Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 113

For example, consider H2CO3 (which you might be tempted to call “hydrogen carbonate”). To name this correctly,
“hydrogen” is omitted; the –ate of carbonate is replace with –ic; and acid is added—so its name is carbonic acid.
Other examples are given in Table 2.13. There are some exceptions to the general naming method (e.g., H2SO4 is
called sulfuric acid, not sulfic acid, and H2SO3 is sulfurous, not sulfous, acid).

Names of Common Oxyacids

Formula Anion Name Acid Name

HC2H3O2 acetate acetic acid

HNO3 nitrate nitric acid

HNO2 nitrite nitrous acid

HClO4 perchlorate perchloric acid

H2CO3 carbonate carbonic acid

H2SO4 sulfate sulfuric acid

H2SO3 sulfite sulfurous acid

H3PO4 phosphate phosphoric acid

Table 2.13
114 Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Key Terms
actinide inner transition metal in the bottom of the bottom two rows of the periodic table

alkali metal element in group 1

alkaline earth metal element in group 2

alpha particle (α particle) positively charged particle consisting of two protons and two neutrons

anion negatively charged atom or molecule (contains more electrons than protons)

atomic mass average mass of atoms of an element, expressed in amu

atomic mass unit (amu) (also, unified atomic mass unit, u, or Dalton, Da) unit of mass equal to 1 of the mass of
12
a 12C atom

atomic number (Z) number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

binary acid compound that contains hydrogen and one other element, bonded in a way that imparts acidic
properties to the compound (ability to release H+ ions when dissolved in water)

binary compound compound containing two different elements.

cation positively charged atom or molecule (contains fewer electrons than protons)

chalcogen element in group 16

chemical symbol one-, two-, or three-letter abbreviation used to represent an element or its atoms

covalent bond attractive force between the nuclei of a molecule’s atoms and pairs of electrons between the atoms

covalent compound (also, molecular compound) composed of molecules formed by atoms of two or more different
elements

Dalton (Da) alternative unit equivalent to the atomic mass unit

Dalton’s atomic theory set of postulates that established the fundamental properties of atoms

electron negatively charged, subatomic particle of relatively low mass located outside the nucleus

empirical formula formula showing the composition of a compound given as the simplest whole-number ratio of
atoms

fundamental unit of charge (also called the elementary charge) equals the magnitude of the charge of an electron
(e) with e = 1.602 × 10−19 C

group vertical column of the periodic table

halogen element in group 17

inert gas (also, noble gas) element in group 18

inner transition metal (also, lanthanide or actinide) element in the bottom two rows; if in the first row, also called
lanthanide, of if in the second row, also called actinide

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Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 115

ion electrically charged atom or molecule (contains unequal numbers of protons and electrons)

ionic bond electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions of an ionic compound

ionic compound compound composed of cations and anions combined in ratios, yielding an electrically neutral
substance

isomers compounds with the same chemical formula but different structures

isotopes atoms that contain the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons

lanthanide inner transition metal in the top of the bottom two rows of the periodic table

law of constant composition (also, law of definite proportions) all samples of a pure compound contain the same
elements in the same proportions by mass

law of definite proportions (also, law of constant composition) all samples of a pure compound contain the same
elements in the same proportions by mass

law of multiple proportions when two elements react to form more than one compound, a fixed mass of one
element will react with masses of the other element in a ratio of small whole numbers

main-group element (also, representative element) element in columns 1, 2, and 12–18

mass number (A) sum of the numbers of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom

metal element that is shiny, malleable, good conductor of heat and electricity

metalloid element that conducts heat and electricity moderately well, and possesses some properties of metals and
some properties of nonmetals

molecular compound (also, covalent compound) composed of molecules formed by atoms of two or more different
elements

molecular formula formula indicating the composition of a molecule of a compound and giving the actual number
of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound.

