Combined Pile-Raft

Foundations

This book presents the fundamental features of the design and performance
of combined pile-­raft foundations (CPRFs). Whereas in a traditional foun-
dation the loads are carried either by the raft or by the piles, the capacity of
CPRFs is assessed for the foundation as a whole, reducing total and differ-
ential settlements economically.
The five chapters provide an overview of the historical development of
piled rafts in practice and research, and of the design concepts developed for
piled rafts over the last decades. Fundamental aspects of their bearing
behaviour are presented, as well as an overview of the framework of the
design process for CPRFs, including the safety concept, the design approach
summarised in the ISSMGE Combined Pile-­ Raft Foundation Guideline
(ISSMGE TC 212 2013) and the interaction between structural and geo-
technical engineering. For numerical analysis based on the finite element
method, guidance is given on creating the model and performing the calcu-
lations before providing basic information on the requirements for the site
investigation, supervision of the construction process and monitoring of the
foundation performance. Detailed case studies illustrate the design and per-
formance of CPRFs, and a design example for the foundation of a multi-­
storey office building founded in non-­cohesive soil is investigated, carrying
out 3D finite element analysis to estimate deformations and design parame-
ters for structural engineering.
Based on the combined experience of the authors obtained in the last
decades working in the industry and research, the book particularly suits
consulting engineers engaged in foundation engineering, as well as graduate
students and researchers interested in the bearing behaviour of piled rafts
and pile groups.
Applied Geotechnics series
William Powrie (ed.)

Particulate Discrete Element Modelling

Catherine O’Sullivan

Groundwater Lowering in Construction

Martin Preene et al.

Practical Rock Mechanics

Steve Hencher

Soil Liquefaction, 2nd ed

Mike Jefferies et al.

Drystone Retaining Walls: Design, Construction and Assessment

Paul McCombie et al.

Fundamentals of Shield Tunnelling

Zixin Zhang et al.

Centrifuge Modelling in Geotechnics

Christoph Gaudin et al.

Weak Rock Engineering Geology and Geotechnics

Kevin Stone et al.

Introduction to Tunnel Construction, 2nd ed

David Chapman et al.

Soil Nailing: A Practical Guide

Raymond Cheung et al.

High Resolution Pressuremeters and Geotechnical Engineering

John Hughes et al.

Practical Engineering Geology, 2nd ed

Steve Hencher

Combined Pile-Raft Foundations: Design and Practice

Oliver Reul and Mark Randolph

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Combined Pile-Raft
Foundations
Design and Practice

Oliver Reul
Mark Randolph
Cover image: Oliver Reul and Mark Randolph
First edition published 2025
by CRC Press
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and by CRC Press
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© 2025 Oliver Reul and Mark Randolph
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and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
ISBN: 978-1-032-15550-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-15551-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-24464-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003244646
Typeset in Sabon
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
Contents

About the authors ix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Combined pile-raft foundation 1
1.2 Definitions 1
1.2.1 Foundation systems 1
1.2.2 Parameters for the quantification of the bearing
behaviour of piled rafts 2
1.3 Early developments: applications and research 6
1.4 Early developments: design concepts 15
1.4.1 General remarks 15
1.4.2 Conventional design 16
1.4.3 Modified conventional design 16
1.4.4 “Creep pile” design 16
1.4.5 Japanese design approach 16
1.4.6 Compensated piled raft foundations 17
1.4.7 Raft-enhanced pile groups vs. pile-enhanced
rafts 17
References 18

2 Bearing behaviour of piled rafts 22

2.1 General remarks 22
2.2 Piled rafts subjected to monotonic vertical loading 22
2.2.1 Numerical study of the bearing behaviour of
vertically loaded piled rafts 22
2.2.2 Pile-pile and pile-raft interaction 31
2.2.3 Stiffness 39
2.2.4 Settlements 41
2.2.5 Efficient reduction of settlements 44
2.2.6 Bending moments 49
v
vi Contents

2.2.7 Ultimate capacity under vertical loading 51

2.2.8 Example design optimisation 57
2.3 Long-term bearing behaviour of piled rafts considering
consolidation and creep 61
2.3.1 Overview 61
2.3.2 Influence of consolidation on the bearing
behaviour of piled rafts 63
2.3.3 Messeturm, Frankfurt – long-term bearing
behaviour of a piled raft in overconsolidated clay 68
2.4 Other loading conditions 81
2.4.1 Piled rafts subjected to monotonic vertical and
lateral loading 81
2.4.2 Piled rafts subjected to periodic
and dynamic loading 84
References 93

3 Design, construction and monitoring of CPRF 101

3.1 Limit state approach and technical regulations for the
design process 101
3.1.1 Overall factor of safety 101
3.1.2 Limit state design 101
3.1.3 Combined pile-raft foundation (CPRF) according
to ISSMGE technical committee TC 212 (2013) 105
3.1.4 Loads 109
3.1.5 Design process – interaction between structural
and geotechnical engineering 109
3.2 Analysis methods 110
3.2.1 General remarks 110
3.2.2 Analysis methods for investigating the SLS 111
3.2.3 Analysis methods for investigating the ULS 125
3.3 Requirements for the site investigation 126
3.4 Construction 128
3.4.1 Construction of CPRF according to the CPRF
guideline (ISSMGE TC 212 2013) 128
3.4.2 Pile types 128
3.4.3 Pile integrity tests 128
3.5 Monitoring 129
3.5.1 Monitoring of CPRF according to the CPRF
guideline (ISSMGE TC 212 2013) 129
3.5.2 Measurement devices 130
3.5.3 Pile load tests 135
 Contents vii

