered during the session
- Clarify the next step to be taken. This process should include the core skills of
counseling; effective communication, clarification, feedback, evaluation.
It is important to note that the maintenance of confidential records is an essential
component of the counseling process.
Group counseling: Group counseling is a broad term covering all types of counseling
for more than one person. There are many different ways of facilitation groups but the
main premises are that members listen to, support and challenge each other. Thus, all the
participants learn to listen, communicate and experiences how other people see them.
The guidance counselor needs to be aware if the process taking place within the group
and be aware of the impact on each participant.
Individual and group counseling session can be useful in assisting client with decision-
making, problem-solving, self-appraisal and development of coping strategies.
Counseling services may be developmental, preventive or crisis-oriented. Guidance and
counseling services should meet identified needs in three area; (1) educational, (2)
personal/social, and, (3) career development.
OECD defined the term “information, guidance and counseling services(IGCS) as
services intended to assist individuals of any age, and at any point throughout their lives-
to make educational, training, and occupational choices, and to manage their careers.
This includes a wide range of activities; for example;
- Activities within schools to help students clarify career goals and understand the
world of work.
- Personal or group-based assistance with decisions about initial courses of study,
courses of vocational training, further education and training, initial job choice,
job change, or work force re-entry.
- Computer-based or online services to provide information about jobs and careers,
or to help individual make career choices.
- Services to produce and disseminate information about jobs, courses of study and
vocational training. It also includes services provided to those who have not yet
entered the labour force, services to job-seekers, and services to those who are
employed.
School counseling: School counseling is a confidential service and school counselors
will check with students, parents or careers before passing on information (such as the
result of test of learning difficulties ) to others. Confidentiality will be maintained unless
legal requirements, e.g. child protection legislation, override it.

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School counselors are not at every day. It is necessary for parents or careers to make an
appointment by telephoning the school. Students will be told of the arrangement
applying in their school so as to how they can see school counselor. Priorities for the
school counselor’s time will be determined, in constellations with the school counselor,
by the principle.
The guidance counselor helps students in a variety of ways.
- Guidance and counseling programs are necessary and important parts of our
school programs.
- It is designed to assist students in ll aspects of their schooling.
- A guidance programmers take the form of group guidance, group counseling, and
individual counseling.
- The guidance and counseling program provides for prevention, intervention and
following objectives:
(i) To enable students to realize that they have the capabilities to sole their
own problems;
(ii) To support, develop and enhance the student’s sense of self-worth and
esteem;
(iii) To help the student make effective decisions;
(iv) To provide information pertinent to the student’s goals, choices and
plans;
(v) To assist students with program selection; and
(vi) To motivate students with program.
Principles of Counseling
The anticipated outcomes of the counseling process are known as outcome goals. They
are the goals that a counselee wishes to achieve with the help of a counselor. Process
objectives are those future events that the counselor believes will aid in achieving the
end goals. Process goals re frequently stated in term of counselor actions as well as the
outcomes that the client will feel. The counselor must comprehend the events that led to
the current predicament, as well as those that are supporting the counselee’s behavior.
Its primary goal is to make the individual self-sufficient. It not only resolves the issues,
but also keeps them from recurring. It also integrates and coordinates social development
methods and resources and believes in democratic values. Aside from the fundamental
minimum services that school guidance and counseling program delivers, there are a few
extra activities that a school guidance and counseling unit is expected to do. These are
the following;
- Conducting research and questionnaires.

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- Developing and maintaining relationship with non-school guidance and

counseling resources.
- Assisting all members of the school personnel in understanding and accepting
their position in the guidance and counseling program.

Learning activity 3: Group work –Types and principles of counseling

The purpose of this activity is to explain and illustrate the types and principles of
counseling

1. You will study about the types and principles of counseling and think about how
it is useful for students.
2. You will create a short paragraph to illustrate how it is useful for students.
3.

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5.4.4. Counseling techniques in school

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson you will be able to:

 explain counseling techniques in teaching and learning; and
 discuss the importance of guidance and counseling program in schools.