monatomic ion ion composed of a single atom

neutron uncharged, subatomic particle located in the nucleus

noble gas (also, inert gas) element in group 18

nomenclature system of rules for naming objects of interest

nonmetal element that appears dull, poor conductor of heat and electricity

nucleus massive, positively charged center of an atom made up of protons and neutrons

oxyacid compound that contains hydrogen, oxygen, and one other element, bonded in a way that imparts acidic
properties to the compound (ability to release H+ ions when dissolved in water)

oxyanion polyatomic anion composed of a central atom bonded to oxygen atoms

period (also, series) horizontal row of the period table

periodic law properties of the elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.
116 Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

periodic table table of the elements that places elements with similar chemical properties close together

pnictogen element in group 15

polyatomic ion ion composed of more than one atom

proton positively charged, subatomic particle located in the nucleus

representative element (also, main-group element) element in columns 1, 2, and 12–18

series (also, period) horizontal row of the period table

spatial isomers compounds in which the relative orientations of the atoms in space differ

structural formula shows the atoms in a molecule and how they are connected

structural isomer one of two substances that have the same molecular formula but different physical and chemical
properties because their atoms are bonded differently

transition metal element in columns 3–11

unified atomic mass unit (u) alternative unit equivalent to the atomic mass unit

Key Equations
• average mass = ∑ (fractional abundance × isotopic mass) i
i

Summary
2.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
The ancient Greeks proposed that matter consists of extremely small particles called atoms. Dalton postulated that
each element has a characteristic type of atom that differs in properties from atoms of all other elements, and that
atoms of different elements can combine in fixed, small, whole-number ratios to form compounds. Samples of a
particular compound all have the same elemental proportions by mass. When two elements form different compounds,
a given mass of one element will combine with masses of the other element in a small, whole-number ratio. During
any chemical change, atoms are neither created nor destroyed.

2.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory

Although no one has actually seen the inside of an atom, experiments have demonstrated much about atomic structure.
Thomson’s cathode ray tube showed that atoms contain small, negatively charged particles called electrons. Millikan
discovered that there is a fundamental electric charge—the charge of an electron. Rutherford’s gold foil experiment
showed that atoms have a small, dense, positively charged nucleus; the positively charged particles within the nucleus
are called protons. Chadwick discovered that the nucleus also contains neutral particles called neutrons. Soddy
demonstrated that atoms of the same element can differ in mass; these are called isotopes.

2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism

An atom consists of a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus contains protons and
neutrons; its diameter is about 100,000 times smaller than that of the atom. The mass of one atom is usually expressed
in atomic mass units (amu), which is referred to as the atomic mass. An amu is defined as exactly 1 of the mass of
12
a carbon-12 atom and is equal to 1.6605 × 10−24 g.

Protons are relatively heavy particles with a charge of 1+ and a mass of 1.0073 amu. Neutrons are relatively heavy
particles with no charge and a mass of 1.0087 amu. Electrons are light particles with a charge of 1− and a mass of

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Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 117

0.00055 amu. The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number (Z) and is the property that defines an
atom’s elemental identity. The sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called the mass number
and, expressed in amu, is approximately equal to the mass of the atom. An atom is neutral when it contains equal
numbers of electrons and protons.
Isotopes of an element are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers; isotopes of an element,
therefore, differ from each other only in the number of neutrons within the nucleus. When a naturally occurring
element is composed of several isotopes, the atomic mass of the element represents the average of the masses of the
isotopes involved. A chemical symbol identifies the atoms in a substance using symbols, which are one-, two-, or
three-letter abbreviations for the atoms.

2.4 Chemical Formulas

A molecular formula uses chemical symbols and subscripts to indicate the exact numbers of different atoms in a
molecule or compound. An empirical formula gives the simplest, whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. A
structural formula indicates the bonding arrangement of the atoms in the molecule. Ball-and-stick and space-filling
models show the geometric arrangement of atoms in a molecule. Isomers are compounds with the same molecular
formula but different arrangements of atoms.

2.5 The Periodic Table

The discovery of the periodic recurrence of similar properties among the elements led to the formulation of the
periodic table, in which the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number in rows known as periods
and columns known as groups. Elements in the same group of the periodic table have similar chemical properties.
Elements can be classified as metals, metalloids, and nonmetals, or as a main-group elements, transition metals, and
inner transition metals. Groups are numbered 1–18 from left to right. The elements in group 1 are known as the alkali
metals; those in group 2 are the alkaline earth metals; those in 15 are the pnictogens; those in 16 are the chalcogens;
those in 17 are the halogens; and those in 18 are the noble gases.

