THE FLOWER

Parts of a Flower:
(1) Calyx (Sepals):
 Outermost whorl of the flower.
 Small, green, leaf-like structures.
 Protect the inner whorls of the flower bud.
 Can be fused (gamosepalous) or free (polysepalous).
 Functions:
 Protection.
 Photosynthesis (contain chlorophyll).
 Attract pollinators.
 (2) Corolla (Petals):
 Second whorl of the flower.
 Usually brightly colored.
 May be fused (gamopetalous) or free (polypetalous).
 Functions:
 Attract pollinators.
 Protect reproductive parts.
 May produce nectar.
 Perianth:
 When sepals and petals are indistinguishable, the collective term for both is perianth.
 Individual parts are called tepals.
 Functions:
 May have protective and attractive roles similar to sepals and petals.
 Variations:
 Perianth may have outgrowths like spurs, nectaries, and corona.
 Spurs: beak-like tube shaped outgrowths containing nectar.
 The Flower
 Floral Whorls and Sex
 The structure of a flower includes floral whorls.
 Complete Flower: Presence of all four floral whorls.
 Incomplete Flower: Lacking one or more floral whorls.
 Staminate: Contains only the androecium (male reproductive parts).
 Pistillate: Contains only the gynoecium (female reproductive parts).
 Neuter: Lacks both androecium and gynoecium.
 Bisexual/Hermaphrodite: Presence of both androecium and gynoecium.
 Unisexual: Contains only the male or female reproductive parts.
 Parts of a Flower
 Gynoecium: The female reproductive organ.
 Stigma: The sticky, swollen tip of the carpel that receives pollen.
 Style: The long, tubular stalk connecting the stigma to the ovary.
 Ovary: The swollen base of the carpel containing ovules, which develop into seeds.
 Androecium: The male reproductive organ.
 Anther: The structure that produces pollen grains, which contain the male gametes.
 Filament: The stalk that supports the anther.
 Monoecious Plants
 A plant that has both male and female flowers on the same plant is monoecious.
 Examples include gourd, maize, and cucumber.
 Dioecious Plants
 A plant that has male and female flowers on separate plants is dioecious.
 Examples include papaya, palm, and mulberry.
 Placentation
 The arrangement of placentae within the ovary is called placentation.
 Types of placentation include marginal, parietal, axile, free central, superficial, and basal.
 Inflorescence
 The arrangement of flowers on a floral stem is called inflorescence.
 Types of inflorescence include racemose, cymose, panicle, spikelet, and spike.
 Introduction
 The primary requirement for sexual reproduction is the complete fusion of male and female gametes by the process
called fertilization.
 The male and female gamete producing structures, pollen grains and ovules respectively, are borne on different parts of
the flower.
 The pollen grains must be transferred from anthers to the stigma of carpel to bring about fertilization.
 Pollination
 The transfer and deposition of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of a carpel in a flower is called pollination.
 It is of two types i.e:
 Self-pollination
 Cross-pollination.
 Self-pollination or autogamy
 It occurs when the pollen grains from the anthers of one flower are transferred to the stigma of the same flower or flowers
borne on the same plant.
 Self-pollination mostly occurs in either bisexual flowers or monoecious plants (if flowers are unisexual).
 To achieve self-pollination, the flower must possess certain adaptations, such as:
 Bisexuality (Hermaphroditism) - The flower should bear both the stamens and carpels so that both the pollen grains
 Monoecious Plants
 If the flowers are unisexual, both the male and female flowers should be present on the same plant.
 Homogamy
 To ensure self-pollination, both the anthers and stigma of the bisexual flower or unisexual flowers present on the same
plant should mature simultaneously.
 Cleistogamy
 The pollen grains from anthers get deposited over the stigma of the same bisexual flower, which never opens.
 Bud Pollination
 In some plants (e.g., pea, wheat, and rice), the anthers and stigmas of bisexual flowers ripen before the opening of buds.
Self-pollination occ
 Snails: Malacophily
 Man: Artificial pollination
 Anemophily
 Flowers are usually small and inconspicuous.
 They have long filaments, produce pollen in large quantities, and pollen is light.
 urs before the flower opens.
 Agents of Pollination
 Wind: Anemophily
 Water: Hydrophily
 Animals: Zoophily
 Insects: Entomophily
 Birds: Ornithophily
 Bats: ChiropterophilyStigmas are feathery and styles are long, allowing for exposure above the flower.
 Flowers mature before new leaves, preventing interference.
 Example: Maize, bamboo, pine.
 Pollination in Maize
 Male flowers produce large quantities of pollen.
 Female flowers are borne near the base of the plant.
 Pollen is blown by the wind to the stigma of female flowers.
 Hydrophily
 Pollination occurs in aquatic plants.
 Examples: Hydrilla, Vallisnaria.
 Characteristics of Hydrophilous Flowers
 Dioecious: Male and female flowers are found on separate plants.
 Small and inconspicuous: They are not showy or brightly colored.
 Produce pollen in large quantities: The pollen has the same specific gravity as water, allowing it to float.
 Male flowers detach and float: They float on water until they reach the female flowers.
 Example: Vallisnaria.
 Zoophily
 Pollination by animals.
 Entomophily: Pollination by insects.