3.6 Suggestions for the design of CPRF under mainly

vertically loading 137
References 138

4 Case histories 141

4.1 General remarks 141
4.2 Early developments in overconsolidated London Clay
and Frankfurt Formation 141
4.2.1 Overconsolidated London Clay 141
4.2.2 Overconsolidated Frankfurt Formation 143
4.3 Foundations designed as CPRFs 147
4.3.1 WestendDuo, Frankfurt am Main 147
4.3.2 Park Tower, Frankfurt am Main 152
4.3.3 Omniturm, Frankfurt am Main 163
4.3.4 Neue Messehalle 3, Frankfurt am Main 171
4.3.5 Haus der Wirtschaft, Offenbach 178
4.3.6 Bahntower, Berlin 185
4.3.7 Treptowers, Berlin 190
4.3.8 Weser Tower, Bremen 195
4.3.9 Hegau-Tower, Singen 199
References 203

5 Design example 208

5.1 General remarks 208
5.2 Building 208
5.3 Subsoil conditions 209
5.4 Foundation configurations 210
5.4.1 General remarks 210
5.4.2 Raft foundation 211
5.4.3 Pile foundation (piled raft – conventional
design) 211
5.4.4 CPRF 214
5.5 3D FEA 215
5.5.1 3D FEA – model 215
5.5.2 3D FEA – results 218
5.5.3 Proof of the external bearing capacity
for the ULS 221
5.5.4 Proof of the external serviceability
for the SLS 221
viii Contents

5.6 Structural analysis of raft and piles 223

5.6.1 Structural analysis of raft and piles – model 223
5.6.2 Comparison of the structural analysis
model and 3D FEA 225
5.6.3 Structural design 226
References 229

Appendix231
Index 251
About the authors

Oliver Reul is Professor at the University of

Kassel, Germany and heads the Department of
Geotechnical Engineering. As a consulting engi-
neer and accredited proof engineer for geotechni-
cal engineering, he has been involved in the design
and construction of numerous combined pile-­raft
foundations.

Mark Randolph is Emeritus Professor and Honorary

Fellow in the Centre for Offshore Foundation
Systems at the University of Western Australia and a
consultant with Fugro Australia Pty Ltd in Perth. He
is widely published, including two previous books:
Piling Engineering and Offshore Geotechnical
Engineering, and over 300 journal articles. He was
appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia in
2021.

ix
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 COMBINED PILE-­RAFT FOUNDATION

In the scope of this book a combined pile-­raft foundation (CPRF) is consid-

ered to be a foundation where the capacity of the foundation is assessed for
the foundation as a whole, i.e. piles and raft are not considered separately
with respect to capacity and no separate factors of safety are applied for
these two components of the foundation. This approach is the underlying
basis of the German “KPP-­Richtlinie” (DGGT 2001), a guideline for the
design, dimensioning and construction of piled rafts (CPRF; in German:
Kombinierte Pfahl-­Plattengründung/KPP) which was developed taking into
account the experiences gained with piled rafts in Frankfurt in the 1980s and
1990s (Section 1.3). The design philosophy of the German “KPP-­Richtlinie”
has been adopted more or less one-­to-­one in the ISSMGE Combined Pile-­
Raft Foundation Guideline (ISSMGE TC 212 2013) which will be discussed
in detail in Chapter 3.

1.2 DEFINITIONS

1.2.1 Foundation systems
In the scope of this book relevant foundation systems are defined as follows:

Raft foundation (R): A foundation consisting only of a reinforced concrete

slab of significant plan area is termed a raft foundation (Figure 1.1a).
Single pile (SP): A single pile (SP) is defined as a pile for which the load-­
bearing behaviour is not influenced by any adjacent structures, such as
a foundation slab or piles.
Freestanding pile group (FPG): In the case of a freestanding pile group
(Figure 1.1b), the entire structural load is transferred by the piles into
the ground. There is no contact between the pile cap and the soil. In
construction practice, this case is relevant, e.g. for offshore founda-
tions, but also for pile groups with a suspended pile cap or soft ground
at the surface.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003244646-1 1
2 Combined Pile-Raft Foundations

a) Raft foundation (R) b) Freestanding pile group (FPG)

c) Piled raft (PR) d) Rigid inclusions with

load transfer layer (RI)
B
tr

Lp

e dp

Figure 1.1 Foundation types.

Piled raft (PR): The raft located on top of the piles is in contact with
the soil (Figure 1.1c). The soil has a reasonable stiffness and strength
which allows for transfer of load to the soil by means of the raft.
However, in the design process this load transfer, except for the self-­
weight of the raft, is not necessarily considered.
Rigid inclusions (RI) with load transfer layer (LTL): Rigid inclusions (RI)
are concrete columns with – compared to bored piles – relatively small
diameters, usually between d = 0.2 m and d = 0.4 m. Between the RI
and the raft a load transfer layer (LTL) is located made of a granular
material possibly reinforced with geosynthetic (Figure 1.1d).