2.6 Molecular and Ionic Compounds

Metals (particularly those in groups 1 and 2) tend to lose the number of electrons that would leave them with the
same number of electrons as in the preceding noble gas in the periodic table. By this means, a positively charged
ion is formed. Similarly, nonmetals (especially those in groups 16 and 17, and, to a lesser extent, those in Group 15)
can gain the number of electrons needed to provide atoms with the same number of electrons as in the next noble
gas in the periodic table. Thus, nonmetals tend to form negative ions. Positively charged ions are called cations, and
negatively charge ions are called anions. Ions can be either monatomic (containing only one atom) or polyatomic
(containing more than one atom).
Compounds that contain ions are called ionic compounds. Ionic compounds generally form from metals and
nonmetals. Compounds that do not contain ions, but instead consist of atoms bonded tightly together in molecules
(uncharged groups of atoms that behave as a single unit), are called covalent compounds. Covalent compounds
usually form from two nonmetals.

2.7 Chemical Nomenclature

Chemists use nomenclature rules to clearly name compounds. Ionic and molecular compounds are named using
somewhat-different methods. Binary ionic compounds typically consist of a metal and a nonmetal. The name of
the metal is written first, followed by the name of the nonmetal with its ending changed to –ide. For example,
K2O is called potassium oxide. If the metal can form ions with different charges, a Roman numeral in parentheses
follows the name of the metal to specify its charge. Thus, FeCl2 is iron(II) chloride and FeCl3 is iron(III) chloride.
Some compounds contain polyatomic ions; the names of common polyatomic ions should be memorized. Molecular
compounds can form compounds with different ratios of their elements, so prefixes are used to specify the numbers
of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound. Examples include SF6, sulfur hexafluoride, and N2O4,
dinitrogen tetroxide. Acids are an important class of compounds containing hydrogen and having special
nomenclature rules. Binary acids are named using the prefix hydro-, changing the –ide suffix to –ic, and adding
118 Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

“acid;” HCl is hydrochloric acid. Oxyacids are named by changing the ending of the anion to –ic, and adding “acid;”
H2CO3 is carbonic acid.

Exercises
2.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
1. In the following drawing, the green spheres represent atoms of a certain element. The purple spheres represent
atoms of another element. If the spheres of different elements touch, they are part of a single unit of a compound.
The following chemical change represented by these spheres may violate one of the ideas of Dalton’s atomic theory.
Which one?

2. Which postulate of Dalton’s theory is consistent with the following observation concerning the weights of
reactants and products? When 100 grams of solid calcium carbonate is heated, 44 grams of carbon dioxide and 56
grams of calcium oxide are produced.
3. Identify the postulate of Dalton’s theory that is violated by the following observations: 59.95% of one sample of
titanium dioxide is titanium; 60.10% of a different sample of titanium dioxide is titanium.
4. Samples of compound X, Y, and Z are analyzed, with results shown here.

Compound Description Mass of Carbon Mass of Hydrogen

X clear, colorless, liquid with strong odor 1.776 g 0.148 g

Y clear, colorless, liquid with strong odor 1.974 g 0.329 g

Z clear, colorless, liquid with strong odor 7.812 g 0.651 g

Do these data provide example(s) of the law of definite proportions, the law of multiple proportions, neither, or
both? What do these data tell you about compounds X, Y, and Z?
2.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory
5. The existence of isotopes violates one of the original ideas of Dalton’s atomic theory. Which one?
6. How are electrons and protons similar? How are they different?
7. How are protons and neutrons similar? How are they different?
8. Predict and test the behavior of α particles fired at a “plum pudding” model atom.
(a) Predict the paths taken by α particles that are fired at atoms with a Thomson’s plum pudding model structure.
Explain why you expect the α particles to take these paths.
(b) If α particles of higher energy than those in (a) are fired at plum pudding atoms, predict how their paths will
differ from the lower-energy α particle paths. Explain your reasoning.
(c) Now test your predictions from (a) and (b). Open the Rutherford Scattering simulation
([Link] and select the “Plum Pudding Atom” tab. Set “Alpha Particles
Energy” to “min,” and select “show traces.” Click on the gun to start firing α particles. Does this match your
prediction from (a)? If not, explain why the actual path would be that shown in the simulation. Hit the pause button,
or “Reset All.” Set “Alpha Particles Energy” to “max,” and start firing α particles. Does this match your prediction
from (b)? If not, explain the effect of increased energy on the actual paths as shown in the simulation.
9. Predict and test the behavior of α particles fired at a Rutherford atom model.

