Gait Analysis:
Gait analysis refers to the study of human motion, specifically the way we walk or run. It is an
essential tool used in biomechanics, medicine, sports science, and rehabilitation to assess and
understand the movement patterns of individuals. The goal is to identify any abnormalities,
weaknesses, or imbalances that may affect a person’s walking or running efficiency and overall
health.
Types of Gait Analysis:
1. Visual Gait Analysis:
o The simplest form, often done in clinical settings. A healthcare provider or
clinician observes the patient's walking pattern to identify visible abnormalities
such as limping, imbalance, or asymmetry.
2. Instrumented Gait Analysis:
o This more advanced method uses specialized equipment like force plates, motion
capture systems, or pressure sensors to measure various aspects of gait.
▪ Kinematics: Measures the motion of joints and limbs, including joint
angles and movement trajectories.
▪ Kinetics: Measures forces involved in walking, such as ground reaction
forces (GRFs) and joint torques.
▪ Electromyography (EMG): Records the electrical activity of muscles
during movement, which helps understand muscle activation patterns.
3. 3D Motion Capture:
o Utilizes high-speed cameras and markers placed on the body to capture and
analyze complex body movements in three dimensions. It provides detailed
kinematic data and helps assess the overall gait pattern in real time.
Key Parameters Analyzed:
1. Stride Length: The distance between successive heel strikes of the same foot.
2. Step Length: The distance between the heel strike of one foot and the next heel strike of
the opposite foot.
3. Cadence: The number of steps taken per minute.
4. Velocity: The speed at which a person walks or runs.
5. Step Width: The lateral distance between the feet during walking.
6. Gait Cycle: The pattern of limb movement from one heel strike to the next, including
phases like stance and swing phases.
7. Joint Angles: Movement and alignment of joints, particularly the ankle, knee, and hip.
8. Ground Reaction Force: The force exerted by the ground in response to the body’s weight.
Gait analysis using wearable sensors has emerged as a cost-effective, convenient, and
efficient method for collecting valuable data across various health-related domains. This
technique is particularly promising in the rehabilitation and diagnosis of medical conditions as
well as in sports activities. The paper reviews existing wearable sensor technologies and the
methods used for ambulatory gait analysis, focusing on different sensor types and how they
contribute to gait assessment. The paper introduces gait phases and then discusses the principles
and features of wearable sensors used in this analysis. It categorizes gait analysis methods into
gait kinematics, gait kinetics, and electromyography (EMG), highlighting the different data
captured by each approach. The paper reviews studies on these methods and discusses their
applications in sports, rehabilitation, and clinical diagnosis. With ongoing advancements in
sensor technology and analytical methods, wearable sensor-based gait analysis is expected to
play an increasingly significant role in clinical practice.
the working principles of these sensors and provides an overview of research methods and
findings in gait analysis using wearable sensors. It also discusses the growing number of
wearable sensor technologies and their expanding clinical applications.
Key Sections:
1. Gait Phases and Sensor Principles: Introduces the phases of human gait and the
functioning of wearable sensors for analysis.
2. Research Methods and Results: Reviews studies on wearable sensor-based gait
analysis.
3. Applications: Discusses the diverse uses of wearable sensors in clinical and sports
settings.
4. Outlook and Conclusion: Provides an outlook on the future potential and applications
of wearable sensors in gait analysis.
Basis of Human Gait Analysis
2.1 Introduction to the Gait Phases
Human walking is a cyclic motion involving repetitive body movements. To simplify and
understand this process, it is broken down into distinct gait phases. Traditional methods of
defining gait phases were based on specific actions, such as the "heel strike" during the stance
phase. However, this approach can be misleading, especially for patients with paralysis or
arthritis, where normal phases might deviate.
To resolve this, the Rancho Los Amigos gait analysis committee developed a more generic
terminology to define the functional phases of gait. This approach directly relates the phases to
the function of individual joints and segments during walking. The standard gait cycle is divided
into eight phases:
1. Initial Contact: The foot first makes contact with the ground.
2. Loading Response: The initial double-stance period where the knee flexes for shock
absorption.
3. Midstance: The body moves over the stationary foot, with ankle dorsiflexion and
knee/hip extension.
4. Terminal Stance: The heel rises, and body weight moves ahead of the forefoot.
5. Pre-swing: The second double-stance phase, ending when the opposite foot makes
contact and the limb prepares for swing.
6. Initial Swing: The foot lifts off the ground, and the limb moves forward by hip flexion
and knee flexion.
7. Mid-swing: The swinging leg passes the stance leg, and knee extension occurs.
8. Terminal Swing: The final phase of swing where the tibia becomes vertical and the foot
prepares for the next strike.
These phases enable the limb to perform three fundamental tasks:
• Weight Acceptance: Occurs during initial contact and loading response.