1.2.2 Parameters for the quantification of the

bearing behaviour of piled rafts
1.2.2.1 Pile load and pile resistance
Assuming equilibrium the resistance of the pile is equal to the load acting
on the pile measured for example with a load cell at the pile head (Figure
1.2a). For piles under axial loading without negative shaft friction the axial
pile resistance R equals the axial pile load N at the pile head (Figure 1.2b).
 Introduction 3

a) Instrumented pile b) Distribution of the axial pile load N c) Distribution of the shaft friction qs
along the pile shaft along the pile shaft
load cell at the N [MN] qs [kN/m²]
pile head 2 4 6 8 10 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0 0
Layer 1

2 2
Layer 2
4 4
Layer 3
6 6

strain 8 8
measure-
ment 10 10
devices
Layer 4
12 12

14 14

16 16

load cell Applied load: Pp = 4.5 MN

Layer 5 18 18
at the Applied load: Pp = 8.3 MN
pile base
20 20

dp= 0.9 m
22 22
Lp= 20.2 m
z [m] z [m]

d) Resistance-settlement curves
R [MN] R(s) Rult(s = 0.1dp)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
s
1

4 Pile resistance R (= Pp)

Shaft resistance Rs
5
Base resistance Rb
6

9
s = 0.1dp
10
s [cm]

Figure 1.2 Bearing behaviour of a single pile.

From the distribution of the axial pile load N along the pile shaft, which can
be derived from strain measurements, the distribution of the shaft friction qs
(Figure 1.2c) can be established:
Ni
qs,i  (1.1)
As,i
4 Combined Pile-Raft Foundations

where qs, i = shaft friction in layer i; ∆Ni = change of axial pile load in layer
i; As,i = shaft area in layer i.
For the sake of simplicity in the scope of this book, a load Pp transferred
from the raft, pile cap or directly from the superstructure to the pile head is
referred to as pile resistance R. If no other information is available, the
ultimate capacity of a single pile is assumed to be the resistance of the pile
at a settlement equal to 10% of the pile diameter, i.e. Rult = R(s = 0.1 dp)
(Figure 1.2d).

1.2.2.2 Equivalent pile spring stiffness

The equivalent pile spring stiffness cpile is used to model the bearing behav-
iour of a pile for structural analysis of the building and pile cap (or raft)
based on the subgrade reaction modulus method (Winkler halfspace).

Rs
cpile  (1.2)
s

where R(s) = pile resistance for a pile head settlement of s.

The equivalent pile spring stiffness depends on the load level (Figure 1.2d)
and the position of the pile within a pile group (Chapter 2).

1.2.2.3 Piled raft coefficient

The piled raft coefficient, αpr, describes the ratio of the sum of all mobilised
pile resistances to the total resistance mobilised by the foundation which is
equivalent to the total load on the foundation:

Rpile Rpile
 pr   (1.3)
Rtot Ptot

where ΣRpile = sum of all mobilised pile resistances; Rtot = total mobilised
resistance of the foundation and Ptot = total load on the foundation. In the
scope of this publication all parameters listed above are taken as charac-
teristic values, i.e. there are no partial factors of safety involved. Note also
that the resistances R are those mobilised as a result of the applied load; the
values would eventually be limited by the geotechnical capacity (shaft plus
base) of each pile.
A piled raft coefficient of unity indicates a freestanding pile group whereas
a piled raft coefficient of zero describes a raft foundation (unpiled raft). It
has to be noted that the piled raft coefficient is not a constant value for a
certain foundation configuration but depends on the load level as can be
seen in Figure 1.3 for the example of a piled raft in overconsolidated clay
 Introduction 5

R [MN]
0 500 1000 1500

Rtot = Ptot = 500 MN: pr = 392 MN/500 MN = 0.784

200 Rtot = Ptot = 1000 MN: pr = 668 MN/1000 MN = 0.668

Total resistance of the foundation Rtot

400 Sum of all pile resistances Rpile
Resistance of the raft Rraft
s [mm]

Figure 1.3 E stablishing the piled raft coefficient from the resistance settlement curves of a
piled raft (np = 49; Lp = 30 m; dp = 1 m).

with the nonlinear resistance–settlement curves derived from numerical

analysis. This phenomenon will be discussed in detail in Chapter 2.

1.2.2.4 Coefficients for average, maximum and differential

settlement and for maximum positive bending moment
As will be expanded upon in the further course of this book, in many cases
the serviceability is the decisive design criterion for piled rafts. The perfor-
mance of a raft foundation is usually taken as the reference for evaluating
the performance of piled rafts. Constraints, which ensure the satisfactory
bearing behaviour of the piled raft, can be described in terms of the behav-
iour of the raft foundation as follows:

spr   s  sr (1.4)

spr ,max   s,max  sr ,max (1.5)

spr   s  sr (1.6)

mpr    m   mr  (1.7)

where sr, spr = average settlement of the raft foundation and the piled raft,
respectively; sr, max, spr, max = maximum settlement of the raft foundation
and the piled raft, respectively; Δsr, Δspr = differential settlement of the raft
foundation and the piled raft, respectively; mr+, mpr+ = maximum positive
bending moment of the raft foundation and the piled raft, respectively; and
ξs, ξs, max, ξΔs, ξm+ = coefficients for average, maximum and differential settle-
ment and for maximum positive bending moment, respectively.
So for example, for ξs,max = 0.5 the maximum settlement of the raft foun-
dation has been reduced to 50% by the respective piled raft.
6 Combined Pile-Raft Foundations

A LA,B B A,B = sA,B/LA,B

sA,B

Figure 1.4 Angular distortion.

1.2.2.5 Differential settlements of structures – angular distortions

In the scope of this book the angular distortion α as defined in Figure 1.4 is
applied to evaluate the serviceability of the foundation:
sA,B
 (1.8)
LA,B

where ΔsA, B = differential settlement between points A and B and LA, B =

distance between points A and B.
In their summary of criteria for settlement and differential settlement of
structures, Poulos et al. (2001) suggest limiting α ≤ 1/500 to prevent crack-
ing in walls.