The three major techniques are used in counseling process in schools. 143 These are (i)
Directive counseling (ii) Non- directive counseling , and (iii) Elective counseling.
Directive counseling
In this counseling the counselor plays an active role as it ia regarded as a means of
helping people how to learn to solve their own problems. This type of counseling is
otherwise known as counselor-centered counseling. Because in this counseling, the
counselor does everything himself, i.e., analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis,
prescription and the follow up.
(i) Analysis: in this step data is collected from a variety of sources for an adequate
understanding of the pupil.
(ii) Synthesis: This step implies organizing and summarizing the data to find out
the assets, liabilities, adjustments and mal-adjustments of the pupil.
(iii) Diagnosis: formulating conclusions regarding the nature and causes of the
problems expressed by the pupils is the major concern of this step.
(iv) Prognosis: this step implies predicting the future development of the problem
of client or pupil.
(v) Prescription: this step indicates taking steps by the counselor with the pupil to
bring about adjustment in life.
(vi) Follow up: this step implies helping and determining the effectiveness of the
counseling provided to the pupil or client.
Non-directive Counseling
In this type of counseling, the counselee or client or pupil, not the counselor, is the pivot
of the counseling process. He plays an active role and this type of counseling is growing
process. In this counseling, the goal is the independence and integration of the client
rather than the solution of the problem. In this counseling process the counselee comes
to the counselor with a problem. The counselor establishes rapport with the counselee
base on mutual trust, acceptance, and understanding.
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The counselee provides all information about his problems. The counselor assists him to
analyze, and synthesis, diagnosis his difficulties, predict the future development of his
problems, take a decision about the solution of his problems, and analyze the strengths
and consequences of his solutions before taking a final decision. Since the counselee is
given full freedom to talk about his problems and work out a solution. This technique is
also called the permissive counseling.
Steps in non-directive counseling are:
1. The pupil or individual comes for help as the counselee.
2. The counselor defines the situation by indicating that he doesn’t have the answer
but he is able to provide a place and an atmosphere in which the client or pupil
can think of the answers or solutions to his problem.
3. The counselor is friendly, interested and encourages free expression of feeling
regarding the problem of the individual.
4. The counselor tries to understand the feeling of the individual or client.
5. The counselor accepts and recognizes the positive as well as the negative feeling.
6. The period of release or free expression is followed by a gradual development of
insight.
7. As the client recognizes and accepts emotionally as well as intellectually his real
attitudes and desires, he perceives the decisions that he must make and the
possible courses of action open to him.
8. Positive steps towards the solution of the problem situation being to occur.
9. A decreased need of for help is felt and the client is the one who decides to end
the contract.
Eclectic Counseling
Elective counseling is a combination of directive and non-directive technique depending
upon the situational factors. This approach in counseling is best characterized by its
freedom to the counselor to use whatever procedures or techniques seem to be the most
appropriate to any particular time for any procedures which hold promise even enough
theoretical bases differed markedly.
This counseling recognizes that each theory may contain some truth and that so long as a
final decision between theories can’t be made practical necessity justifiably takes
precedence over orthodoxy. The counselor may start with directive technique but
switches over to non-directive counseling if the situation requires. He may also start with
the non-directive technique and switches over to directive technique if the situation
demands. So the counselor in this counseling makes use of directive and non-directive
counseling and also of any other type which may be considered useful for the purpose of
modifying the ideas and attitudes of the counselee. Hence it is possible for the counselor

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to alternate between directive and non-directive techniques depending upon the

requirements of the situation. It can be said that directive and non-directive counseling
that the gap between the two and makes adjustment between directive and non- directive
techniques.

Learning activity 4: Group work – Counseling techniques in school

The purpose of this learning activity for you is to explain counseling techniques in
teaching and learning.

1. You will study the principles of counseling and counseling techniques in school.
2. You will think about the salient points on counseling techniques.

Homework activity: Individual work – Illustrating the importance of guidance and

counseling services in school.

Review Questions
Question 1. Why do we need guidance and counseling?

Question 2. What are types of guidance?

Question 3. What are principles of counseling?