 Characteristics of Entomophilous Flowers
 Brightly colored attractive corolla: (Example: Crotolaria)
 Small florets grouped into a head: (Example: Sunflower)
 Other conspicuous features: These features help attract insects.
 Pollination in Vallisnaria
 Vallisnaria is dioecious.
 Female flowers have long stalks.
 Male flowers have short stalks and are submerged.
 Male flowers detach and float on water until they reach the female flowers, where pollination occurs.
 Summary of the Text:
 Pollination is the process of transferring pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. This process is crucial for the
formation of seeds and fruits.
 Types of Pollination:
 Self-pollination: Pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or flower on the same
plant.
 Advantages:
 Economical
 Occurs even in closed flowers
 No external agent is needed
 Disadvantages:
 Doesn't eliminate useless or harmful characters
 Doesn't introduce any variations
 Cross-pollination: Pollen grains from the anther of one flower are transferred to the stigma of another flower on a
different plant.
 Advantages:
 Produces healthier offspring
 Produces new variations
 Improves resistance to diseases
 Produces better quality seeds
 Disadvantages:
 Requires an external agent
 Not very economical
 Artificial pollination: This is a method used by humans to control pollination by transferring pollen grains from the anther
of a flower to the stigma of another flower.
 Advantages:
 Produces better quality plants
 Improves yield
 Introduces new varieties
 Increases resistance to diseases
 Key Points:
 Pollen grains are produced in large quantities to ensure successful pollination.
 Floral parts are leathery in some plants.
 Chiropterophily is pollination by bats.
 Malacophily is pollination by snails.
 Cross-pollination is preferred over self-pollination because it leads to healthier offspring and new varieties.
 Seeds produced by cross-pollination are usually larger, healthier, more numerous, and have a higher yield.
 Artificial pollination is a common practice in garden plants.
 Disadvantages of Cross-Pollination
 Unsure Method: Depends on external agents that might not be available at the right time
 Wasteful: Requires large amounts of pollen to ensure cross-pollination
 Economical: Plants need to develop structures (scent, nectar, colored petals) to attract pollinators
 Recombination: Loss of desirable plant characteristics during recombination
 Fertilization
 Definition: Fusion of male and female gametes resulting in a zygote or oospore
 Pollen Grain Structure:
 Exine: Hard outer layer
 Intine: Thin inner layer
 Germ Pores: Openings for pollen tube emergence
 Tube Nucleus and Generative Nucleus: Two nuclei within the pollen grain
 Embryo Sac Structure:
 Egg: Female gamete
 Polar Nuclei: Fuse to form the secondary nucleus
 Synergids: Help guide the pollen tube
 Antipodal Cells: Function unclear
 Events in Fertilization
 Key Points:
 Pollen Tube Growth: Pollen grains absorb nutrients and grow pollen tubes
 Fertilization: Fusion of the male gamete (from the pollen tube) with the egg cell
 Structure of Ovule
 Key Points:
 Small structure: Attached to the placenta by a funicle
 Protective Layers: Integuments
 Micropyle: Opening at one end
 Contains: Embryo sac
 Double Fertilization in Angiosperms
 What is Double Fertilization?
 The fusion of the egg cell and secondary nucleus with the two male gametes from the pollen tube.
 This is a unique feature of angiosperms and helps in the formation of the zygote and endosperm.
 Process of Double Fertilization:
 Pollen tube growth: The pollen tube grows through the style and enters the ovary.
 Release of male gametes: The two male gametes are released from the pollen tube and enter the embryo sac.
 Fusion:
 One male gamete fuses with the egg cell forming a zygote (2n).
 The other male gamete fuses with the secondary nucleus forming the endosperm nucleus (3n). This is known as triple
fusion.
 Development:
 The zygote develops into the embryo.
 The endosperm nucleus develops into endosperm, which provides nourishment to the developing embryo.
 Post-fertilization Changes:
 The egg cell develops into an oospore.
 The ovary develops into the fruit.
 The ovule develops into the seed.
 The integuments develop into the seed coat.
 The endosperm nucleus develops into the endosperm.
 The synergids and antipodal cells degenerate.
 Parthenocarpy:
 Development of fruit without fertilization.
 Results in seedless fruits, e.g., bananas, grape, orange.
 The ovary develops into the fruit without the formation of a zygote.
 Fruits
 Definition: A fruit is the ripened or matured ovary of a flower.
 Types:
 Fleshy: Fruits like peaches, apples, and strawberries.
 Hard: Fruits like nuts and coconuts.
 Biological significance of fruits:
 They protect immature seeds from unfavourable climatic conditions.
 They are brightly colored to attract animals for dispersal.
 Unpalatable substances help to protect fruits from animals.
 Economic importance of fruits:
 They are a source of food for humans and animals.
 They are sources of vitamins, minerals, sugars, and other nutrients.
 Some fruits are used as medicines.
 Seeds
 Definition: A seed is the mature ovule.
 Structure:
 Seed coat: The outer covering of the seed, protecting the embryo.
 Embryo: The potential plant inside the seed, consisting of a root and a shoot.
 Cotyledons: The food storage structures for the developing embryo.
 Biological significance of seeds:
 Development: Seeds help in the development of new plants.
 Dispersal: Seeds help in the dispersal of fixed plants.
 Overcoming unfavorable conditions: Seeds can overcome unfavorable conditions and ensure the survival of
the plant.