1.3 EARLY DEVELOPMENTS: APPLICATIONS

AND RESEARCH

In the last decades piled rafts were widely used especially for the foundation
of high-­rise buildings. This section aims to give a concise overview on the
historical development from piled rafts to CPRF in practice and research.
A summary of early piled raft projects was given by O’Neill et al. (1996). A
detailed treatise on case histories of piled rafts and especially CPRF is given
in Chapter 4.
Although not equipped with a continuous raft but a grid of beams, proba-
bly to save weight, La Azteca building (Figure 1.5) constructed from 1954 to
1955 in Mexico City appears to be the first documented case history where,
in the design process, piles and footings were both considered to participate
in the load transfer to the subsoil (Zeevaert 1957). Similar foundation beams
were used for the “Latino Americana” building, also located in Mexico City
(Zeevaert 1956). Poulos (2005) referred to the foundation as an example for
a so-­called compensated piled raft (Section 1.4.6). A total of 83 concrete piles
were driven to a depth of 24 m below ground level in a soft clay (Zeevaert
1957). The piles were assumed to carry only the weight of the building minus
the weight of the soil mass excavated. Approximately half a year after the
building was finished the settlements amounted to s ≈ 21 cm (Zeevaert 1957).
Starting in 1965 in Gothenburg, Sweden, the Östra Nordstaden building
complex was constructed in soft plastic clay (Hansbo et al. 1973). For building
 Introduction 7

a) Ground plan of the foundation after Zeevaert (1957) b) Cross section of the excavation after Zeevaert (1957)

3.5 m (basement)

tbeam = 2.5 m 2.5 m (foundation structure)

Lp = 18.0 m
dp = 0.4 m
np = 83

Figure 1.5 La Azteca building, Mexico City.

zones 5 and 6 of this building complex constructed in the early 1970s the
foundation comprised a raft (zone 5: tr = 1.05 m, zone 6: tr = 1.40 m) and
driven timber piles (zone 5: Lp = 18 m, zone 6: Lp = 20 m) with a base diam-
eter of db = 0.125 m and uniform pile spacings of e = 2.4 m (zone 5) and e =
1.9 m (zone 6), respectively. In some areas in zone 5 with pile spacing up to
e = 4.8 m, it was assumed that the building load is mainly carried by means
of contact pressure between raft and clay. For zone 5 with building loads of
up to p = 80 kN/m2 in high loaded areas, maximum settlements of approxi-
mately s = 5.5 cm were measured (Hansbo et al. 1973). Based on the positive
experiences gained in this project the “creep pile” design concept for piled
rafts was proposed (Section 1.4.4).
One of the earliest documented case histories of a piled raft (Section
1.4.3) was the high-­rise Hyde Park Cavalry Barracks in London built from
1967 to 1970 (Figure 1.6). The 90-m-­high tower was founded on an approx-
imately 25 m × 25 m large raft (tr = 1.52 m) and 51 piles (dp = 0.91 m, Lp =
24.8 m) in the London Clay (Hooper 1973). The bored piles were enlarged
to 2.4 m in diameter at the pile base. Geotechnical measurements, conducted
by means of load cells on the pile heads of 3 piles and 3 contact pressure
transducers under the raft, showed an increase in pile loads with a simulta-
neous decrease in contact normal stresses after the end of construction. The
resistances (pile head loads) were relatively uniformly distributed within the
pile group regardless of the positions of the piles. The high-­rise building
settled by a maximum of s = 2.2 cm up to about three years after completion
of the construction. According to Hooper (1973) the piles carried about
60% of the total building load at the end of construction.
While in London design concepts for piled rafts were developed from
nominally freestanding pile foundations, i.e. the piles were considered to
transfer 100% of the building load to the subsoil, the development in
Frankfurt, Germany, was different. In Frankfurt high-­rise buildings have
been founded on raft foundations in the Frankfurt Formation comprising
8 Combined Pile-Raft Foundations

a) Hyde Park Cavalry Barracks b) Ground plan of the building after Hooper (1973)
26.7 m

Pile with load cell at pile head

Knightsbridge
Contact pressure cell

A A
35.9 m

South Carriage Drive

c) Cross section A-A after Hooper (1973) South
Carriage
Knightsbridge Drive
0.0 m
-2.0 m Fill/
Sand & gravel

London Clay
Ceri Breeze/Shutterstock.com 1.52 m -9.8 m

23.5 m

0.91 m
1.3 m -34.7 m

2.40 m

Figure 1.6 Hyde Park Cavalry Barracks, London.

mainly stiff overconsolidated clay since the 1950s. In the older literature
(e.g. Sommer 1977, Sommer et al. 1985, 1991, Sommer and Hoffmann
1991, Katzenbach et al. 1994) the Frankfurt Formation was generally
termed “Frankfurt Clay”. However, in the remainder of this book the term
“Frankfurt clay” will be used in a more rational way only for the clayey soils
of this layer. A detailed description of the subsoil conditions in Frankfurt is
given in Section 4.2.2. With raft thicknesses ranging between tr = 2 m and tr
= 4 m for the high-­rise buildings with maximum heights up to 166 m, settle-
ments s > 30 cm were measured. The maximum settlement was recorded for
the 159-m-­high Marriott-­Hotel constructed from 1972 to 1976 with smax =
 Introduction 9