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Unit Summary
Key messages

 The purpose of Educational Psychology is to help the teacher to develop

the better understanding of education and its processes. Educational theories
influence learning in a variety of ways. For teachers, learning theory examples
can impact their approach to instruction and classroom management. Finding the
right approach can make the difference between an effective and inspiring
classroom experience and an ineffective one.
 Behavioral theories contend that explanations for learning need not include
internal events (e.g., thoughts, beliefs, feelings), not because these processes do
not exist but rather ,because the causes of learning are observable environmental
events
 Cognitism focuses on an observable change in mental knowledge. Cognitive
theories stress on the acquisition of knowledge and skills, the formation of
mental structure, and the processing of information and beliefs
 Constructivism states that learners construct meaning only through active
engagement with the world ( such as experiments or real world problem
solving)”
 Mental health is an inseparable part of education. Learning is dependent on
sound mental health. All psychologists, teachers and mental hygienists agree that
primarily family living and experiences play most crucial role in the development
of harmonious personality in children.
 All the foregoing defense mechanisms are used unconsciously by a person to
protect himself (although only for the time being), against psychological dangers.
A defense mechanism may be regarded as a temporary defense against anxiety
and in adequacies.
 Psychologists have interpreted adjustment from two important point of view.
One, adjustment as an achievement and another, adjustment as a process. The
first point of view emphasizes the quality of efficiency of adjustment and the
second lays emphasis on the process by which an individual adjusts in his
external environment.
 The school assumes great responsibility in the process of harmonious
development of personality. Children spend six to seven hours in school. Schools
are in a position to help in the development of children’s potentialities by
catering to their needs
 Guidance may be needed towards further education and training, vocational or
occupational choice, health education and social education, and towards the help

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and opportunities available for disabled or unemployed people and for

immigrants or refugees.

Unit reflection

Reflective question
 Describe the five important things you have learned in this unit that will inform
your future teaching. In formulating your responses, think about how the contents
of the sub units relate and can inform teaching and learning.

Further reading

5.1. Assuring Understanding of Educational Psychology

Rather, A.R. (2017). Psychology of learning and development. Reprinted Discovery

Publishing House PVT.LTD. New Dahli-110002. India.
Schunk, Dale.H. Learning theories an educational perspective. Sixth Edition. Peason
Education, Inc., Publishing as Allyn &Bacon. Boston.

5.2. Mental Health and Adjustment

Chauhan, S.S.(1978). Advanced Educational Psychology. Printed at Sanjay

Printers,Delhi-110032,Vikas Publishing House PVT. LTD. New Delhi.
Mangal, S.K.(2012). Advanced Educational Psychology. 2nd ed.PHI Learning Private
Limited, New Delhi.

5.3. Personality

Bergin, C.C & Bergin, D.A. (2012). Child and adolescent development in your
classroom. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A.
Capsi, A. (1995). Personality development across the life course. In N.Eisenberg(Ed),
Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional and personality development
(5th ed.Vol 2) (Pp311-368). New York: Wiley.
Rather, A.R. (2017). Psychology of learning and development. Reprinted Discovery
Publishing House PVT. LTD. New Dahli-110002. India.
5.4. Guidance and Counseling
Khan Athar. (2019). Meaning, Principles and Neer.com. d of Guidance. Retrieved from
http://topp

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Girish, Sinhal & Dheeraj, Sinde. (2021). Principles and Prospects of Guidance and
Counseling-A Glimpse. Retrieved from http://ilkogretim-online.org.
Parankimalil. (2015). Principles of Guidance. Retrieved from
http://johnparankimalil.wordpress.com
Shepherd, Mary. (2013). Guidance techniques. Philip Allan publishers. Hodder
Education, Volume 8, No.3, April 2013.
University of Calcutta. (n.d). Techniques of Counseling Retrieved from
http://www.caluniv.ac.in

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Glossary
Semester 1

Terms Elaborations

Accommodating The process by which a person modifies existing behaviour

to meet new environmental demands on learning.

Adjustment Adjustment is the maintenance of a harmonious relationship

between man and his environment.

Adjustment An adjustment mechanism is a method or perspective used

mechanism by an individual to compensate for changes in one's
circumstances or abilities.
Analytical skills are problem-solving skills that help you
Analytical skills:
sort through facts, data and information to develop rational
solutions.
Assimilating The absorption and integration of new experiences into
previously organized intellectual structures or schemata.

Authentic problem Problem of the kind that practitioners in a discipline actually

encounter.

Authoritarian Authoritarian leadership refers to any situation where a

leadership leader keeps hold of as much power and authority as
possible. Also known as coercive or dictatorial leadership,
authoritarian leaders, tend to keep all the decision-making
authority to themselves and make the decisions about
policies, procedures, tasks, structures, rewards and
punishment themselves. The intention behind most
authoritarian leaders is to retain control and they usually
require unquestioning obedience and compliance.