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Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 119

(a) Predict the paths taken by α particles that are fired at atoms with a Rutherford atom model structure. Explain why
you expect the α particles to take these paths.
(b) If α particles of higher energy than those in (a) are fired at Rutherford atoms, predict how their paths will differ
from the lower-energy α particle paths. Explain your reasoning.
(c) Predict how the paths taken by the α particles will differ if they are fired at Rutherford atoms of elements other
than gold. What factor do you expect to cause this difference in paths, and why?
(d) Now test your predictions from (a), (b), and (c). Open the Rutherford Scattering simulation
([Link] and select the “Rutherford Atom” tab. Due to the scale of the
simulation, it is best to start with a small nucleus, so select “20” for both protons and neutrons, “min” for energy,
show traces, and then start firing α particles. Does this match your prediction from (a)? If not, explain why the actual
path would be that shown in the simulation. Pause or reset, set energy to “max,” and start firing α particles. Does
this match your prediction from (b)? If not, explain the effect of increased energy on the actual path as shown in the
simulation. Pause or reset, select “40” for both protons and neutrons, “min” for energy, show traces, and fire away.
Does this match your prediction from (c)? If not, explain why the actual path would be that shown in the simulation.
Repeat this with larger numbers of protons and neutrons. What generalization can you make regarding the type of
atom and effect on the path of α particles? Be clear and specific.
2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism
10. In what way are isotopes of a given element always different? In what way(s) are they always the same?
11. Write the symbol for each of the following ions:
(a) the ion with a 1+ charge, atomic number 55, and mass number 133
(b) the ion with 54 electrons, 53 protons, and 74 neutrons
(c) the ion with atomic number 15, mass number 31, and a 3− charge
(d) the ion with 24 electrons, 30 neutrons, and a 3+ charge
12. Write the symbol for each of the following ions:
(a) the ion with a 3+ charge, 28 electrons, and a mass number of 71
(b) the ion with 36 electrons, 35 protons, and 45 neutrons
(c) the ion with 86 electrons, 142 neutrons, and a 4+ charge
(d) the ion with a 2+ charge, atomic number 38, and mass number 87
13. Open the Build an Atom simulation ([Link] and click on the
Atom icon.
(a) Pick any one of the first 10 elements that you would like to build and state its symbol.
(b) Drag protons, neutrons, and electrons onto the atom template to make an atom of your element.
State the numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in your atom, as well as the net charge and mass number.
(c) Click on “Net Charge” and “Mass Number,” check your answers to (b), and correct, if needed.
(d) Predict whether your atom will be stable or unstable. State your reasoning.
(e) Check the “Stable/Unstable” box. Was your answer to (d) correct? If not, first predict what you can do to make a
stable atom of your element, and then do it and see if it works. Explain your reasoning.
14. Open the Build an Atom simulation ([Link]
(a) Drag protons, neutrons, and electrons onto the atom template to make a neutral atom of Oxygen-16 and give the
isotope symbol for this atom.
(b) Now add two more electrons to make an ion and give the symbol for the ion you have created.
15. Open the Build an Atom simulation ([Link]
120 Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

(a) Drag protons, neutrons, and electrons onto the atom template to make a neutral atom of Lithium-6 and give the
isotope symbol for this atom.
(b) Now remove one electron to make an ion and give the symbol for the ion you have created.
16. Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the following isotopes that are used in medical
diagnoses:
(a) atomic number 9, mass number 18, charge of 1−
(b) atomic number 43, mass number 99, charge of 7+
(c) atomic number 53, atomic mass number 131, charge of 1−
(d) atomic number 81, atomic mass number 201, charge of 1+
(e) Name the elements in parts (a), (b), (c), and (d).
17. The following are properties of isotopes of two elements that are essential in our diet. Determine the number of
protons, neutrons and electrons in each and name them.
(a) atomic number 26, mass number 58, charge of 2+
(b) atomic number 53, mass number 127, charge of 1−
18. Give the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in neutral atoms of each of the following isotopes:
10
(a) 5B

199
(b) 80 Hg

63
(c) 29 Cu

13
(d) 6C

77
(e) 34 Se

19. Give the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in neutral atoms of each of the following isotopes:
7
(a) 3 Li

125
(b) 52 Te

109
(c) 47 Ag

15
(d) 7N

31
(e) 15 P

20. Click on the site ([Link] and select the “Mix Isotopes” tab,
hide the “Percent Composition” and “Average Atomic Mass” boxes, and then select the element boron.
(a) Write the symbols of the isotopes of boron that are shown as naturally occurring in significant amounts.
(b) Predict the relative amounts (percentages) of these boron isotopes found in nature. Explain the reasoning behind
your choice.
(c) Add isotopes to the black box to make a mixture that matches your prediction in (b). You may drag isotopes from
their bins or click on “More” and then move the sliders to the appropriate amounts.
(d) Reveal the “Percent Composition” and “Average Atomic Mass” boxes. How well does your mixture match with
your prediction? If necessary, adjust the isotope amounts to match your prediction.

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Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 121

(e) Select “Nature’s” mix of isotopes and compare it to your prediction. How well does your prediction compare
with the naturally occurring mixture? Explain. If necessary, adjust your amounts to make them match “Nature’s”
amounts as closely as possible.
21. Repeat Exercise 2.20 using an element that has three naturally occurring isotopes.
22. An element has the following natural abundances and isotopic masses: 90.92% abundance with 19.99 amu,
0.26% abundance with 20.99 amu, and 8.82% abundance with 21.99 amu. Calculate the average atomic mass of this
element.
23. Average atomic masses listed by IUPAC are based on a study of experimental results. Bromine has two
isotopes 79Br and 81Br, whose masses (78.9183 and 80.9163 amu) and abundances (50.69% and 49.31%) were
determined in earlier experiments. Calculate the average atomic mass of bromine based on these experiments.
24. Variations in average atomic mass may be observed for elements obtained from different sources. Lithium
provides an example of this. The isotopic composition of lithium from naturally occurring minerals is 7.5% 6Li and
92.5% 7Li, which have masses of 6.01512 amu and 7.01600 amu, respectively. A commercial source of lithium,
recycled from a military source, was 3.75% 6Li (and the rest 7Li). Calculate the average atomic mass values for each
of these two sources.
25. The average atomic masses of some elements may vary, depending upon the sources of their ores. Naturally
occurring boron consists of two isotopes with accurately known masses (10B, 10.0129 amu and 11B, 11.0931 amu).
The actual atomic mass of boron can vary from 10.807 to 10.819, depending on whether the mineral source is from
Turkey or the United States. Calculate the percent abundances leading to the two values of the average atomic
masses of boron from these two countries.
26. The 18O:16O abundance ratio in some meteorites is greater than that used to calculate the average atomic mass
of oxygen on earth. Is the average mass of an oxygen atom in these meteorites greater than, less than, or equal to that
of a terrestrial oxygen atom?
2.4 Chemical Formulas
27. Explain why the symbol for an atom of the element oxygen and the formula for a molecule of oxygen differ.
28. Explain why the symbol for the element sulfur and the formula for a molecule of sulfur differ.
29. Write the molecular and empirical formulas of the following compounds:
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
122 Chapter 2 | Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

30. Write the molecular and empirical formulas of the following compounds:
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

31. Determine the empirical formulas for the following compounds:

(a) caffeine, C8H10N4O2
(b) fructose, C12H22O11
(c) hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
(d) glucose, C6H12O6
(e) ascorbic acid (vitamin C), C6H8O6
32. Determine the empirical formulas for the following compounds:
(a) acetic acid, C2H4O2
(b) citric acid, C6H8O7
(c) hydrazine, N2H4
(d) nicotine, C10H14N2
(e) butane, C4H10
33. Write the empirical formulas for the following compounds:

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