33 cm (Katzenbach et al. 1999). As a rule of thumb for the subsoil condi-

tions and typical foundation configurations in Frankfurt, the differential
settlements can be estimated to be up to 30% of the average settlements.
For high-­rise buildings constructed of reinforced concrete, tilting can be
compensated by continuously building along the plumb line which in the
most extreme cases, e.g. the historic leaning tower in Pisa (Jamiolkowski
and Viggiani 2007), will yield a curved, almost banana-­shaped, superstruc-
ture. To ensure the serviceability of the raft foundations of the first-­generation
of Frankfurt high-­rise buildings subjected to these large settlements, exten-
sive, in some cases maybe even excessive, measures were taken over the
decades, e.g. jacking systems or settlement joints between high-­rise and
adjacent low buildings.
For the 166-m-­high Dresdner Bank (Figure 1.7a), a high-­rise building
constructed from 1974 to 1978, there was concern that the building load
acting eccentrically on the raft (tr = 4.0 m) would lead to significant

a) Dresdner Bank b) Ground plan of the raft after Sommer (1978)

72 m
30 m

area of the undercutting

equipped with flat jacks

theoretical point of

41m
application of the
building load
49m

perimeter of the
high-rise 5m

63 m

c) Cross section through the foundation for the flat jacks

after Sommer (1978)

Firn/Shutterstock.com
d) Installation of the plastic bags used as flat jacks raft
building pit sheeting

tr = 4.0 m

flat jack
flat ja (h = 0.4 m)
ck
5.0 m
Lp = 7.0 m

secant bored
pile wall

dp = 0.9 m

Figure 1.7 Dresdner Bank, Frankfurt (Germany).

10 Combined Pile-Raft Foundations

differential settlements and tilting (Sommer 1977). Therefore parts of the

raft edges were undercut to move the estimated location of the reaction
force of the subsoil beneath the theoretical point of application of the build-
ing load (Figure 1.7b). In order to cope with varying eccentricities occurring
during the construction process, a total of 22 flat jacks were installed in
individual compartments under the undercut as a means of correction. The
compartments made of reinforced concrete were founded on a secant bored
pile wall (Figure 1.7c). The 3 m × 5 m large flat jacks consisted mainly of
large plastic bags (Figure 1.7d) which could be filled with water and emptied
as required controlling the pressure of the flat jacks during the construction
of the high-­rise building in such a way that the new building experienced
only slight tilting (Sommer 1977). The maximum measured settlement
amounted to smax = 20 cm (Ripper and El-­Mossallamy (1999).
Finally, the Torhaus Messe (Figure 1.8a) constructed between 1983 and
1986 was the first building in Germany with a foundation designed as a
piled raft, considering both bored piles and raft to participate in the load
transfer to the subsoil (Sommer et al. 1985). A total number of 84 bored
piles with a length of Lp = 20 m and a diameter of dp = 0.9 m were located
under two 17.5 m × 24.5 m large rafts (Figure 1.8b). The distance between
the two rafts was 10 m. Since the building had no underground storeys, the
bottom of the 2.5-m-­thick raft lied just 3 m below ground level (Figure
1.8a). The subsoil comprises quaternary sand and gravel up to 2.5 m below
the bottom of the rafts followed by the Frankfurt Formation. The Frankfurt
Limestone is outside the influence of the foundation. The groundwater level
lies below the rafts.
Similar to the creep pile concept (Section 1.4.4) in the design process of
the foundation it was assumed that the piles would fail, i.e. would reach
their ultimate capacity, under working load with 25% of the load carried by
the raft (Sommer et al. 1985). The geotechnical measurements comprised
results from 6 instrumented piles, 11 contact pressure cells and 3 multi-­
point borehole extensometers. The position of the measurement devices is
shown in (Figure 1.8b). From the last documented settlement measurement
in 1988 (Sommer 1991), an average centre settlement for the two rafts of
12.4 cm was estimated. Figure 1.8c shows that the pile resistances increased
from a centre pile (Pile 1), to the edge piles (Pile 2, Pile 4, Pile 6) and finally
to the corner piles (Pile 3, Pile 5), which is typical for a piled raft under
working load conditions. The variation of the resistances with the pile posi-
tion was due to the varying mobilisation of shaft friction. Because of the
block deformation of the pile group which can be concluded from the exten-
someter measurements (Reul and Randolph 2003), there were only small
differential displacements between the piles at the centre of the raft and the
surrounding soil. Hence, the pile shaft resistances mobilised by the centre
piles was substantially smaller than the values mobilised by the edge or cor-
ner piles, even though the pile base resistances mobilised were similar. From
the last documented pile measurement in February 1986 (Sommer 1991),
 Introduction 11

a) Profile view b) Ground plan of the raft

130 m
Instrumented piles I II
Contact pressure cells
2 3
Multi-point borehole
100 m extensometers

1 4

6 5

I II

Symmetry axis

17.5 m
-3 m
Quaternary

Frankfurt Formation
-23 m

24.5 m

c) Measured pile resistances in February 1986 after Sommer (1991)

R [MN] Cross section I R [MN] Cross section II
7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
Pile 6 Pile 1 Pile 2 Pile 5 Pile 4 Pile 3

Figure 1.8 Torhaus, Frankfurt (Germany).