• Single-Limb Support: Occurs during midstance and terminal stance.
• Limb Advancement: Begins at pre-swing and continues through the swing phases.
These tasks help in detecting and analyzing different gait phases when the movements of the
leg segments are accurately measured.
2.2 Wearable Sensors for Gait Analysis
Various sensors are employed in gait analysis to capture motion, including accelerometers,
gyroscopes, magnetoresistive sensors, and others. These sensors are designed to measure
different aspects of human gait and can be used either individually or combined in multi-sensor
systems for more comprehensive analysis.
1. Accelerometers, Gyroscopes, and Magnetoresistive Sensors:
o Accelerometer: A device that measures acceleration along its sensitive axis. It
operates on the principle of a mechanical sensing element where a proof mass
moves in response to acceleration, allowing the calculation of acceleration based
on displacement changes. Three types of accelerometers—piezoelectric,
piezoresistive, and capacitive—are commonly used in gait analysis due to their
stability and ability to measure human movement. These sensors are often
attached to the feet or legs to track the acceleration/velocity during walking.
o Gyroscope: A sensor that measures angular velocity, which is key to analyzing
the rotation of body segments during gait. Gyroscopes are commonly used in
combination with accelerometers to provide a complete picture of the movement.
By measuring the angular velocity and the angle of the body segments, they help
identify different phases of gait.
o Magnetoresistive Sensors: These sensors work based on the magnetoresistive
effect, where the current flowing through a material is altered when exposed to a
magnetic field. They are used to measure changes in the magnetic flux, which is
critical for detecting the orientation and movement of body parts during walking.
2.2.2. Flexible Goniometer
A flexible goniometer is used to measure angular changes between two body segments, differing
from inertial sensors that measure acceleration. These goniometers are available in various types
such as strain gauges, mechanical, inductive, and optical fiber goniometers, each with its unique
method of measuring angular displacement.
• Strain Gauge-based Electrogoniometers: These have been in use since the 1980s for
measuring joint angles during gait analysis. They offer reliable angular measurements
and are commercially available for monitoring human posture and spinal motion.
• Mechanical Goniometer: This type works by measuring the longitudinal displacement
of two parallel wires bent in the plane of rotation. It is commonly used to monitor knee
joint movements during walking.
• Inductive and Optical Fiber Goniometers: These use inductive sensors or optical fibers
to measure joint motion, offering more precise and less intrusive options for capturing
angular changes during gait.
2.2.3. Electromagnetic Tracking System (ETS)
An electromagnetic tracking system (ETS) measures the 3D position and orientation of objects
using the principle of magnetic induction. When sensor coils move within a controlled magnetic
field, the induced voltage changes according to the object’s position. ETS is particularly useful
in gait analysis and the kinematic study of body segments, providing real-time tracking of body
movement in 3D space.
2.2.4. Sensing Fabric
Sensing fabric integrates electronic components directly into fabrics, making it a comfortable
and flexible choice for wearable gait analysis. These fabrics use materials like piezoresistive,
piezoelectric, or piezocapacitive polymers that change resistance when deformed, allowing the
fabric to measure movements and body posture. This type of sensor is especially useful for gait
analysis as it offers more comfort and flexibility compared to traditional rigid sensors, and
materials like Lycra are often used due to their stretchability and piezoresistive properties.
2.2.5. Force Sensors
Force sensors embedded in footwear are used to measure ground reaction forces (GRF) during
gait. GRF data are essential for understanding how the body interacts with the ground during
walking. Force sensors can be based on piezoelectric, strain gauge, or capacitive transducers,
and have been developed to detect shear and compressive forces during human movement. Some
force sensors, like photoelastic triaxial force transducers, can detect multi-directional forces in
footwear, offering detailed insights into the walking process.
2.2.6. Electromyography (EMG)
Electromyography (EMG) measures muscle activity by detecting the electrical signals
generated during muscle contractions. Surface electrodes are typically used for general muscle
activity monitoring, while wire electrodes, inserted directly into muscles, offer more precise
measurements for specific muscles. EMG plays a significant role in gait analysis by assessing
muscle performance during walking, helping diagnose issues in the lower extremities.
2.2.7. Commercialization of Wearable Sensors
The growing use of wearable sensors in gait analysis has led to the commercialization of various
sensor systems:
• Xsens Motion Technologies offers sensor systems that combine miniature inertial
sensors and force sensors to estimate joint moments and powers during gait.
• M3D sensor system by TEC GIHAN Co. is a compact system that integrates 3D motion
sensors and GRF sensors, aiding in clinical gait analysis.
• Polhemus Liberty ETS system is another commercialized electromagnetic tracking
system used for 3D gait kinematics.
• Delsys and Biometrics have developed commercial EMG sensors, such as the Surface
EMG Sensors and the SX230 EMG Sensor, respectively, for gait analysis.
