TOPIC 3
Structural Geology
• Structural geology is the study of factors such as
origin , occurrence, classification, types and effects
of various secondary structures like folds, faults,
rock cleavage and unconformities.
• All these structures are those which develop and
occur in rock after their formation and different
from those primary structures such as bedding and
vesicular structure, which develop in rocks at the
time of their formation itself.
Outcrop
• Any geological formation exposed on the surface is
called an outcrop.
• It is used as a general term to refer to exposed
folds, faults, joints, etc.
FOLDS
• Folds are one of the most common geological
structures found in rocks.
• When a set of horizontal layers are subjected to
compressive forces, the bend either upwards or
downwards.
• From civil engineering point of view, faults are the
most unfavourable and undesirable geological
structures at the site for any given purpose, i.e., for
location of reservoirs: as a foundation site for
construction of dams, important bridges or huge
buildings, for tunnelling; for laying roads or railway
tracks etc.
Note : Folds leads to form faults.
• Joints are fractures found in all type of rocks.
• They are cracks or openings formed due to various
reasons.
• The presence of joints divides the rock into a
number of parts or blocks.
EARTHQUAKES
• An earthquake may be simply described as a
sudden shaking phenomenon of the earth’s
surface for some reason or the other.
• It is also variously described as a sudden vibrating
or jerking or jolting or trembling or shivering
phenomenon of the earth’s surface.
Earthquake terminology
Classification of earthquakes
• Based on depth of their origin, earthquakes are
described as
1. SHALLOW (<60KM)
2. INTERMEDIATE (>60KM AND <300KM)
3. EXTREME DEEP (>300KM)
• Based on depth of their occurrence, earthquakes are
described as
1. Tectonic
2. Non-tectonic
Tectonic plates
• Tectonic earthquakes are exclusively due to internal
causes, i.e.., due to disturbances or adjustments of
geological formations taking place in the earth’s
interior.
• Generally these are less frequent and more
intensive and hence more destructive in nature.
• Non-Tectonic earthquakes are due to external or
surficial causes.
• These type of earthquakes are very frequent but
less destructive.
• Non-tectonic earthquakes, occur due to variety of
reasons, some of which are as follows.
1. Due to huge water falls
2. Avalanches
3. Meteorites
4. Landslides
5. Volcanic eruptions
6. Tsunamis
7. Man-made explosions
Seismic belts and shield areas
Seismic belts are those areas where earthquakes occur
frequently and shield areas are those places where
earthquakes occur either rarely or very mildly.
Earthquake waves
• Earthquake vibrations originate from focus and are
propagated in all directions.
• These vibrations through the rocks in the form of
elastic waves.
• There are three types of waves called as
1. Primary waves (P-waves)
2. Secondary waves (S-waves)
3. Love waves. (L-waves)
P-WAVES
• These are also called as primary waves, push-
pull waves, preliminary waves, longitudinal
waves
• These are the fastest waves among all the
seismic waves.
• They travel as fast as 8 to 13 Km/s.
• The P waves resemble sound waves because
these too are compressional waves in nature.
• These waves can travel through solids, semi-
liquids and gases.
S-WAVES
• These are also called as secondary waves or
traverse waves or shear waves.
• Compared to P waves, these are relatively slow.
• These can travel at a speed of 5 to 7 Km/s.
• These are like light waves.
• These waves are capable of travelling only through
solids.
L-WAVES
• These are also called as love waves or long
waves or surface waves.
• These ae the slowest among the seismic
waves.
• These can travel at a speed of 4 to 5Km/s.
• These waves are capable of travelling through
solids and liquids.
Richter scale
Effects of earthquakes
Most of the earthquakes are minor and go unnoticed.
But the major ones, though occasional, are responsible
for heavy loss of life and property.
1. Destruction of various civil engineering
constructions like dams, bridges, tunnels, roads and
railway tracks
2. Creation of irregularities and cracks in the ground.
3. Causing landslides, blocking of roads and railway
lines.
4. Changes in courses of rive due to faulting across
them.
5. Formation of new lakes, springs and water falls.
6. Submarine earthquakes causes Tsunamis
7. Heavy loss of life and property
LAND SLIDES
• If a mass of earth or rock moves along a
definite zone or surface, the failure is called a
landslide
• There are three types
1. DEBRIS SLIDES
2. ROCK SLIDES
3. ROCK FALLS
ROCK SLIDES
DEBRIS SLIDES
ROCK FALLS
TOPIC 4
• Geology of dams and reservoirs
• Geophysical investigations