a piled raft coefficient of αpr = 0.67 was derived. Reul and Randolph (2003)
presented the results of a detailed numerical back-­analysis of the measure-
ments on the Torhaus with a three-­dimensional finite element model where
the nonlinear material behaviour of the soil was simulated with an elasto-
plastic cap-­model.
Further high-­rise buildings were constructed in the late 1980s to the mid-­
1990s following some sort of modified conventional design approach
(Section 1.4.3) e.g. the Messeturm (Section 2.3.3) and the Westend 1 (Section
3.2.2) and eventually leading to the development of the design approach of
12 Combined Pile-Raft Foundations

the Combined Pile-­Raft Foundation (CPRF) documented in the German

“KPP-­Richtlinie” (DGGT 2001); this has been adopted by the ISSMGE TC
212 (Section 3.1.3).
While the first piled rafts were mainly used to transfer predominantly
vertical, monotonic loads to the subsoil, since the early 2000s, especially in
Japan, piled rafts were also designed in increasing number to withstand
dynamic lateral loading caused by earthquakes (e.g. Yamashita and Yamada
2009, Yamashita et al. 2011, Section 2.4.2, Appendix B.2). To achieve this
task, piled rafts were frequently combined with soil improvement techniques
(e.g. Yamashita and Yamada 2009).
The bearing behaviour of piled rafts is strongly influenced by various interac-
tions shown in Figure 1.9, namely between pile and soil, pile and pile, raft and
soil and especially raft and pile, which are discussed in detail in Chapter 2.
Valuable insight in the bearing behaviour of piled rafts was gained from case
histories where foundations instrumented with geotechnical measurement
devices were carefully monitored. In addition to the abovementioned Hyde
Park Cavalry Barracks and Torhaus, the high-­rise Stonebridge Park in London
(Cooke et al. 1981, Section 4.2.1, Appendix B.2) and the Messeturm in Frankfurt
(e.g. Sommer and Hoffmann 1991, Sommer et al. 1991, Section 2.3.3) should

tr

Rpile,k,1 (x,y) Rpile,k,j

Lp

dp

Interaction between
piled raft and soil

4 z
3
1
Interactions:
1 Pile-soil-interaction
qs,1(z) 2 qs,j(z)
2 Pile-pile-interaction
3 Raft-soil-interaction
1 qb,1 qb,j 4 Pile-raft-interaction

e e

Figure 1.9 Interactions influencing the bearing behaviour of piled rafts. (Adapted from
ISSMGE TC 212 2013)
 Introduction 13

be emphasised, for which extensive measurement results are available that were,
and still are, the basis of many further investigations.
Besides in situ measurements on prototypes, model tests and numerical
analysis provided the basis for research on the bearing behaviour of piled
rafts.
Model tests allow the study of the bearing behaviour of piled rafts under
controlled and reproducible boundary conditions for more or less homoge-
neous subsoil conditions. However, due to possible scale effects and the dif-
ficulty of simulating the pile and raft installation realistically, model tests
can only be used to a limited extent to interpret the load-­bearing behaviour
of prototypes. For example, model piles in cohesive soils are usually jacked
into the ground, whereas for piled rafts frequently bored piles are installed.
Nevertheless, model tests allow at least a qualitative investigation of signifi-
cant effects of soil-­structure interaction. Small-­scale model tests are tests
with pile lengths in the decimetre range and pile diameters in the millimetre
to centimetre range. Large-­scale model tests are defined as tests with pile
lengths in the meter range and pile diameters in the centimetre to decimetre
range.
Pioneering research on piled rafts in cohesive soils was carried out by
Whitaker (1957, 1961) by means of small-­scale model tests in homogenised,
remoulded London clay. Based on these model tests, Cooke (1986) demon-
strated the influence of pile spacing on the settlement reduction achievable
with piled rafts. The tests also indicated that significantly higher ultimate
capacities are achieved with a piled raft compared to a freestanding pile
group with the same number of piles.
Small-­scale model tests in homogenised, remoulded London clay were also
reported by Butterfield and Ghosh (1980). The piled rafts investigated showed
a linear load-­settlement behaviour in the working load range of the founda-
tion, with the piled raft coefficient lying in a range of αpr = 0.6 to αpr = 0.7.
Kishida and Meyerhof (1965) showed with small-­scale model tests in
sand that the bearing capacities of piled rafts and freestanding pile groups
are not significantly affected by small load eccentricities, while large load
eccentricities cause a significant reduction in the ultimate bearing capacity.
Vesic (1969) investigated the bearing behaviour of piled rafts and free-
standing pile groups in sand with large-­scale model tests. Whereas no change
in the pile base resistance at ultimate limit state could be identified, due to
group effects the shaft resistance of a pile within the pile group increased
significantly compared to the shaft resistance of a single pile.
Ranjan and Nagrajan (1972) showed, from small-­scale model tests in
sand, that piled rafts exhibit a stiffer bearing behaviour compared to free-
standing pile groups. Garg (1979) came to the same conclusion on the basis
of large-­scale model tests.
Centrifuge tests, in which a stress state similar to the prototype is gener-
ated in a gravitational field caused by centripetal acceleration thus eliminat-
ing scaling errors due to stress level, represent a special type of model tests
14 Combined Pile-Raft Foundations