Blackboard An American educational technology company with

corporate headquarters in Reston, Virginia. It was known for
Blackboard Learn, a learning management system.

Conceptualization Formation of an idea of something in one’s mind.

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Terms Elaborations

Converging Move forward and meet at a point.

Counseling Counseling may be described as a method of relation and

responding to others with the aim of providing them with
opportunities to explore, to clarify, and to work towards
living in a more personally satisfying and resourceful way.

Creativity The ability for divergent thinking or open-ended thought;

creativity includes the elements of novelty, appropriateness,
transformation and condensation.

Critical thinking The process of thinking about ideas or situations in order to

understand them fully, identify their implications, make a
judgement, and/or guide decision making.

Cultural capital Cultural capital refers to knowledge and relationships that

can be invested to gain benefits in school setting

Cultural mismatch Cultural mismatch refers to a pattern of in compatibilities

between home and school.

Curiosity Attraction to a novel object or idea; an element in creativity.

Democratic leadership Democratic leadership is a leadership style in which team

members have input into the decision-making process and
share responsibility for implementing and evaluating the
outcomes of those decisions. This style values collaboration
and encourages open communication among team members.

Diverging Move forward to separate and go in different direction.

Email Mailing messages distributed by electronic means from one

computer user to one or more recipients via a network.

Emotional leadership Emotional leadership is a process that leaders use to

influence their followers toward a common goal. It is a style
of leadership that emphasizes the importance of

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Terms Elaborations

understanding and managing emotions, both in oneself and

in others.

Epistemology Study of the logical structure of cognition or knowledge.

Flipped classroom Flipped Classroom is a teaching strategy that reverses the

traditional learning environment by delivering instructional
content, outside of the classroom. It moves activities like
projects, assignments, home works, etc. into the class.
(F.L.I.P) – It is the abbreviation of the four pillars namely,
Flexible Environment, Learning Culture, Intentional
Content and Professional Educator.

Framework A set of beliefs, ideas, or rules that is used as a basis for

making judgements and decisions, The structure of a
particular system.

Guidance The guidance refers to advice or information provided by a

person of experience, to solve problem or to improve
something. The guidance refers to advice or information
provided by a person of experience, to solve.

Hypothesis Untested assertion put forward to explain some observed

phenomenon which is then tested by experiment.

Ill-structured problem The realistic, authentic problem that does not lend itself to a
right or wrong answer.

Information and A diverse set of technological tools and resources used to

Communication transmit, store, create, share or exchange information.
Technology (ICT)

Internet A global computer network providing a variety of

information and communication facilities, consisting of
interconnected networks using standardized communication
protocols.

Interpersonal Connected with relationships between people.

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Terms Elaborations

Learning Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the

capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from
practice or other forms o experience.

Makerspace A makerspace is a destination where students – sometimes

alongside staff, parents, and mentors – can create, problem
solve, and develop skills, talents, thinking, and mental rigor.

Maladjustment Maladjustment refers to inabilities to maintain effective

relationship, function successfully in various domains, or
cope with difficulties and stresses.

Mastery-based learning Mastery based-learning refers to an instrumental approach

where students have to exhibit a certain threshold a
competence with a task before moving on to the next.

Mental health Mental health refers to that condition of an individual

resulting from the normal organization and functioning of
his mind.

Micro-credential Micro-credentials certify the learning outcomes of short-

term learning experiences, for example a short course or
training. They offer a flexible, targeted way to help people
develop the knowledge, skills and competences they need
for their personal and professional development.

Moodle A brand name for a computer system for creating and

sharing educational materials online. Modular Object-
Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment.

Multidisciplinary Combining or involving several academic disciplines or

professional specializations in an approach to a topic or
problem.

Pedagogical content The synthesis of teachers' pedagogical knowledge and their

knowledge subject matter knowledge comprises pedagogical content

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Terms Elaborations

knowledge.

Pedagogical An understanding that emerges from interactions among

technological content content, pedagogy, and technology knowledge.
knowledge

Personality Personality is the stable of characteristics and tendencies that

determine those commonalities and differences in the
psychological behaviors (thoughts, feelings and actions) of
people that have continuity in time and that may or may not
be easily.

Personality traits Personality traits refer to individual differences in the

tendency to behave, think and feel in a certain constant way.

Questionnaire Printed form containing a set of structured questions

together with spaces for filling in responses.