(e.g. Taylor 1995). Some of the earliest research on the bearing behaviour of
piled rafts applying centrifuge modelling appears to be the work by Thaher
(1991), who presented tests on piled rafts and raft foundations in overcon-
solidated Kaolin. In addition to a parametric study to determine the influ-
ence of the number of piles, the pile length and the pile diameter on the
bearing behaviour of a piled raft, Thaher (1991) also modelled the founda-
tion of the Messeturm in Frankfurt, Germany.
Horikoshi and Randolph (1996) used centrifuge model tests in overcon-
solidated Kaolin clay to investigate the effect of the number of centrally
located piles on the differential settlements of a vertically loaded piled raft.
During the tests a number of unloading and reloading cycles were carried
out. Their objective was to demonstrate that differential settlements could
be minimised by centrally located pile groups even with a very flexible raft.
In order to capture the interactions shown in Figure 1.9, numerical meth-
ods must be able to model the three-­dimensional aspects of the bearing
behaviour of piled rafts. For this reason in the 1970s and 1980s the bound-
ary element method (BEM) based on the Mindlin solution (Mindlin 1936)
as described by Banerjee and Butterfield (1981), Poulos and Davis (1980),
and Poulos (1989) was applied to investigate the bearing behaviour of pile
groups and piled rafts. Using this approach Hain and Lee (1978) carried out
a back-­analysis of the abovementioned La Azteca and the Hyde Park Cavalry
Barracks. However, to reduce the computational resources required for the
BEM, the approach frequently was simplified, modelling certain aspects of
the bearing behaviour by means of load transfer functions (e.g. O’Neill et al.
1977, Chow 1986, Griffiths et al. 1991, Clancy and Randolph 1993). The
analysis method of Clancy and Randolph (1993) was used to investigate the
performance of the piled raft foundation for the QV1 building in Perth,
Western Australia, where the foundations comprised five independent pile-­
supported rafts (Randolph and Clancy 1994). They demonstrated that the
pile support could be optimised, using fewer piles than the actual design,
without compromising serviceability limit state (SLS) constraints on total
and differential settlements. Ta and Small (1996) presented an approach for
the analysis of piled rafts where the raft is assumed to be a thin elastic plate
modelled with the finite element method and the finite layer method is used
to model the pile-­soil response. With this approach Ta and Small (1996)
were able to investigate main aspects of the bearing behaviour of piled rafts
such as deformations and bending moments of the raft or the load share
between piles and raft.
The finite element method has been used since the beginning of the 1970s
to investigate the bearing behaviour of piles. Initially, due to the high com-
putational resources required, mainly single piles or piled rafts simplified as
axis-­ symmetric systems were considered, taking into account simplified
­linear and nonlinear approaches for the material behaviour of the soil. For
example, Hooper (1973) back-­analyses the measurements on the Hyde Park
 Introduction 15

Cavalry Barracks by means of axis-­symmetric finite element analysis (FEA)

applying a linear elastic model for the London Clay. Facilitated by advances
in hardware and software, the focus since the 1990s has increasingly been
on three-­dimensional (3D) investigations of pile groups and piled rafts, also
taking into account more realistic constitutive laws for the soil. The first
application of three-­ dimensional finite element analysis on the bearing
behaviour of piled rafts appears to date back to Ottaviani (1975). In this
pioneering work parametric studies on piled rafts comprising 3 × 3 and 3 × 5
piles (dp = 1 m, Lp = 20 m and Lp = 40 m, respectively) with a pile spacing of
e = 3 m and a 3-m-­thick raft are documented. From the analyses, which
assumed linear elastic material behaviour for the soil, it was confirmed, for
example, that the distribution of pile resistances within the group varies
significantly.
Probably one of the earliest applications of 3D FEA in the design process
of piled rafts is documented for the Commerzbank Tower in Frankfurt
(Katzenbach et al. 1994). The foundation of the Commerzbank Tower is a
piled raft designed as a pile foundation with the 111 piles (dp = 1.8 m/1.5 m,
Lp = 37.6 m to Lp = 45.6 m) transferring the load of the superstructure
mainly to a limestone layer at a depth of approximately 33 m below the base
of the raft. For a total design load of Pdesign ≈ 2100 MN Katzenbach et al.
(1994) predicted a piled raft coefficient of αpr = 0.95 and maximum settle-
ments of s = 5.3 cm based on the 3D FEA with an elasto-plastic soil model.

1.4 EARLY DEVELOPMENTS: DESIGN CONCEPTS

1.4.1 General remarks
A piled raft is a geotechnical composite construction consisting of the three
elements: piles, raft and soil (Figure 1.9). The efficient design of piled rafts
differs from traditional foundation design, where the loads are assumed to
be carried either by the raft or by the piles, considering the safety factors in
each case. A rational design of piled rafts will take the load share between
the piles and the raft into account and the pile resistance may be mobilised
up to a load level that can be of the same order of magnitude as the bearing
capacity of a comparable single pile or even greater. Therefore, a properly
designed piled raft foundation allows reduction of settlements and differen-
tial settlements in a very economical way compared to traditional founda-
tion concepts since the piles are not required to ensure overall stability of
the foundation but rather to act as settlement reducers (Burland et al. 1977).
The following section provides an overview on the early design concepts
developed for piled rafts over the last decades. The design philosophy of
the ISSMGE Combined Pile-­Raft Foundation Guideline (ISSMGE TC 212
2013) will be discussed in detail in Section 3.1.3.
16 Combined Pile-Raft Foundations

1.4.2 Conventional design
Traditionally, pile groups that include a pile cap or raft bearing directly
on the ground are designed as a pile foundation, ignoring the contribution
of the raft to the load transfer. The total structural load is assumed to be
transferred from the piles to the soil while maintaining appropriate safety
factors with the pile cap usually considered to carry its own weight only. An
example of this design principle is the high-­rise building at Stonebridge Park
in London (Cooke et al. 1981), where safety factors of 2.0 and 3.0 were
applied for the pile shaft resistance and the pile base resistance, respectively.

1.4.3 Modified conventional design

The load transfer of the raft is taken into account by assigning a share of
the total load to the raft. This load component must be transferred in com-
pliance with safety factors. The part of the load assigned to the piles is also
transferred in observance of safety factors. The aforementioned Torhaus
falls in this design category. Randolph (1994) and Randolph and Clancy
(1994) report on the QV1 building in Perth, Australia, where the raft was
assigned a 25% share of the total load in the design.

1.4.4 “Creep pile” design

In the so-­called “creep pile” approach proposed by Hansbo and Källström
(1983) for relatively soft cohesive soils, the raft has sufficient stability on
its own. After estimating the share of the load that can be transferred from
the raft while maintaining permissible settlements, the remaining load is
transferred by piles that are assumed to be at the ultimate limit state; i.e.
the safety factor of the piles is 1.0. The term “creep pile” originates from the
fact that the long-­term shear strength (“creep strength”) of the soil is used
to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the piles. Jendeby (1986) and
Hansbo (1993, 1994) report on foundations in Gothenburg, Enköping, and
Uppsala, Sweden, that were designed according to the “creep pile” principle.

1.4.5 Japanese design approach

Yamashita et al. (2011) report on a design approach applied for various
buildings in Japan where under static loading for the ultimate bearing capac-
ity a factor of safety of η > 3.0 is required. Ignoring the effect of the piles
the ultimate capacity might be established for the raft alone. Additionally,
according to a guideline by the Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ 2001),
written in Japanese but now with an informal translation in English
(Matsumoto, 2024), it has to be proved that the maximum settlement and
the differential settlement or the maximum angular rotation, respectively,
are less than project-­specific allowable values.
 Introduction 17

According to Yamashita et al. (2011) under seismic loading conditions for

the ultimate bearing capacity of the piled raft a factor of safety of η > 1.5 is
required for combined vertical and lateral loading. Moreover, a factor of
safety of η > 1.5 is required for the ultimate bearing capacity of each of the
piles compared to the maximum axial pile load which differs from other
concepts presented in this chapter where the individual piles might be loaded
up to the failure load of a single pile; the maximum bending moment and
the shear force in the pile cross sections due to lateral loading should be less
than the design value of the structural strength of the piles.

1.4.6 Compensated piled raft foundations

Based on the pioneering work of Zeevaert (1957) on La Azteca building
in Mexico City, Poulos (2005) defined the concept of the so-­called com-
pensated piled raft foundation where the raft is located at the base of a
deep excavation. According to Sales et al. (2010), the advantage compared
to piled rafts located close to the ground surface is that although the raft
takes a higher proportion of the load, i.e. the piled raft coefficient is smaller,
the overall and differential settlements are lower because the net pressure
applied by the building is reduced. However, since the decision whether
there is a basement with its respective building costs or not appears to be
based rather on demands of the building use, e.g. space required for car
parking, storage, building services, etc., than on structural or geotechnical
aspects, it is doubtful if the term “design concept” is justified for compen-
sated piled raft foundation.

1.4.7 Raft-­enhanced pile groups vs. pile-­enhanced rafts

O’Brien et al. (2012) distinguish between raft-­enhanced pile groups and
pile-­enhanced rafts. For raft-­enhanced pile groups, O’Brien et al. (2012)
assume that both piles and raft will work within a pseudo-­elastic range of
behaviour, i.e. the pile group capacity will not be fully mobilised at work-
ing load level. The proportioning of load between pile group and raft is
governed by their relative stiffnesses, so for the raft to resist a significant
proportion of the load from the superstructure, the design must balance the
number and length of piles (hence the pile group stiffness) relative to the
raft stiffness. On the other hand, for pile-­enhanced rafts, the piles will be
designed to mobilise close to their ultimate capacity, with the piles usually
being located beneath heavily loaded superstructure columns (O’Brien et
al. 2012). According to O’Brien et al. (2012), the pile resistance must be
maintained at relatively large overall settlements between s = 5 cm and s =
10 cm, suggesting the need for a ductile load-­settlement behaviour. In prac-
tice, however, since the raft will force settlement of the underlying soil, it is
unlikely that slip between pile shafts and soil will occur over the full length
of the piles. Fundamentally, raft-­enhanced pile groups and pile-­enhanced
18 Combined Pile-Raft Foundations

rafts are opposite ends of a continuum, with the piles carrying the major
share of the design load for the former and the raft carrying the major share
of the design load for the latter.

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 Introduction 21

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Introduction
Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) (2001). Piled raft foundation, Recommendations for Design
of Building Foundations, 339–348 (in Japanese).
Banerjee, P. K. , Butterfield, R. (1981). Boundary Element Methods in Engineering Science.
McGraw-Hill.
Butterfield, R. , Ghosh, N. (1980). A linear elastic interpretation of model tests on single piles
and groups of piles in clay. Numerical methods in offshore piling, ICE, London, 109–118.
Burland, J.B. , Broms, B.B. , De Mello, V.F.B. (1977). Behaviour of foundations and structures.
Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Tokyo, 2, 495–546. Rotterdam: Balkema.
Chow, Y.K. (1986). Analysis of vertically-loaded pile groups. International Journal for Numerical
and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 10, 1, 59–72.
Clancy, P. , Randolph, M. F. (1993). An approximate analysis procedure for piled raft
foundations. IJNAMG, 17, 849–869.
Cooke, R. W. (1986). Piled raft foundations on stiff clays - A contribution to design philosophy.
Géotechnique, 36, 2, 169–203.
Cooke, R. W. , Bryden-Smith, D. W. , Gooch, M. N. , Sillett, D. F. (1981). Some observations of
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