Retrospective Thinking about or connected with something that happened

in the past.

Scientific Understanding that is relating to science, or using the

understanding organized methods of science.

Self-regulation: Self-regulation refers to one’s ability to understand and

control one’s environment.

Servant leadership Servant leadership is a philosophy with the goal of

developing school leaders who serve others, practice care
and humility. It is a heart posture by which school leaders
lead and serve their school through honouring and serving
their staff and students.

Social change Any alteration, difference or modification that takes place in

a situation or in an object through time can be called change.
The term ‘social change’ is used to indicate the changes that

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take place in human interactions. Society is a ‘web of social

relationships’ and hence ‘social change’ obviously means a
change in the system of social relationships.

Social media Websites and computer programs that allow people to

communicate and share information on the internet using a
computer or mobile phone.

Tacit knowledge Knowledge gained from day-to-day experience.

Technological Integration made on the basis of the use of means of

integration technology, or of relating to, or involving, technology.

Transformational Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership

leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social
systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive
change in the followers with the end goal of developing
followers into leaders.

Transactional Transactional leadership, also known as managerial

leadership leadership, is a leadership style where leaders rely on
rewards and punishments to achieve optimal job
performance from their subordinates.

Virtual learning: Virtual learning refers to an environment where students

study a digital-boned curriculum taught by instructors that
lecture online via video or audio.

Well-defined problem A well-defined problem that has a definite right or wrong

answer.

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Annexes
Annex 1: The Problem with Plastic Bags144
Plastic bags start out as fossil fuels and end up as deadly waste in landfills and the ocean.
Birds often mistake shredded plastic bags for food, filling their stomachs with toxic
debris. For hungry sea turtles, it's nearly impossible to distinguish between jellyfish and
floating plastic shopping bags. Fish eat thousands of tons of plastic a year, transferring it
up the food chain to bigger fish and marine mammals. Microplastics are also consumed
by people through food and in the air. It’s estimated that globally, people consume the
equivalent of a credit card of plastic every week, and it’s expected that there will be
more plastic than fish in the sea by 2050.
The fossil fuel industry plans to increase plastic production by 40% over the next
decade. These oil giants are rapidly building petrochemical plants across the United
States to turn fracked gas into plastic. This means more plastic in our oceans, more
greenhouse gas emissions and more toxic air pollution, which exacerbates the climate
crisis that often disproportionately affects communities of color.
10 Facts About Single-Use Plastic Bags
1. Americans use 5 trillion plastic bags a year.
2. Americans use an average of 365 plastic bags per person per year. People in
Denmark use an average of four plastic bags per year.
3. It only takes about 14 plastic bags for the equivalent of the gas required to drive
one mile.
4. In 2015 about 730,000 tons of plastic bags, sacks and wraps were generated
(including PS, PP, HDPE, PVC & LDPE) in the United States, but more than
87% of those items are never recycled, winding up in landfills and the ocean.
5. About 34% of dead leatherback sea turtles have ingested plastics.
6. The plastic typically used in bottles, bags and food containers contains chemical
additives such as endocrine disruptors, which are associated with negative health
effects including cancers, birth defects and immune system suppression in
humans and wildlife.
7. It takes 1,000 years for a plastic bag to degrade in a landfill. Unfortunately, the
bags don't break down completely but instead photo-degrade, becoming
microplastics that absorb toxins and continue to pollute the environment.
8. Chemical leachates from plastic bags impair the growth of the world’s most
important microorganisms, Prochlorococcus, a marine bacterium that provides
one tenth of the world’s oxygen.
144
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9. There were 1.9 million grocery bags and other plastic bags collected in the 2018
International Coastal Cleanup.
10. In 2014 California became the first state to ban plastic bags. As of March 2018,
311 local bag ordinances have been adopted in 24 states, including Hawaii. As of
July 2018, 127 countries have adopted some form of legislation to regulate
plastic bags.
Plastic bags and oceans
How many plastic bags are used each year?145
We use 5 trillion plastic bags… per year! That’s 160,000 a second! And over 700 a year
for every single person on the planet. We can do better than that.
160,000 plastic bags a second
This year 5 trillion plastic bags will be consumed. That’s 160,000 a second! Put one after
another they would go around the world 7 times every hour and cover an area twice the
size of France.

Most bags are simply thrown out

Less than 1 percent are recycled. They are most often made from Polyethylene that takes
centuries to degrade. Each ton of recycled plastic bags saves the energy equivalent of 11
barrels of oil.

12 minutes of use, 1000 years of pollution

It takes up to 1,000 years for a plastic bag to break down. On average, a plastic shopping
bag is used for just 12 minutes.

What happens to the plastic bags?

In total, we use 100 million tons of plastic every year. Some 10 percent of this plastic
end up in the oceans. An estimated 300 million plastic bags every year end up in the
Atlantic Ocean alone.

All that plastic ending up in oceans is not without consequences.

By 2050, the world's oceans could contain more plastic than fish measured by
weight.
The plastic soup
In the ocean, the plastic is broken down into tiny pieces. These pieces are eaten by fish
and cannot be digested. Consequently, the plastic builds up and enters into the food
chain.
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Educational Studies

The plastic waste has also created several “plastic soups” in the world's oceans.

Annex 2: Year 3 Lesson Plan Template

Year 3 Lesson Plan Template

Class: Date: Time: Teacher:

Lesson: (What is the topic/title of your lesson?)

Know the Students:
a. Prior Knowledge (What do students know? What can students already do?)
b. Student Profile (What do you need to consider regarding individual students’ needs?)

Lesson Objective:
(What is the purpose of the lesson? What do you intend to do?)

Learning Outcomes:
(Construct SMART learning outcomes.
What will students know and be able to do by the end of the lesson?)

By the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

Criteria for Success:

(How will you and your students know if they have achieved the learning outcomes of this
lesson? e.g., They will be able to solve 7 out of 10 mathematics problems; They will be able
to label all parts of a flower on a diagram.)

Formative Assessment Opportunities:

(Teacher questioning, teacher observation, teacher review of student work, peer assessment
with simple rubric, self-assessment)

Teaching and Learning Strategies:

(Is the lesson Inquiry-based? Problem-based? Project-based? A direct instruction lesson?
etc.)

Teaching and Learning Methods and Techniques:

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 Year 4, Semester 1- EDU 4101
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(Will you use Brainstorming? Storytelling? Role play? Questioning? Discussion? Think-pair-
share? Group work? etc.)

Teaching Aids and Resources: (visual aids, audio aids, integration of technologies):
(Will you need paper? Drawing materials? Computers? etc.)

Stage Timing Teacher Activity (What are you doing?) Student Activity (What are the
students doing?)
Differentiation: (How will you differentiate teaching and learning to respond to students’
needs?)

Introduction:
(How will you gain students’ attention; connect to prior learning; communicate intended
learning outcomes and success criteria?)

Body:
(Will there be different stages in the body of the lesson e.g., explicit teaching, guided
practice, independent practice?)

Review:
(How will you assess student achievement of learning outcomes; support students reflecting
on learning?)

Teacher Evaluation:
(plan questions for evaluation; complete this section after delivery)
Did all your students understand and meet the intended learning outcomes?
Were the learning outcomes suitable for students’ level/s?
Were they realistic given the time allocation?
How effective were the teaching and learning strategies/methods?
Teaching aids/ resources?
Formative assessment and feedback opportunities?
What would you do differently next time to enhance student learning?

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Educational Studies

Annex 3: Year 4 Lesson Plan Template

Year 4: Lesson Plan Template

Subject: Teacher: Date:

Lesson Level: Primary/Middle/High School, etc.

Unit Title: Time:

Lesson Area:

Lesson Title: Time: 50 minutes

Resources and Preparations for Differentiated Learning:

General:

Visual:

Auditory:

Kinesthetic:

Integration of Technology

Type of Instruction: Teaching Method:

Teacher:
1. Gaining Attention: (1-5)
min
Learner:

2. Informing learners of the Teacher:

objectives: (1-3) min
Learner:

3. Stimulating Recall of Teacher:

Perquisite Learning:
(5-10) min Learner:

4. Presenting the Content: Teacher:

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(10-20) min Learner:

5. Eliciting the Desired Teacher:

Behavior: (10-20) min
Learner:

6. Providing Feedback: Teacher:

(5-10) min
Learner:

7. Assessing the Lesson Teacher:

Outcome: (1-5) min
Learner:

8. Assignment: (1-3) min

9. Reflection and
Evaluation:

10. Area of Revision for

Improvement:

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The Government of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar