Table of Contents

Physical Science

Formation of Elements…………………………………………………… 2
The Idea of Atom………………………………………………………… 7
Properties of Matter Relate to their Chemical Structure………………… 16
Chemical Changes……………………………………………………… 30
Household and Personal Care Products………………………………… 56
Universe and Solar System……………………………………………… 62
Greek Models of the Solar System……………………………………… 66
Motion………………………………………………………………….. 75
Light as a Wave and Particle…………………………………………… 86
Electromagnetism………………………………………………………… 99
Relativity………………………………………………………………. 103

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 UNIT: PHYSICAL SCIENCES
TOPIC: Formation of Elements Found in the Universe
REFERENCE: Exploring Life Through Science Series SHS Physical Science by Karen S.
Santiago , and Angelina A. Silverio; Teaching Guide for Senior High School
PHYSICAL SCIENCE

CHAPTER ONE : Formation of Elements Found in the Universe

Have you ever wondered how the universe was created? You are not different at all from
the people of the ancient world who speculated about the beginning of the universe. They were
the philosophers and theologians who had no experimental evidence that would provide a basis for
a scientific theory. In this chapter, you will learn about the beginning of the universe.

Lesson 1.1 The Big Bang Theory

Questions regarding the beginning of the universe started to have answers when, in the
early 20th century, scientists and astronomers were puzzled by the fuzzy patches in the telescope
photographs of a distant universe. Most of them thought that these were clouds scattered among
visible stars. Some even proposed that these were “nebulae”. They thought that these nebulae
were gravitationally bound containing billions of stars and their distances from one another were
unimaginable.

These issues were finally resolved when in 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble proved, using
the 2.5-m telescope at California’s Mt. Wilson Observatory, that the nebulae were distant galaxies
containing 109 to 1013 stars. This discovery led Hubble to catalogue the distances of galaxies the
distances of galaxies from one another and observe their spectra. At the time, Hubble concluded
that the universe is expanding and all that the distance between galaxies is continuously growing
all the time.

In 1948, the Russian-American physicist George Gamow, together with his student Ralph
Alpher, and the nuclear scientist Hans Bethe, put forward hypothesizing that the universe burst
into being in a gigantic explosion or a big bang several billion of years ago. This burning fireball
of radiation mixed with minute particles of matter gradually cooled which allowed for the
formation of atoms. These atoms clumped together due to the influence of gravity to form billions
of galaxies. One of them is our Milky Way galaxy.

The following pieces of evidence were found to support Gamow’s hypothesis :

1. Measurements showed that the universe is expanding and that galaxies are moving away
2

from one another at high speeds.

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2. A cosmic background radiation was detected. The radiation observed was the same in all
directions and found by astronomers to be independent of direction.

3. The discovery of the primordial helium is consistent with the belief of scientists that the
lightest elements, helium and hydrogen, were the first elements to be formed in the early
stages of the evolution of the universe. Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and other heavier
elements were thought to have been formed later through nuclear reactions involved He
and H2 in the center of the stars.

In 1995, astronomers analyzed the ultraviolet light coming from a quasar and found that
helium atoms absorbed this light in its path approaching Earth. A more abundant hydrogen atom
was not detected because it has only one electron which can be stripped off easily by the light
from a quasar through a process known as ionization. An ionized hydrogen atom cannot absorb
any of the light coming from a quasar. On the other hand, since a helium atom has two electrons,
radiation may strip off one electron from a helium atom but not always both. Ionized helium atom
with one electron can still absorb light which is the reason why they can be detected.

In recognition of all supporting evidence and the discovery of the primordial helium,
scientists now refer to Gamow’s hypothesis as the Big Bang Theory.

What you will do

Answer the following questions

1. What measurements show that the universe is expanding ?

2. What does the discovery of the primordial helium indicate ?

3. Describe the different steps in the formation of the universe.

4. What is a quasar ?
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 5. What is the composition of the universe ?

Lesson 1.2 Formation of Heavier Elements in the Evolution of the Universe

As the universe expanded, matter and radiation cooled. Radiation filled the entire universe
and it continues to fill the entire universe in its expansion. A few seconds after the big bang,
protons, neutrons, and electrons consisted the universe. The elements of the present universe were
formed in a process known as nucleosynthesis.

The first step in the big bang nucleosynthesis involved the building up complex atoms
through the formation of deuterium nuclei or deuterons. Deuterons are a combination of a proton
and a neutron, represented by the following equation :

n +p → d + 

Deuteron has a binding energy of 2.2 MeV. This is the amount of energy of a gamma ray
given off during its formation. To break up a deuteron nuclei apart into its components – proton
and neutron; the reverse reaction process must occur. This is represented by the following equation
:

d +  → n +p

The fraction of photons of energy greater than 2.2 MeV will be less than 0.2 x 10 -9 when
the temperature has fallen to 9 x 108 K which occurs about 250 s at a time when the formation of
deuterium nuclei begins. Since deuterons are less abundant than protons and neutrons, deuterons
will readily react with them according to the following reaction equations :

d + n → 3H +  and d +p → 3He + 
3
H and 3He will also react with p and n as in the following equations :
3
H + p → 4He +  and 3He + n → 4He + 

In all four reactions, the binding energy of the final particles is greater than that of the
deuteron. It can therefore be assumed that all the deuterons were eventually converted to 4He. At
this stage of the evolution of the universe, the end products were protons and  particles. Since
there are no stable nuclei with a mass of 5, the reactions cannot continue beyond 4He.
4

The last step in the formation of matter in the big bang, was the production of neutral atoms
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of H and He. This happened when proton and 4He nuclei combined with electrons. With the
formation of neutral atoms, there were essentially no free charged particles left in the universe. At
this point, radiation travelled long distances without interacting with matter.

The distribution of matter during the decoupling time was a little bit non-uniform. Higher
density regions began to condense into clouds of ever increasing density, contracted under their
own gravity, rose in temperature until they became hot enough to initiate fusion reactions leading
to the formation of first generation stars.

In the simple helium fusion reaction,

4
He + 4He → 8
Be
8
Be is unstable and breaks apart as rapidly as it forms. A third 4He is required to participate in the
reaction. The following equation shows the net reaction.
4
He + 4He + 4He → 12C + 

After the formation of 12C, additional reactions follow.

12
C + 4
He → 16O + 
16
O + 4
He → 20Ne + 
20
Ne + 4He → 24Mg +  and so on.

When the fuel is exhausted, contraction sets in again increasing the temperature so that other
reactions can occur, such as carbon burning.
12
C + 12C → 24Mg + 

The elements beyond A = 56 cannot be produced through fusion. These are produced through a
process called the neutron-capture process.

Neutrons are captured by the nucleus in the interior of a star until the amount of neutron excess is
sufficient to convert extra neutron to a proton in a beta decay :

n→p+e+ 

This increase the number of protons by one. Sample of the processes are shown below :
56
Fe + n → 57
Fe + 
57
Fe + n → 58
Fe + 
58
Fe + n → 59
Fe + 
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57
Fe and 58Fe are stable, 59Fe is not – it is radioactive. It undergoes beta decay, with a half-life of
45 days, to 59Co. 59Co can capture a neutron to become 60Co, which id radioactive and beta decay
to 60Ni. It continues this way, and all the heavier elements were formed through the neutron
capture which is a beta decay process.

What you will do

Balance the following equations ( in the formation of heavier elements ) :

1. 4
He + 4He → Be

2. 3
He + n → 4He

3. 20
Ne + 4He → Mg + 

4. 12
C + 12C → Mg + 

5. 57
Fe + n → Fe + 

Arrange the following equations ( 1 to 4 ) according to chronological order of events :

4
He + 4He → 8Be
58
Fe + n → 59Fe + 
12
C + 12C → 24Mg + 
20
Ne + 4He → 24Mg + 

Answer the following questions :

1. Describe the formation of light elements seconds after the big bang.

2. Describe the formation of heavier elements after the formation of first generation stars.
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 UNIT: PHYSICAL SCIENCES
TOPIC: The Idea of the Atom
REFERENCE: Exploring Life Through Science Series SHS Physical Science by Karen S.
Santiago , and Angelina A. Silverio; Teaching Guide for Senior High School
PHYSICAL SCIENCE

CHAPTER TWO : THE IDEA OF THE ATOM

For more than 2000 years, scientists and philosophers tried to find answers to the question
regarding the composition of matter. Using variety of experiments, observations, and indirect
evidence, they were able to find a solution to the problem of what composes matter.

Lesson 2.1 Early Ideas About the Atom

Matter is basically made up of atoms. This theory started more than 2,400 years ago in
Ancient Greece. But its rapid development only began about 1,000 years ago, when John Dalton
presented his own version of the atomic theory in 1803. In this lesson, we will present the original
Greek concept of the atom, and that of Dalton.

The Greek Concept

During the ancient times (around 440 B.C.),

many of the “scientists” were philosophers. They did
not prove or disprove ideas using experiments. Rather,
they used good arguments to show that an idea was
true. And so, Leucippus used logical reasoning to
support the idea that “all things are basically made up
of atoms”. There were no experiments during his time.
Of course, this means that Leucippus did not convince
some philosophers. Those who agreed with Leucippus
were called “atomists”. One of the first atomists was
Democritus. He was a student of Leucippus. Later on, Democritus Epicurus
another scientist-philosopher, Epicurus, improved the
“atomos” concept.

Let us understand the ideas of these atomists by conducting this simple

activity:
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 What you will do
Cutting Matter

1. Observe the head of a fried fish.

a. Can you identify the lips? The eyes? The teeth?

2. Using a small knife, chop the head of a fried fish into smaller pieces.
a. Can you still identify the lips? The eyes? The teeth?
b. If not, what do you now have?

3. Grind the white eyeball into smaller pieces. Look at the newly formed pieces using a lens.
a. Are the smaller pieces still similar with the original? Why? Why not?
b. Can you still cut these pieces into smaller ones?
c. Is it possible to keep on cutting and dividing these pieces?

The answer of atomists to the question in # 3 c. is obviously “No”. They believe that all
matter is made of atoms, which are bits of matter. You can cut and divide matter until you reach
a point where the pieces cannot be cut nor divided anymore. This means that atoms cannot be split
into smaller bits. According to Democritus,

"They have all sorts of shapes and appearances and different sizes....
Some are rough, some hook-shaped, some concave, some convex and
some have other innumerable variations."

Do you agree with them? Now let’s take a look at the Atomic Theory of John Dalton.
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

John Dalton is considered the Father of the Modern Atomic Theory. He was a chemist
who studied the works of Lavoisier and Proust. Antoine Lavoisier established the Law of
Conservation of Mass while Joseph Proust observed the Law of Definite Proportions. Using
these laws, Dalton formulated his atomic theory. Let us first take a look at these laws.

Law of Conservation of Mass Law of Definite Proportions

“The total mass of materials “The proportion by mass of the
before a chemical reaction takes elements in a given compound is
place is exactly equal to the total always the same.” It is also
mass of the materials that result
known as the “Law of Constant
after the reaction is completed.”
Composition”.

John Dalton believed that these two laws supported the idea of atoms. He formulated an
atomic theory that included the observations of Lavoisier and Proust. This atomic theory has these
statements:

#1 - All elements are composed of atoms, which are indivisible and indestructible particles.
For example, an element, like gold, is made up of gold atoms. The atoms of gold cannot
be destroyed nor divided to form other atoms. The Law of Conservation of Mass supports
this statement.

#2 - All atoms of the same element are exactly alike. This means that one atom of the element
platinum looks exactly the same as any other atom of platinum. It also means that the mass
of one atom of an element is exactly equal to the mass of another atom of the same element.

#3 - All atoms of different elements are different. This statement is a follow-up of statement
#2. It means that the atoms of the element silver are different from the atoms of the element
oxygen. And one important difference among different atoms is their masses. The atoms
of an element may have a greater or lesser mass than the atoms of another kind of element.
Both statements #2 and #3 agree with the basic assumption of the Law of Definite
Proportions: that the mass of atoms does not change.

#4 - The joining of atoms of two or more elements form compounds.

When an atom of one kind of element is joined with another atom of
another kind of element, a compound is formed. Dalton further stated
that in any compound, the atoms of the different elements in the
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compound are joined in a definite whole-number ratio. For example, A water molecule
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in the compound water, a particle of water is made up of one atom of

 oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. The ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is 1:2.

Some elements also show that they form various ratios. For example, iron can form a
compound with oxygen in the ratio of 1:1. This means that for every atom of iron, there is one
atom of oxygen. At the same time, iron can form another compound with oxygen in the ratio of
2:3. This means that for every two atoms of iron, there will be three atoms of oxygen. In other
words, iron can form two different ratios with oxygen. Other metals like copper and chromium
also show this phenomenon. Such phenomenon resulted to the Law of Multiple Proportions.

What you will do

Directions: Answer these questions briefly.

1. Identify the similar ideas between the Greek concept of the atom and the
statements in Dalton’s atomic theory.

2. Explain the importance of the works of Lavoisier and Proust to the atomic theory
of Dalton.

3. Would Dalton have formulated the atomic theory if Lavoisier did not establish the
Law of Conservation of Mass ?
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 4. Describe the different models of the atom.

Lesson 2.2 Structure of the Atom

What’s inside the atom? We already know that an atom is not as solid as a toy marble. In
fact, three different subatomic particles inside it have been discovered. “Subatomic” means “inside
the atom”. These are the protons, the electrons, and the neutrons. But first, we must get acquainted
with an instrument that made the discovery of subatomic particles possible: the cathode ray tube.

The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The CRT is a glass tube with two electrodes. One electrode is positive and it is called the
anode. The other electrode is negative and it is called the cathode.

A gas is usually placed inside this tube and electricity is passed through it. As a result,
light rays are released from the negative electrode (cathode) and hit the positive electrode
(anode). These rays are obviously negatively charged since they come from the cathode and
move towards the anode. A scientist named Julius Plucker first identified the cathode rays, and
another scientist named Sir William Crookes confirmed this. He invented the Crookes tube,
which is actually the prototype of the cathode ray tubes. The cathode ray tube is used in neon
signs. Karl Ferdinand Braun further improved the CRT, and his “Braun tube” is the prototype of
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today’s television tubes, radar tubes, and computer monitors. Because of the CRT, Roentgen
discovered the x-rays. And still because of the CRT, the subatomic particles electrons and
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protons were discovered.

Subatomic Particles

Here is a table comparing the three subatomic particles.

Table 2.1
Particle Symbol Discoverer Charge Mass
–31
Electron e− J.J. Thomson, 1897 Negative 9.11 x 10 kg

Proton p+ E. Goldstein, 1886 Positive 1.3626231 x 10–27 kg

Neutron n0 J. Chadwick, 1932 No charge 1.6749 x 10–27 kg

All atoms have a positive nuclear charge due to the presence of protons. The number of
protons in an atom determines the positive nuclear charge of an atom. Protons also determine
the atomic number (Z) of an element. We can tell how many protons an atom of an element has
by knowing its atomic number. For example, the element beryllium (Be) has an atomic number
of 4. An atom of beryllium has four protons. The element Krypton (Kr) has an atomic number
of 36, and one atom of Krypton has 36 protons.

The proton is 1,836 times heavier than the electron. When electrons and protons are
placed side by side, the proton will be as big as a house, while the electron will only be one of its
light switches.

The difference in the number of protons and number of electrons determines the overall
charge of the atom. For example, if an atom has 4 protons and 4 electrons, the overall charge of
the atom is zero. But if there are 6 protons and 5 electrons, the overall charge of the atom is +1.
It is positive because there are more protons than electrons. If there are 12 protons and 14
electrons, the overall charge of the atom is –2. It is negative because there are more electrons
than protons.

Together with protons, neutrons make up the mass number (A) of an atom. For
example, the element calcium has a mass number of 40 and an atomic number of 20. This means
that the calcium atom has 20 protons. To determine the number of neutrons, use this formula:

Mass number – atomic number = number of neutrons

40 – 20 = 20
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The calcium atom also has 20 neutrons.

 Now let’s try to visualize what the atom looks like.

What you will do

Atom Assembly

Let’s attempt to assemble the composition of the Boron atom. The atomic number of Boron
is 5, the mass number is 11, and the overall charge of the atom is zero. This means that Boron has
5 protons, 5 electrons, and 6 neutrons.

In a plate, place 5 pieces of calamansi fruits. These will be our protons. Then place 6
pieces of lanzones fruits. These will be our neutrons. Then add 5 pieces of rice grains. These will
be our electrons.

Now try to assemble the components of a Fluorine atom. Its atomic number is 9, its mass
number is 19, and its overall charge is –1.

Describe the contents of your plate.

Directions: Fill up this table. Consult a periodic table to know the symbol of the elements.

Atomic Mass Charge

Element Element No. of No. of No. of
Number, Number, of the
Name Symbol protons Electrons Neutrons
Z A atom

Silicon 14 28 –4

Silver 108 0 47

Strontium 38 36 50

Samarium 0 62 88
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Atomic Mass and Isotopes

In the periodic table, we find “atomic mass”. Is this exactly the same as “mass number”?
No, these two terms are not the same due to the existence of isotopes. What are isotopes?

What you will do

The Same But Different

Study two potatoes. These two are the same simply because both are potatoes. But, they
are also different. List four things that make one potato different from another.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Just like the potatoes, isotopes are atoms of the same element but they have different mass
numbers. This means that two atoms can have the same number of protons, but have different
numbers of neutrons. For example, the hydrogen element has three different isotopes.

The isotopes of hydrogen are named protium,

deuterium, and tritium. All of them have an atomic
number of 1. This means that all of them have one
proton. But protium has a mass number of 1. It has no
neutron. The deuterium has a mass number of 2. It has
one neutron. And tritium has a mass number of 3. It has
two neutrons.

The existence of isotopes led to the existence of atomic mass. Atomic mass is determined
by how much percentage or relative abundance a certain isotope exists in nature. This can be
computed by using this formula:

Atomic Mass =  (mass number of one isotope x relative abundance)

The symbol  reads “summation”. It means that we will add the products of the mass
number and relative abundance of the isotopes.

For example, nitrogen has two isotopes, 14N and 15N. The 14N or N–14 has a relative
abundance of 99.63%, while the 15N or N–15 has a relative abundance of 0.37%. To compute for
14

the atomic mass,

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 Atomic mass = (0.9963 x 14) + (0.0037 x 15)

= 13.9482 + 0.0555

= 14.0037

Some Amazing Isotopes

Some isotopes can save lives! Isn’t that amazing? Isotopes are used to find out if a person
is sick or not. This is called radiation detection. Here are some isotopes and their uses in medicine.

Table 2.2 Isotopes in the world of medicine

Isotope Uses in Medicine
Iodine – 131 ▪ Used to determine the size, shape and activity of the thyroid
gland
▪ Treats cancer located in the thyroid gland
▪ Controls a hyperactive thyroid
Cobalt – 57 ▪ Determines whether you have enough intake of vitamin B12

Cobalt – 60 ▪ Used for radiation therapy treatment of cancer

Gadolinium – 153 ▪ Used to determine bone mineralization especially for

women who suffer from osteoporosis
Technetium – 99 ▪ Used to detect blood flow patterns in the heart
▪ Scans the brain, liver, kidney, and lungs
Carbon –11 ▪ With the PET (positron emission tomography) technology,
it is used to scan and measure processes that occur in the
body
Chromium – 51 ▪ Determines the volume of red blood cells and the total
volume of blood
Phosphorus – 32 ▪ Detects skin cancer or cancer of body tissues that have been
exposed to surgery

What you will do

Directions: Compute for the atomic mass of these isotopes

1. 16O (99.76%), 17O (0.04%), and 18O (0.20%)

2. 32S (95.06%), 33S (0.74%), 34S (4.18%), and 36S (0.02%)

3. 35Cl (75.53%), and 37Cl (24.47%)

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 UNIT: PHYSICAL SCIENCES
TOPIC: The Properties of Matter Relate to their Chemical Structure
REFERENCE: Exploring Life Through Science Series SHS Physical Science by Karen S.
Santiago , and Angelina A. Silverio; Teaching Guide for Senior High School
PHYSICAL SCIENCE

CHAPTER THREE : THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER RELATE TO

THEIR CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
The substances you encounter in your daily life are not all elements. Most of these are
compounds. Indeed, all the things you see and use every day are compounds.

The properties of substances such as compounds and other matters are profoundly affected
by molecular structures. Their molecular structure determines how they interact with other
molecules or chemicals.

It is important that you know how the properties of matter relate to their chemical structure.
In this way, you can appreciate more the things that you are using in your daily living.
Lesson 3.1
Polar and Nonpolar Molecules

Different materials have different uses according to their properties and structures. The
molecular structure of substances affects their properties and their uses.

The Shape of Molecules ( Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion-VSEPR Theory )

The geometry of molecules is very important in understanding the physical and chemical
behaviour of substances. One of the most important effects of molecular geometry is molecular
polarity.

Molecules of compounds are formed by chemical bonds, either ionic or covalent. In a pure
covalent bond, neutral atoms share electrons equally between them. In a polar covalent bond,
partially charged atoms are held together by unequally shared electrons. On the other hand, in an
ionic bond, oppositely charged ions are held together by electrostatic attraction.

Electronegativity determines the electron density of the shared electrons or the place where
the electrons spend most of their time.
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 Type of Bond Electronegativity Difference
Nonpolar less than 0.5
Polar between 0.5 and 2.0
Ionic 2.0 or more

What you will do

Directions: Classify the bonds in a given compound molecule.

1. CO 3. KCl 5. N2

2. CCl4 4. SO2 6. CS2

Determining the shape of a molecule

To predict the shape of a covalent molecule, follow these steps:

Step 1: Draw the molecule using Lewis notation. Make sure that you draw all the valence
electrons around the molecule’s central atom.
Step 2: Count the number of electron pairs around the central atom.
Step 3: Determine the basic geometry of the molecule using the table below.

Number of Electron Pairs Geometry

2 linear
3 trigonal planar
4 tetrahedral
5 trigonal bipyramidal
6 octahedral

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 What you will do
Directions: Give the geometry of the following.

1. H2O 6. N2

2. CO2 7. BF3

3. NH3 8. XeF4

4. SO2 9. O3

5. CCl4 10. PCl5

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Lesson 3.2 General Types of Intermolecular Forces ( IMF )

How would you explain the difference in the boiling points of water and rubbing alcohol?
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The physical properties of substances like melting point, boiling point, vapor pressure,
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evaporation, viscosity, surface tension, and solubility are related to the strength of attractive forces
between molecules. These attractive forces are called Intermolecular Forces. This is the force
responsible for why molecules stick together. The amount of "stick togetherness" is important in
the interpretation of the various properties listed above.

The three types of intermolecular forces are Dispersion Forces, Dipole-dipole

interactions and Hydrogen bonding. Dispersion forces, also known as London Forces, (named
after Fritz London who first described these forces theoretically 1930) is considered as the weakest
intermolecular force. Most of the intermolecular forces are identical to bonding between atoms in
a single molecule.

Dipole Forces

Polar covalent molecules are sometimes described

as "dipoles", meaning that the molecule has two "poles".
One end (pole) of the molecule has a partial positive charge
while the other end has a partial negative charge. The
molecules will orientate themselves so that the opposite
charges attract and the principle operates effectively.

In the example on the right, hydrochloric acid is a

polar molecule with the partial positive charge on the
hydrogen and the partial negative charge on the chlorine. A
network of partial + and - charges attract molecules to each
other.

Dipole-dipole interactions are stronger intermolecular forces than Dispersion forces. They
occur between molecules that have permanent net dipoles (polar molecules). For example, dipole-
dipole interactions occur between SCl2 molecules, PCl3 molecules and CH3Cl molecules. If the
permanent net dipole within the polar molecules results from a covalent bond between a hydrogen
atom and either fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen, the resulting intermolecular force is referred to as a
hydrogen bond (see below). The partial positive charge on one molecule is electrostatically
attracted to the partial negative charge on a neighboring molecule.

Hydrogen Bonding
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 The hydrogen bond is really a special case of dipole forces.
A hydrogen bond is the attractive force between the hydrogen
attached to an electronegative atom of one molecule and an
electronegative atom of a different molecule. Usually the
electronegative atom is oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. To
recognize the possibility of hydrogen bonding, examine the Lewis
structure of the molecule. The electronegative atom must have
one or more unshared electron pairs as in the case of oxygen and
nitrogen, and has a negative partial charge. The hydrogen, which
has a partial positive charge, tries to find another atom of oxygen
or nitrogen with excess electrons to share and is attracted to the
partial negative charge. This forms the basis for the hydrogen
bond.

In the figure on the left, the hydrogen is partially positive and is attracted to the partially
negative charge on the oxygen. Because oxygen has two lone pairs, two different hydrogen bonds
can be made to each oxygen. H bonds are stronger intermolecular forces than either dispersion
forces or dipole-dipole interactions.

This is a very specific bond as indicated. Some combinations which are not hydrogen
bonds include hydrogen to another hydrogen or hydrogen to a carbon.

Induced Dipole Forces (Dispersion Forces)

Forces between essentially nonpolar molecules are the

weakest of all intermolecular forces. "Temporary dipoles" are
formed by the shifting of electron clouds within molecules.
These temporary dipoles attract or repel the electron clouds of
nearby nonpolar molecules.

The temporary dipoles may exist for only a fraction of

a second but a force of attraction also exist for that fraction of
time. The strength of induced dipole forces depends on how
easily electron clouds can be distorted. Large atoms or
molecules with many electrons far removed from the nucleus
are more easily distorted.

Induced dipole or dispersion forces are very weak forces of attraction between molecules
because this interaction is the result of the following:

• momentary dipoles occurring due to uneven electron distributions in neighbouring molecules as

they approach one another
21

• the weak residual attraction of the nuclei in one molecule for the electrons in a neighbouring
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molecule.
 The more electrons that are present in the molecule, the stronger the dispersion forces will
be. Dispersion forces are the only type of intermolecular force operating between nonpolar
molecules. For example, dispersion forces operate between hydrogen (H2) molecules, chlorine
(Cl2) molecules, carbon dioxide (CO2) molecules, dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) molecules and
methane (CH4) molecules.

Relative Strength of Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonds)

are much weaker than intramolecular forces (covalent bonds, ionic bonds or metallic bonds).
Dispersion forces are the weakest intermolecular force (one hundredth-one thousandth the strength
of a covalent bond). On the other hand, hydrogen bonds are the strongest intermolecular force
(about one-tenth the strength of a covalent bond).

(dispersion forces < dipole-dipole interactions < hydrogen bonds)

Effect of Intermolecular Forces on Melting and Boiling Points of Molecular Covalent

Substances

Since melting or boiling results from a progressive weakening of the attractive forces
between the covalent molecules, the stronger the intermolecular force is, the more energy is
required to melt the solid or boil the liquid.

If only dispersion forces are present, then the more

electrons the molecule has (and consequently the more mass
it has) the stronger the dispersion forces will be, and the
higher the melting and boiling points will be. Consider the
hydrides of Group IV, all of which are nonpolar molecules;
thus, only dispersion forces act between the molecules. CH4
(molecular mass ~ 16), SiH4 (molecular mass ~ 32), GeH4
(molecular mass ~ 77) and SnH4 (molecular mass ~ 123) can
all be considered nonpolar covalent molecules.

As the mass of the molecules increases, so does the

strength of the dispersion force acting between the
molecules. This implies that more energy is required to weaken the attraction between the
molecules resulting in higher boiling points.
22
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 If a covalent molecule has a permanent net dipole
then the force of attraction between these molecules will be
stronger than if only dispersion forces were present between
the molecules. As a consequence, this substance will have
a higher melting or boiling point than similar molecules that
are nonpolar in nature. Consider the boiling points of the
hydrides of Group VII elements. All of the molecules HF
(molecular mass ~ 20), HCl (molecular mass ~ 37), HBr
(molecular mass ~ 81) and HI (molecular mass ~ 128) are
polar, the hydrogen atom having a partial positive charge
(H) and the halogen atom having a partial negative charge(F,
Cl, Br, I).

As a consequence, the stronger dipole-interactions

acting between the hydride molecules of Group VII elements results in higher boiling points than
for the hydrides of Group IV elements as seen in the previous page.

Usually, as the molecular mass increases, the boiling point of the hydrides increases. HF
is an exception to this rule because of the stronger force of attraction between HF molecules
resulting from hydrogen bonds acting between the HF molecules. Weaker dipole-dipole
interactions act between the molecules of HCl, HBr and HI. So HF has a higher boiling point than
the other molecules in this series.

Effect of Intermolecular Forces on Solubility

In general like dissolves like. Specifically

• nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents. Paraffin wax (C30H62) is a nonpolar solute that
will dissolve in nonpolar solvents like oil, hexane (C 6H14) or carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Paraffin
wax will NOT dissolve in polar solvents such as water (H 2O) or ethanol (ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH).

• polar solutes such as glucose (C6H12O6) will dissolve in polar solvents such as water (H2O) or
ethanol (ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH). This is so because the partially positively charged atom of the
solute molecule is attracted to the partially negatively charged atom of the solvent molecule, and
the partially negatively charged atom of the solute molecule is attracted to the partially positively
charged atom of the solvent molecule. Glucose will NOT dissolve in nonpolar solvents such as
oil, hexane (C6H14) or carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).

• Ionic solutes such as sodium chloride (NaCl) will generally dissolve in polar solvents but not in
nonpolar solvents, since the positive ion is attracted to the partially negatively charged atom in
the polar solvent molecule, and the negative ion of the solute is attracted to the partially positively
charged atom on the solvent molecule.
23
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Page 24
Page 25
 What you will do
Answer the questions briefly.

1. The assessment experiment provided is an example of a formal assessment.

Discuss which experiments should be used for formal assessment and which for
informal assessment.
26
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Lesson 3.3 Different Materials Have Different Uses Depending on Their Properties

A lot of materials used in daily life are formed because of the versatility of carbon. This
gives rise to the use of modern materials, tools, and gadgets based on the properties of the organic
compounds formed by carbon when synthesized with other elements.

Organic Compounds

Organic compounds are substances that contain carbon, usually in combination with
elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, halogens, and phosphorus. Most of the things
that you use in daily life. Examples are gasoline, medicine, shampoo, plastic bottles, perfumes,
fabrics such as cotton and silk, and even synthetic compounds such as polyester and nylon. The
food that you eat is also organic.

Uses of Some Common Materials that Depend on their Properties

1. Medical Implants and Prosthetics

Polymers are long-chain molecules formed from many repeating units of small carbon
molecules. In nature you can find many polymers such as cellulose, rubber, silk, wool,
starch, proteins, and DNA. Bioploymers are used to replace diseased or damaged body
parts such as hip joints, heart valves, and blood vessels. They are also used as flexible
wound dressing, surgical implants, and prosthetics.

2. Sports Equipment

The plastic industry has learned to produce synthetic polymers that are used to make
polyesters such as Dacron and plastics. Dacron polyester is used to make permanent
press fabrics, carpet, and clothes. Polyethyleneterphthalate (PETE ) are plastics used as
containers for soft drinks, shampoos, and salad dressing. They can also be changed to be
used as fabrics for T-shirts and coats, fill for sleeping bags, tennis ball containers, as ski
and hiking clothing. Polystyrene foam is used to make protective helmets. Polyvinyl
chloride ( halocarbon polymers ) are used as rainwear and tough plastic coverings.
Polytetrafluoroethene ( PTFE ), which is resistant to heat and chemical reaction, can be
used as bearings and bushings for sports equipment. Polyisoprene which constitutes
rubber can be used as soles of athletic shoes. Nylon is molded into gears, zippers, and
ropes. It can be used as tire cords, fishing lines, and vest made of Kevlar which is strong
enough to stop high-speed bullets.

3. Electronic Devices

The most common materials used in the production of electronic devices are
27

semiconductors such as silicon, germanium, tin, lead, zinc, cadmium, and carbon in the
Page

form of graphite are elemental semiconductors at room temperature. Other

 semiconductors are combinations of elements gallium and phosphorus to make a total of
8 valence electrons.

Diodes are examples of semiconductor devices. They restrict the flow of electrons in one
direction. The most known diodes are the LEDs which are now replacing the
incandescent and fluorescent lamps for exit signs, car taillights, billboards, traffic lights,
and signals.

Nanowires ( the world’s smallest electrical wire ) are just 1.5 nm thick. Their
properties are so different from their predecessors leading to a new era in electronics
technology.

4. Construction supplies for buildings and furniture

There are synthetic polymers like Styrofoam which is used as insulating materials.
Synthetic rubber is used for electrical installations in buildings and houses. Synthetic
polymers are also used as carpeting materials, plastic covers, plastic pipes, and fittings,
flooring materials, for walling, and other finishing supplies in building construction.
Butanone is used to remove paint.

5. Household Gadgets

We have plastics that we use everyday like polyethylene for plastic bottles, dinnerware,
and garden hose. Dacron and nylon for curtain materials and backing of upholstery.
Teflon, a household brand which is made up of tetrafluoroethylene, a very good insulator
and used for non-stick pans and cooking utensils. Polyacrylonitrile named Orlon is used
as fiber for carpeting and clothing.

Biomolecules

These are organic substances that are found in food such as meat and vegetables. Some
are found in body parts such as blood and muscles. Biomolecules are large molecules called
macromolecules or polymers. They are composed of many small organic molecules that link up
to form a long chain.

1. Carbohydrates

Are also called saccharides which means sugar. Made of C, H, and O in the formulas
( CH2O ). When these saccharides react with water, they can be completely hydrolyzed
to yield monosaccharide units-the simplest carbohydrates. Disaccharides are two
28

monosaccharides joined together while polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates.

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2. Lipids

Lipids comes from the Greek word lipos meaning fat or lard. A common property of
lipids is their being soluble in inorganic solvents but not in water. It is important in cell
membrane, fat soluble vitamins, and steroid malfunctioning enzymes.

3. Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are molecules in our cells that store and direct information for cellular
growth and reproduction. When genetic information is altered and incorrect information
is transmitted to the ribosome, it leads to the formation of defective proteins and
malfunctioning enzymes.

4. Proteins

From the word proteios which means first. It is made of amino acids. It provides
structure in membranes, builds cartilages, and connective tissues, transport oxygen in the
blood and muscles, directs biological reactions as enzymes, defends the body against
infection, and controls metabolic processes as hormones.

All proteins are polymers made up of about 20 different kinds of amino acids arranged in
a specific order that determines the characteristics of the proteins and their biological
functions.

What you will do

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Get some plastic bottles at home. Find the identification codes at the bottom
of plastic bottles. From the code list of the bottle, determine the type of polymer
that was used in producing the plastic bottle.

2. Enumerate some uses of polymers in daily activities.

29

3. Give some examples of nonpolar compounds.

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 UNIT: PHYSICAL SCIENCES
TOPIC: Chemical Changes
REFERENCE: Exploring Life Through Science Series SHS Physical Science by Karen S.
Santiago , and Angelina A. Silverio; Teaching Guide for Senior High School
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
SUBJECT TEACHER:
NAME OF STUDENT: TRACKS/SECTION:

CHAPTER FOUR
CHEMICAL CHANGES
These are just some of the changes we find everyday. As a young curious scientist, you
wanted to know why and how these natural events occur. Is it possible for you to control them?

A chemical change always results to the formation of a new substance. The surest way
to know if a chemical change has occurred is to check if you observed one or more of these
indicators of chemical change.

1. Change of color

2. Evolution of gas

3. Formation of precipitate

Change of color. A change in color means that a new substance was formed after the
chemical change. This new substance has different properties, including its color, from the original
materials.

The burning of the lighted match results in the change of color of the match. Before
lighting the match, the body is made of a pale colored wood and a red or black tip. After burning,
the tip becomes black and charred. The pale color of the wood also becomes black. It is no longer
the original wood.
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 Evolution of gas. Sometimes, you don’t see a color change after a chemical change. But
you will find that gas is produced. This gas is the new substance. When you mix vinegar and
baking powder, you will hear a fizzing sound and see gases bubble up. This gas is carbon dioxide.
It is produced when the acetic acid of vinegar reacted with the sodium bicarbonate of the baking
powder.

Acetic acid + Sodium bicarbonate → carbon dioxide + other new substances

Formation of precipitate. The precipitate is the solid material that appears in a solution,
and this solid sinks or precipitates to the bottom of the container. This precipitate is the new
substance formed from the chemical change. Which of the steps in the activity resulted in the
formation of a precipitate?

The role of temperature change. In the previous lesson, we learned that changing the
temperature would result to a phase change. This is what happened in step 4 of the activity. But
sometimes, changing the temperature results to a chemical change. This is shown in step 5.

When none of these indicators can be observed, only a physical change has occurred.
Phase changes are physical changes. Physical changes may show a change in shape, size, or
volume.

Lesson 4.1 Rate of Reaction

Many familiar reactions happen almost instantaneously like photosyntheisis. Other

chemical reactions are very slow in coming like rusting or iron or the production of wine.

In a chemical reaction, the substances that combine are called reactants, while the
substance/s produced is/are called product/s. An arrow is used to represent a yield. Activation
energy is needed to start up a chemical reaction. In order to speed up this reaction a catalyst is
used.
31

.
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 A chemical equation is used to represent a chemical reaction.

A+B AB

The law of conservation of mass is applied in writing a chemical equation. This law states
that a new atom cannot be created in a chemical reaction and that the mass of the reactants is equal
to the mass of the products.

REACTANTS PRODUCTS

The Role of Catalysts in Reaction Rates

A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of reaction without itself being consumed.
It may react to form an intermediate substance with the reactant but is regenerated in the
subsequent step so it is not consumed in the reaction.

The types of Catalysis are the following :

1. Heterogeneous Catalysis

The catalyst is usually a solid and the reactant is either a liquid or a gas. This is most
important in industrial chemistry. It is also used in catalytic inverter in automobiles.

2. Homogenous Catalysis

Reactants and the catalyst are dispersed in a single phase, usually a liquid. acid and base
catalysis are the most important types of homogenous catalysis in liquid solution.

3. Biological Catalysis
32

Enzyme catalysis is usually homogenous because the substrate and enzyme are present
in aqueous solution.
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 What you will do
Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Enumerate the factors that could increase the rate of chemical reaction.

2. What is the role of catalyst in chemical reaction rate ?

3. Describe the three types of catalyst in chemical reactions.

Lesson 4.2 Chemical Change

In a chemical change or chemical reaction, the materials that are present before the reaction
takes place are called the reactants. The materials that appear after the reaction takes place are
called the products. This means that a chemical change or chemical reaction can be represented
like this:

There are four types of chemical reactions.

1. Combination Reaction
2. Decomposition Reaction
3. Single Replacement
4. Double Displacement
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 Combination Reaction. A combination reaction happens when two or more reactants
form only one product. This is also known as the composition reaction or the synthesis reaction.
We can represent a combination reaction this way:

A + Z → AZ

For example, ethylene glycol is a substance used in making polyester fiber. Producing
ethylene glycol is a combination reaction.

Ethylene oxide + Water → Ethylene glycol

Decomposition Reaction. A decomposition reaction happens when one reactant forms

two or more products. This is also called a decay reaction. We can represent a decomposition
reaction this way:

AZ → A + Z

For example, the anesthetic used by dentists is dinitrogen oxide.

This is also called laughing gas. It is produced by the decomposition of ammonium nitrate.

Ammonium nitrate → dinitrogen oxide + water

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 Single Replacement Reaction. A single replacement reaction happens when a reactant
made of one element reacts with a compound, and replacing one of the elements of the compound.
We can represent a single replacement reaction this way:

A + TZ → AZ + T

For example, one side of a circuit board is made of copper. An electronics engineer would
like to remove some of the copper by submerging the circuit board in ferric chloride. What
happens next is a single displacement reaction. The copper (Cu) atoms displaced the iron (Fe)
atoms.

3 Cu + 2 FeCl3 → 3 CuCl2 + 2 Fe

copper ferric chloride copper chloride iron

Double Displacement Reaction. A double displacement reaction happens when the

elements in one of the reactants “exchange partners” with the other reactant. We can represent a
double displacement reaction this way:

AD + TZ → AZ + TD

A special type of double displacement reaction is called neutralization. In neutralization,

an acid and a base react with and neutralize each other. The product is a salt and water. For
35

example, hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride (salt) and water.
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 HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

Acid Base Salt Water

Hydrochloric Sodium Sodium

acid hydroxide chloride

What you will do

Direction: Identify the type of reaction.

1. The match head is made of tetraphosphorus trisulfide. Heating

phosphorus and sulfur above 100OC makes this compound:
P4 + 3S → P4S3

2. The components of water can be separated using electricity.

2H2O → 2H2 + O2

3. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), a compound used as a dry cleaning agent

and a component in fire extinguishers, is made by this reaction: 2 S2Cl2
+ C → CCl4 + 4S

4. Freon-12, CCl2F2, a substance used as refrigerant, is made by this

reaction: CCl4 + 2HF → CCl2F2 + 2HCl

5. Ammonia, NH3, which is used in fertilizers, is formed by this reaction:

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3

6. Mn4Ga2S6 → 3MnS + Ga2S + S2

7. Al4C3 + 12H2O → 4Al(OH)3 + 3CH4

8. 3 Zn + 2H3PO4 → Zn3(PO4)2 + 3 H2

9. Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(NO3)2 → 3CaSO4 + 2Al(NO3)3

36

10. 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2

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What is a Mole

Atoms and molecules are incredibly small. There is no way of counting the number of atoms or
molecules to get their mass. To understand the mole concept better, do this activity.

What you will do

Complete the table below with the information needed in the third column.

Collective Counting
Substance Number of particles
Word

pair

dozen

case
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 Collective Counting
Substance Number of particles
Word

ream

mole

The collective counting words above (i.e. pair, dozen) are used as convenient terms for
often used number of items in everyday life. Just as the grocer finds selling eggs by the dozen
more convenient than selling them individually, the chemist finds calculations (regarding number
of atoms, molecules and ions) more convenient with moles. Because samples of matter typically
contain so many atoms, a unit of measure called the mole has been established for use in counting
atoms. For our purposes, it is most convenient to define the mole (abbreviated mol) as the number
equal to the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C. A mole may be best thought
of as 6.02 x 1023 items called Avogadro’s number. One mole of something consists of 6.02 x 1023
units of that substance. Just as a dozen eggs is 12 eggs, a mole of eggs is 6.02 x 10 23 eggs. A
mole contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms in 12.00 g of 12C-atoms.

1 mole 12C = 12.00g 12C = 6.02 x 1023 12C-atoms

The number of atoms of molecules of molecular elements or compounds, and formula units
of ionic compounds can be converted to moles of the same substance using Avogadro’s number.
The mass of one mole of a substance is numerically equal to the atomic weight of an atom of an
element, the molecular weight of a compound or the formula weight of an ionic compound. The
mass of one mole of a substance is called molar mass. To understand these statements better, read
through the examples given below.
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A. For atoms

Consider a mole of Helium atom. Its molar mass is 4.00 g/mol which is equivalent to its
atomic weight. Therefore, one mole of He has a molar mass of 4.0 g/mol. One mole of He
contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms. This can be represented as

1.00 mole of He = 4.00 g = 6.02 x 1023 He atoms

Try this. Find the molar mass of Zn atom.

First step: Look for the atomic weight of Zinc in the periodic table.

Second step: Remember, the mass of one mole of Zn is equal to its atomic weight.

Third Step: Therefore, one mole of Zinc atom has a molar mass of g.

One mole of Zinc atom contains atoms.

B. For molecules

One mole of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) contains 1 carbon atom and 4 chlorine atoms. To get
its molecular weight, we find

C = 1 atom x atomic weight = 1 (12.00) = 12.00

Cl = 4 atoms x atomic weight = 4 (35.5) = 142.1

The molecular weight of CCl4 is 154.

Therefore, the mass of one mole of CCl4 is 154 g. One mole of CCl4 contains 6.02 x 1023
molecules. This can be represented as

1.00 mole CCl4 = 154 g = 6.02 x 1023 CCl4 molecules

Try this. Find the molar mass of CO2.

First step Determine the atoms present and the number of each atom. For CO2,
we have

C = 1 atom; O = 2 atoms
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 Second step Find the atomic weight of each atom.

C = 1 atom x atomic weight = 1 ( ) =

O = 2 atoms x atomic weight = 2 ( ) =

The molecular weight is .

Therefore, the mass of one mole of CO2 is .

One mole of CO2 contains molecules.

C. For Ionic Compounds

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a famous ionic compound. In its solid state, this substance forms
a three-dimensional array of charged particles. In such a case, molecular weight has no
meaning, so the term formula weight is used instead.

One mole of NaCl contains one sodium ion and one chloride ion. To get its formula weight,
we find

Na+ = 1 ion x atomic weight = 1 (23) = 23

Cl- = 1 ion x atomic weight = 1 (35.5) = 35.5

The formula weight of one mole of NaCl is 58.5 g.

Therefore the molar mass of NaCl is 58.5 g. One mole of NaCl contains 6.02x1023 NaCl ion
pairs. This can be represented as

1.0 mole of NaCl = 58.5 g NaCl = 6.02 x 1023 NaCl ion pair

Try this. Find the molar mass of KBr

First step Determine the ions present and the number of each ion

For KBr, we have

K= 1 atom ; Br = 1 atom
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 Second step Find the atomic weight of each atom

K = 1 atom x atomic weight =1( ) =

Br = 1 atom x atomic weight =1( ) =

The formula weight is .

Therefore, the mass of one mole of KBr is .

One mole of KBr contains KBr ion pairs.

The above representations show the relationship between mass, mole, and number of
particles expressed as the Avogadro’s number.

Remember this:

One mole of a substance = molar mass = 6.02 x 1023 particles

What you will do

Three students Ken, Hanz and Carla studied the information given in the boxes below.
Analyze the statements given by the students. Put an X on the name of the student who
gave the incorrect answer.

6.02 x 1023 Cu atoms 6.02 x 1023 H2O molecules

1 mole Cu 1 mole H2O

Molar mass = 63.5 g/mol Molar mass = 18 g/mol

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 6.02 x 1023 sugar molecules 6.02 x 1023 gold atoms

1 mole C12H22O11 1 mole Au

Molar mass = 342 g/mol Molar mass = 197.9 g/mol

One mole each of

different substances
have different masses
One mole of a and different number
substance One mole each of
of particles
contains a fixed different substances
number of contains the same
particles. number of particles
but they have
different masses

Hanz Carla Ken

42
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 What you will do
Complete the needed information on the table.

Molar Kind of Number Number of

Substance Mass (g)
mass (g) Particle of moles particles

Water, H2O 36 12.02 x 1023

Gold, Au 197 6.02 x 1023

Sugar,
molecule 2
C12H22O11

Table salt, Formula

3
NaCl unit

Sulfur, S 64

Mole-Mass Relationship

The relationship between mass, number of moles and number of particles is essential in
chemical calculations which is termed as stoichiometry. This is a necessary tool in obtaining the
right information in terms of mass, mole and number of particles between reactants and products
in a chemical reaction. The simplest calculation to be introduced is the mole-mass relationship.
This is important in interconverting the moles of the substances to its corresponding mass and vice
versa. It is wise to remember that the molar mass of the substance gives the mole-to-gram ratio of
a substance. The formula weight of the compound is the mass of the compound.

The mole-mass relationship is essential in solving for the correct amount of substances in
chemical reaction. It should be noted that in solving problems, the chemical reaction involved is
a balanced chemical equation. From the equation, a mole ratio is determined. A mole ratio is just
the ratio of one material in a chemical equation to another material in the same equation. The mole
ratio uses the coefficients of the materials as they appear in the balanced chemical equation.
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 Cases General Pattern
Case 1: No. of moles is known; molar mass
Mass = number of moles
mass is unknown 1 mol

Case 2: Mass is known; no. of 1 mol

Moles = mass of substance
moles is unknown molar mass

Case 1. Number of moles is known, mass is unknown

Q. What is the mass in grams of two moles of iron?

Solution Process:

Step 1. Identify the known and unknown

Known: two moles of Fe
Unknown: mass in grams of Fe
Step 2. Identify the case in the table above and copy the formula

Case 1
molar mass
Mass = number of moles
1mol

Step 3. Substitute values in the equation

56 g
Mass = 2 moles of Fe  = 112 g of Fe
mol
Case 2. Mass is known, Number of moles is unknown

Q. How many moles of the Be atom are there in 16.0 g of the Be-atom?
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 Solution Process:

Step 1. Identify the known and unknown

Known: 16.0 g of Be atom
Unknown: number of moles
Step 2. Identify the case in the table above and copy the formula

Case 2
1 mol
Moles = mass of substance
molar mass

Step 3. Substitute values in the equation

1mol
Moles = 16.0 g of Be  = 1.78 moles
9g

What you will do

Matching Type. Connect the question in Column A to its correct answer in Column
B. Draw a line from the asked values in column A to the values in column B.

Column A Column B
1. What is the mass of 0.042 mole C8H18? a. 0.0178

2. What is the mass of 4.02 mol Ba(NO2)2? b. 0.370

3. How many moles are there in 19.0 g of F2? c. 0.500

4. How many moles are there in 44.0 g of NaH2PO4? d. 4.80

5. How many moles are there in 1.04 g NaCl? e. 921

45
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 The general pattern is

1 mol
No. of Moles = mass of substance   mole ratio of atom to compound
Molar mass

Study the example given below.

Q. How many moles of Ca atoms are contained in 77.0 grams of Ca(OH) 2?

Solution Process:

Step 1. Identify the known and unknown.

Known: 77.0 g of Ca(OH)2
Unknown: number of moles of Ca
Step 2. Find the number of moles by looking at the subscript of the atoms in the
compound.
Ca = 1 mole ; O = 2 moles ; H = 2 moles

Step 3. Determine the mole ratio of Ca to Ca(OH)2.

1 mol Ca
1 mol Ca(OH)2

Step 4. Substitute values in the equation

1mol
Moles = mass of substance   mole ratio of atom to compound
Molar mass

 1 mol Ca(OH)2  1 mol Ca

= 77.0 g Ca(OH)2 74 g Ca(OH)2 1 mol Ca(OH)2
= 1.04 mol Ca

Try this:
1. How many moles of S are there in 342.2 g of Al2(SO4)3?
2. How many moles of oxygen?
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The route for this conversion is:

molar mass of B (unknown)

Mass = Moles A (known)  mole ratio of A and B 
1 mol of B

Study the example below:

Q. How many grams of octane C8H18 in gasoline will be needed by the complete combustion
with 12.5 moles of O2? The equation is

C8H18 + 12½ O2 → 8CO2 + 9H2O

Solution Process:

Step 1. Identify the known and unknown

Known: 12.5 moles of O2

Unknown: grams of octane C8H18

Step 2. Find the number of moles by looking at the coefficient before the compound

The coefficient of O2 is 12.5; this means there are 12.5 moles of O2 in the reaction
The coefficient of C8H18 is 1; this means that 1 mol of C8H18 is present

Step 3. Write the mole ratio of C8H18 and O2

1 mol C8 H18
12.5 mol O 2

Step 4. Substitute values in the equation

molar mass of B (unknown)
Mass = Moles A (known)  mole ratio of A and B 
1mol of B
 1 mol C8H18 114 g C H
= 12.5 moles of O2 12.5 mol O  1 mol C8 H18
2 8 18

= 114 g C8H18
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 molar mass of B (unknown)
Mass = Moles A (known)  mole ratio of A and B 
1mol of B
 1 mol C8H18 114 g C H
= 12.5 moles of O2 12.5 mol O  1 mol C8 H18
2 8 18

= 114 g C8H18

Try this:

In the reaction CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

1. How many grams of methane, CH4, is needed for the complete

combustion with 6 moles of oxygen?
2. How many moles of CO2 are produced from the reaction of
32 g of CH4?

What you will do

1. How many moles are there in 25 g of C5H8O2?

2. How many grams of C5H8O2 are there in 0.01 mole?
3. How many moles of Al are there in 20 g of Al2(C2O4)3?

For questions 4 and 5, refer to the following equation

Zn + 2KOH → K2ZnO2 + H2

4. How many moles of K2ZnO2 are produced from the reaction of 25 g of Zn?
5. How many grams of KOH are required to produce 50 g of K2ZnO2?

Mass-Mass Relationship

This lesson is the continuation of lesson 2. The general patterns used in lesson 2 are helpful
in dealing with calculations in mass to mass relationship. In this case, an unknown mass of one
substance can be calculated from the known mass of another substance.
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 It is important that the chemical equation under study is balanced. The coefficients in that
equation give you the information such as the combining ratio of molecules and the mole ratios of
compounds involved. The coefficients do not give the combining mass ratio thus, the need for
stoichiometric calculations. In the equation,

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H20

This shows that

1 molecule of methane (CH4) reacts with 2 molecules of oxygen (O2) to give 1 molecule of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and 2 molecules of water (H2O).
Furthermore, it shows that

1 mole of methane reacts with 2 moles of oxygen to give 1 mole of carbon dioxide and 2
moles of water.
By looking at the mole ratios from the equation, the number of moles in the reaction can
be easily predicted if the quantity is varied. For example, 2 moles of methane should react with 4
moles of O2 to give 2 moles of CO2 and 4 moles of H2O.

However, the equation does not say that 1 gram of methane reacts with 2 grams of oxygen
to produce 1 gram of carbon dioxide and 2 grams of water.

In a general pattern, the mass of substance B can be determined following the mole ratios
below.

1 mole A no. of moles B (mole ratio fromchemical equation) molar mass B

Mass A   
Molar mass A no. of moles A 1mole B
Q. Silicone (Si) is used in the fabrication of electronic components and computers. It is prepared
by the decomposition of silane (SiH4). The reaction is as follows

SiH4 → Si + 2H2
What is the mass of SiH4 needed to prepare 0.2173 g Si?

Solution Process:

Step 1. Identify the known and unknown

Known: 0.2173 g Si
Unknown: mass of SiH4
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Step 2. Find the number of moles from the coefficients before the compound in the equation
 Si = 1 mole
SiH4 = 1 mole
Step 3. Write the mole ratio of Si and SiH4
Hint: In writing mole ratios, the numerator should be the unknown substance

1 mole of SiH4
1 mole of Si
Step 4. Substitute values in the general pattern

Mass B = Mass A  1 mole A  no. of moles B (mole ratio from equation)  molar mass B
Molar mass A no. of moles A 1mole B

 1 mole Si  1 mole SiH4

Mass of SiH4 = 0.2173 g Si 28 g Si 1 mole Si
 2

g
S
i
H
4

1
m
o
l
e
S
i
H
4

= 0.2485 g SiH4

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Try this:

For questions 1-3, refer to this equation

Fe2O3 + CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

1. Fifteen grams of Fe2O3 was allowed to react with CO. How much
iron, Fe will be produced from the reaction?
2. If 8.4 g of CO completely reacted with Fe2O3, how much iron, Fe
will be produced from the reaction?
3. If 10.5 g of Fe was produced from the reaction, what mass of CO
completely reacted in the process?
 Mass-mass calculations help
chemists determine limiting
reagent and excess reagent in
the reaction.
The limiting reagent is defined
as the reactant that is totally
consumed in the reaction, while
the excess reagent is the
reactant that was not entirely
consumed during the reaction

In the exercise provided above let us suppose that a scientist was given 30.0 grams of Fe2O3
and 16.80 grams of CO simultaneously. Which substance should be used completely and which
substance would have an excess after reaction? A budding chemist can predict the answer using
his/her knowledge in stoichiometry. Observe and study how to determine the limiting reagent and
the excess reagent.

Step 1. Find the amount of the reactants in grams from its respective given masses.

Solution A. Using the mass of Fe2O3 find the expected mass of CO in the reaction

 1.00 mole  1.00 mole CO 28.0 g CO

Mass of CO = 30.0 g of Fe2O3 160 g Fe2O3 1.00 mole Fe2O3  1.00 mole CO
= 5.25 g CO

Solution B. Using the mass of CO, find the expected mass of Fe2O3 in the reaction
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 1.00 mole CO
Mass of Fe O = 16.80 g of CO   1.00 mole Fe2O3 160 g Fe2O3

2 3 8.0 g CO2 1.00 mole CO 1.00 mole Fe2O3
= 336 g Fe2O3

Step 2. Analyze the computed value from the given value.

From the calculation, it can be deduced that 5.25 g of CO is needed to react with 30.0 g
of Fe2O3 while 336 g of Fe2O3 is needed to react with 16.80 g CO. It should be noted
that only 30 g of Fe2O3 is available for the reaction.
Step 3. Identify the limiting reagent and the excess reagent.

The amount of Fe2O3 limits the reaction, hence, Fe2O3 is the limiting reagent.
It follows that CO is the excess reactant.
Step 4. Compute the excess value of the excess reactant.

What is the excess value? Simply subtract the calculated amount from the given
amount. In this example, it is the amount computed in Solution A.
Excess value of CO = 16.80 g CO – 5.25 g CO = 11. 55 g in excess

The limiting and the excess reagent can

be determined using mass-mass
relationship of the reactants. The
computed mass of a reactant that is
beyond the given value is the limiting
reagent. The other reactant is the excess

To calculate the excess value of

the excess reagent, subtract the
computed value from the given
value.
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 Try this:

A mixture of 3.00 g of Bi2O3 and 0.500 g C are used to produce

bismuth and CO in the reaction

Bi2O3 + 3 C → 2Bi + 3 CO

1. Determine the limiting reagent and the excess reagent.

2. What is the mass of the excess reagent?

What you will do

Solve the following problems:

1. Consider the reaction Si + C → SiC

What is the mole ratio of the reactants?

If 2 moles of Si were consumed in the reaction, how many moles of SiC were produced?
What mass of SiC will be produced if 0.500 g of Si reacted completely with C?

2. In the reaction 4HF + Si → SiF4 + 2H2

a. What is the mole ratio of the reactants?

b. What is the mole ratio of HF to SiF4?
c. If 4 moles of Si were consumed in the reaction, how many moles of HF were used?
d. What mass of SiF4 will be produced if 40 g of HF is used up in the reaction?
e. What mass of Si is needed to produce 18 g of H2?

3. When a mixture of 38 g of CS2 reacts with 40 g of CaO in the reaction

CS2 + 2CaO → CO2 + 2CaS

what is the limiting reagent and the excess reagent?
what is the excess mass of the excess reagent?
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How Energy is Harnessed from Different Sources

There are many sources of energy. In fact energy is everywhere in the universe.
Lightning and thunderstorms are nature’s demonstration of the presence of energy.
Energy is the ability to do work. Energy causes matter to do work, change position, or
move. Rolling stones, flowing water, a star shining in space, a strong typhoon destroying
everything it passes through, exploding firecrackers, and erupting volcanoes all display
energy. How is energy harnessed from different sources ?

1. Fossil Fuels
Fossils fuels are combustible materials that took millions of years to form underneath
the earth. They are also called convenience fuel. The fuels that belong to this category
are coal, petroleum, and methane gas which is now called natural gas. These types of
fuels are extensively used due to their technical convenience and economy. The
chemical energy stored in these fuels is transformed into heat and light by the process
of burning. This energy is then transformed into mechanical energy by an engine, or
into electrical energy by a generator.

2. Biogas
Biogas is produced by the anaerobic decomposition of organic materials brought about
by certain varieties of bacteria. It is a combustible gas consisting mostly of
inflammable hydrocarbon gas called methane ( CH4 ). The raw materials in biogas
production are waste materials such as cellulose, fats, oils, proteins, starches, and
sugars ( made up of toilet stuff , animal waste, and kitchen refuse ) . They are placed
in an airtight container called digester. Methane gas is burned to produce heat and light
for cooking and lighting purposes.

3. Geothermal
It is the heat obtained from underneath the earth and carried to the surface as steam, as
manifested in volcanoes, geysers, hot springs, and boiling pools. Geothermal energy
may also be in the form of dry, hot rocks. Holes are drilled afterwhich water is pumped
into the hole and steam is then pumped out. The steam is used to produce electricity.

4. Hydrothermal
Moving and falling water is used to turn waterwheels to run turbines and generators to
produce electricity. Water in dams or from waterfalls are the most common sources of
hydrothermal energy.

5. Batteries
Voltaic cells undergo electrochemical processes to produce electrical energy.

a. A dry cell is a voltaic cell in which the electrolyte is a paste. The zinc container
is filled with a thick, moist electrolyte paste of MnO2, ZnCl2, NH4Cl, and water.
The graphite rod is embedded in the paste. The zinc container is the anode and
54

the graphite is the cathode.

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b. A lead storage battery is usually used in cars. This is a group of voltaic cells
 connected together. Each cell produces 2-V. A 12-V car battery consists of 6
voltaic cells connected together. One set of grids is packed with spongy lead and
is called the anode. The other set is packed with lead oxide and is called the
cathode. For both the half-cells, the electrolyte used is sulfuric acid. Current is
produced when the lead at the anode and lead oxide at the cathode are both
converted to lead sulfate. These processes decrease the H2SO4 concentration in
the battery. Eventually, the battery is discharged. When this happens the battery
is brought to the battery store for recharging.

c. A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from fuel into electricity.
It requires a continuous supply of fuel and oxygen to sustain its chemical reaction.
Fuel cells are used as backup power for commercial, industrial, and residential
use, and as primary source of power in remote areas. They are also used to power
vehicles such as automobiles, motorcycles, boats, and submarines.

6. Solar Cells
A photovoltaic cells usually used for powering homes. Solar energy systema of solar
cells convert the incoming radiant energy from the sun directly into usable form.
Sunlight is directly converted to electrical energy. However, solar energy is used in
small scale because the technology involved is very expensive.

7. Biomass
Biomass is formed from plants and animals materials. Firewood is the traditional form
of biomass to provide heat and energy. In some instances, wood is first converted into
other forms of fuels like alcohol. Corn, sugar beets, potatoes, and sugar cane can be
mixed with gasoline and burned in cars. Water lilies are used to produce methane also
called swamp gas.

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CHAPTER FIVE
HOUSEHOLD AND PERSONAL CARE
PRODUCTS
Household and personal care products are important products at home. Most of these
are cleaning materials and cosmetics. It is important to be aware of the properties and
mode of action of these cleaning and cosmetics products.

Lesson 5.1 Common Examples of Cleaning Materials for the House and for
Personal Care

Cleaning materials for the house and for personal care are basic products that we
cannot do without. Cleaning the house is very much part of our everyday lives. It is also
important to be in the pink of health and well-groomed. For these, personal care products
are important.

What you will do

How to Make Soap

Procedure :

1. Prepare the following materials

229 g coconut oil 148 g vegetable shortening

15 g bees wax 27.5 g avocado or olive oil
75 g lye 184 ml distilled water
1 large stainless steel mixing bowl 1 container to heat oils
1 heat-resistant container ( Pyrex works well) 1 thermometer
a bottle of vinegar to neutralize lye spills rubber gloves
plastic moulders measuring spoon
weighing scale

2. In a pan, mix all the oils. Heat them together.

3. In a heat-resistant container, mix lye and water and heat them together.

4. When both mixtures reach the required temperature of 55oC, combine them.
Stir the final mixture well.

5. When the final mixture reached the desired consistency ( should be thick enough ),
56

pour it into a mould.

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 6. After setting it up for 24 to 48 hours, remove the soap form the mould. Restack the
soap to dry or “cure” it until hard. The soap can be used from 3 to 8 weeks.

Saponification

Soap is the most common household cleaning material. People in the older days heat
mixture of animal fats with a basic solution of lye obtained from wood ashes. Today, soaps are
prepared from oils and fats from vegetables and plants like coconut oil. Perfumes are added to
give them a pleasant smell. The process of making soap is called saponification. It is the
hydrolysis of oils and fats by boiling with an aqueous solution of an alkali metal hydroxide. Soaps
therefore are alkali ( Na, Li, or K ) salts of fatty acids.

How do soaps clean ? In a soap molecule, there is a polar end and a nonpolar end. The
polar end is hydrophilic or “water loving”. At the other end, is a long, nonpolar hydrocarbon chain
that is hydrophobic or “water fearing”. When soap molecules are mixed with dirt or grease, the
nonpolar bonds are attached to the nonpolar opil and grease particles. The dirt or grease is pulled
into the water by the attraction of polar ( salt ) ends of the soap molecules to water.

Other Cleaning Agents

Cleaning agents are substances which are usually liquids, powder, sprays, or granules.
They are usually used to remove dirt, dust, stains, bad smells, and clutter on surfaces. They are
used for health purposes, to remove offensive odours, and to avoid the spread of dirt. Most of
them can kill bacteria while cleaning at the same time. They are normally water solutions
(acidic, alkaline, or neutral). They may also be solvent-based or solvent-containing which are
called degreaser. Shampoos are used for washing the hair.

Borax is a strong cleaner and water softener. Lysol is used as a household disinfectant
spray. the active ingredient is o-phenylphenol. Rubbing alcohol or isopropyl alcohol is used as
an antiseptic. Waxes found in many plants and animals are used as protective coatings for
furniture, cars, and floors. Bees wax comes from honeycomb, carnauba wax is derived from
palm trees. There are also waxes used in making cosmetics.

What you will do

Answer the following problems.

1. Examine 3 to 5 cleaning products used in your house. From their product labels,
identify their active ingredients(s). Give the use of the active ingredient identified
in the product label.

a.
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b.
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c.
Lesson 5.2 Personal Care Products

Personal care products are now becoming basic necessities. People are getting more
conscious of their appearance and smell and how their skin and face look. They want to enhance
the appearance of their body.

What you will do

Find the effect of soap when mixed with oil and water.

Procedure :

1. Prepare the following materials

a small bowl water

vegetable oil soap solution

2. In a small bowl, place some water.

3. Add a drop of vegetable oil to the water in the bowl.

4. Add another drop of oil to the water.

5. Stir the water. What happens? Did the oil mix with the water? Explain your
observation.

6. Add a few drops of soap solution to the water and oil. Stir the mixture. What happens
to the oil layer? Explain.

7. Make a report of your activity and discuss it in class.

Emulsions

A colloidal dispersion of liquid in liquid. An emulsifying agent is needed for the formation
of an emulsion. For example, oil and greases are not soluble in water, but they are quick to form
a colloidal dispersion if soap or detergent is added to water. In this case, soap and detergents are
58

emulsifying agents. Cosmetics, shampoos, and lotions are formulated with emulsifiers to maintain
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consistent quality.
Some Common Personal Care Products

You are familiar with some common personal care products at home. These products are
used to enhance one’s appearance in order to gain confidence.

1. Cosmetics

Cosmetics are typical organic compounds that are modified natural oils and fats as well
as variety of petrochemically-derived agents. Some cosmetics are inorganic compounds
that are processed minerals such as iron oxides, talc, zinc oxides, as pigments or colorants
that have no solubility in solvents. “Mineral make-ups” apply to the categoryof face
make-up. It consists of foundation, eye shadow, blush, and bronzer made with loose dry
mineral powder and often mixed with oil-water emulsions. Jojoba oil is used in making
lipstick.

2. Lotions and Creams

Lanolin extracted from waxes obtained from wool is used in the manufacture of hand and
face lotions. It helps in the retention of water and in softening the skin. Shaving creams
are emulsion of oils, soaps or surfactants, and water. They contain alcohol, stearate
citrate, or witch hazel to prevent infection of cuts.

3. Deodorants

These are substances applied to the body to prevent bad odour caused by bacterial
breakdown or perspiration in armpits, feet, and other areas of the body. Antiperspirant
affect odour as well as prevent sweating by affecting sweat glands. They are usually in
gel form, sprays, or cream. Zirconium tetrachlorohydrex is the active ingredient of some
deodorants. This ingredients is regulated as cosmetics. Potassium alum or ammonium
alum deodorant crystals are also being used in deodorant products.

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The following ingredients are commonly used in the production of some personal care products.

1. Phenols and Phenol Derivatives

Are usually used as antiseptics. Essential oils of plants that produce the opdour or
flavour of plants are derivatives of phenol. Eugenol is found in cloves, vanillin is found
in vanilla bean, isoeugenol is found in nutmeg, and thymol is found in thyme and mint.
Phenols are used in mouthwashes.

2. Aliphatic Alcohols

Are used in mouthwash, perfumes, and sprays. Alcohols are effective as antiseptic. One
of the ingredients in aftershave, glycerol, is viscous, sweet tasting, and water soluble
liquid used as a moistening agent in cosmetics.

3. Ethyl Acetate - is a solvent widely used for fingernail polish.

4. Fragrant Esters

Are used in perfumes. Flowers and flavours of fruits are due to esters. Small esters are
volatile so we can smell them and they are also soluble in water so we can taste them.

5. Alpha Hydroxyl Acids

Include glycolic, lactic, malic, tartaric, and citric acids. These are used in concentratios
of 4-10 percent in skin care products. their main function is to soften skin cells and to
lessen wrinkles.

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 What you will do
Answer the following questions.

1. Give 3 to 5 skin care products that you personally use everyday. Identify the
active ingredients in every product. Explain how these ingredients can enhance
one’s appearance.

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

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CHAPTER SIX :
THE UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM

Imagine how Earth, the moon, and the sun move through space and how that
produces the sights you see in the sky. But how did humanity first realize that we live on
a planet moving through space ? That required the revolutionary overthrow of an
ancient and honored theory of Earth’s place.

By the 16th century, many astronomers were uncomfortable with the theory that Earth
sat at the center of a spherical universe. In this chapter, you will discover how an
astronomer named Copernicus changed the old theory, how Galileo Galilei changed the
rules of debate, and how Isaac Newton changed humanity’s concept nature.

The Aristotelian Universe

For 2,000 years, the minds of astronomers were shackled by a pair of ideas. The
Greek philosopher Plato argued that the heavens were perfect. Because the only perfect
geometrical shape is a sphere, which carries a point on its surface around in a circle, and
because the only perfect motion is uniform motion. Plato concluded that all motion in the
heavens must be made up of combinations of circles turning at uniform rates. This idea
was called uniform circular motion.

Plato’s student Aristotle argued that Earth was imperfect and lay at the center of the
universe. Such a model is known as a geocentric universe. His model contained 55
spheres turning at different rates and at different angles to carry the seven known planets
( the moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn ) across the sky.

Claudius Ptolemy created a mathematical model of the Aristotelian universe in which

the planet followed a small circle called the epicycle that slid around the larger circle
called the deferent. By adjusting the size and rate of rotation of the circles, he could
approximate the retrograde motion of a planet. In these way, he weakened the principles
of geocentrism and uniform circular motion.

Artistotle’s universe, as embodied in Ptolemy’s mathematical model, dominated

ancient astronomy, but it was wrong. The universe is not geocentric, and the planets
don’t follow circles at uniform speeds. At first the Ptolemaic system predicted the
positions of the planets well; but, as centuries passed, errors accumulated. Astronomers
tried to update the system, computing new constants and adjusting epicycle.

The Copernican Model

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Nicolaus Copernicus probably found it difficult at first to consider alternatives to the

Ptolemaic universe. He wrote an essay sometime before 1514, proposing a model of a
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heliocentric universe, in which the sun, not Earth, was the center. To explain the daily
and annual cycles of the sky, he proposed that Earth rotates on its axis and revolves
around the sun.

The Copernican hypothesis solved the problem of the place of Earth, but it didn’t
explain planetary motion. If planets don’t move in uniform circular motion, how do they
move ? The puzzle of planetary motion was solved during the century following the
death of Copernicus through the work of two men. One compiled the observations, and
the other did the analysis.

Tycho Brahe’s Legacy

Tycho made no direct contribution to astronomical theory. Because he could measure

no parallax for the stars, he concluded that Earth had to be stationary, thus rejecting the
Copernican hypothesis. However, he also rejected the Ptolemaic model because of its
inaccuracy. Instead he devised a complex model in which Earth was immobile center of
the universe around which the sun and moon moved. The other planets circled the sun.
The model thus incorporated part of the Copernican model, but in Earth – not the sun –
was stationary. Tycho preserved the central immobile Earth. Although Tycho’s model
was very popular at first, the Copernican model replaced it within a century.

Johannes Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion

He began by studying the motion of Mars, trying to deduce from the observations
how the planet moved. By 1606, he had solved the mystery, this time correctly. The
orbit of Mars is not a circle but a very slightly elongated ellipse, and with that he
abandoned the 2000 - year old belief in the circular motion of the planets. The planets do
not move at uniform speeds along their elliptical orbits. Kepler’s analysis showed that
they move faster when close to the sun and slower when farther away. With those two
brilliant discoveries, Kepler abandoned uniform circular motion and finally solved the
puzzle of planetary motion.

Ellipses are a prominent part of Kepler’s three fundamental rules of planetary motion.
Those rules have been tested and confirmed so many times that astronomers now refer to
them as natural laws :

Kepler’s First Law says that the orbits of the planets around the sun are ellipses with
thesun at one focus. Mercury has the most elliptical orbit, but even deviates only
slightly from a circle.

Kepler’s Second Law says that an imaginary line drawn from the planet to the sun
always sweeps over equal areas in equal intervals of time. This means that when the
planet is closer to the sun and the line connecting it to the sun is shorter, the planet
moves more rapidly, and the line sweeps over the same area that is swept over when
the planet is farther from the sun. But when the planet is farther from the sun, one
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month’s motion would be shorter, and the area swept out would be the same.
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 Kepler’s Third Law relate planet’s orbital period to its average distance from the sun.
The planet’s orbital period squared is proportional to the semi major axis of its orbit
cubed. Measuring P in years and a in astronomical units :

P2y = a2AU

Kepler’s three laws are empirical. That is, they describe a phenomenon without
explaining why it occurs. Kepler derived the laws from Tycho’s extensive observation.
In fact, Kepler never knew what held the planets in their orbits or why they continued to
move around the sun.

Galileo Galilei

The telescope was apparently invented around 1608 by lens makers in Holland.
Galileo , hearing descriptions in the fall of1609, was able to build telescopes in his
workshop. In fact, Galileo was not the first person to look at the sky through a telescope,
but he was the first person to apply telescopic observations to the theoretical problem of
the day – the place of earth.

What Galileo saw through his telescopes was so amazing that he rushed a small book
into print. The Starry Messanger ( Siderius Nuncius ) reported three major discoveries :

First, the moon was not perfect. It had mountains and valleys on its surface, and
Galileoeven used some of the mountains’ shadows to calculate their height. Aristotle’s
philosophy held that the moon was perfect, but Galileo showed that it was not only
imperfect but was a world with features like Earth’s.

Second, that the Milky Way was made up of myriad stars too faint to see with the
unaided eye.

Third, Galileo’s telescope revealed four new “planets” circling Jupiter, object known
today as the Galilean moons of Jupiter.

The moons of Jupiter were strong evidence for the Copernican model. Critics of
Copernicus had said Earth could not move because the moon would be left behind, but
Galileo’s discovery showed that Jupiter, which everyone agreed was moving, was able to
keep its motions. That suggested that Earth, too, could move and keep its moon.
Aristotle’s philosophy also included the belief that all heavenly motion was centered on
Earth. Galileo’s observations showed that Jupiter’s moons revolve around Jupiter,
suggesting that there could be other centers of motion besides Earth.

Galileo noticed something else that made Jupiter’s moons even stronger evidence for
the Copernican model. When he measured the orbital periods of the four moons, he
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found that the innermost moon moved fastest and the moons further from Jupiter centered
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on a line between Earth and the sun. That means it would be seen as a crescent. But
Galileo saw Venus go through a complete set of phases, which proved that it did indeed
revolve around the sun. There is no way the Ptolemaic model could produce those
phases. This was the strongest evidence that came from Galileo’s telescope; but, when
controversy erupted, it focused more on the perfection of the sun and moon and the
motion of the satellites of Jupiter.

What you will do

Answer the following questions.

1. Why did Greek astronomers conclude that the heavens were made up of perfect
crystalline spheres moving at constant speed ?

2. How was Tycho’s model of the universe similar to Ptolemaic model ?

How did it resemble the Copernican model ?

3. Explain how Kepler’s laws contradict uniform circular motion.

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CHAPTER EIGHT :

Ancient Greek Models of the Solar System

Motions in the Sky

Earth is always in motion. It spins and gyrates about its axis as it revolves around the sun. These
motions of Earth account for many celestial phenomena that we perceive as natural occurrences.
The motion of the Earth about its axis and orbit causes apparent motion of the sun, stars, and
other heavenly bodies.
How do the motions of Earth affect our Lives?
Diurnal and Annual Motion
It takes 24 hours for Earth to rotate about its axis from west to east. Because of this, we view
objects in the sky as if they are ones moving but in opposite direction – from east to west. The
apparent daily motion of stars and other celestial bodies across the sky caused by Earth’s rotation
about its axis termed a diurnal motion. Diurnal motion is responsible for the daily rising and
setting of the sun and the stars.
Earth also revolves around the sun once a year. As a result, the sun also apparently changes
position in the celestial sphere, moving each day about one degree to the east relative to the stars.
This apparent motion of the sun caused by Earth’s revolution around it is termed as annual
motion. Annual motion accounts for the visibility of a zodiacal constellation at a specific time of
the year. Along with the tilt of Earth’s axis, it is also responsible for our seasons.
These diurnal and annual motions are caused by our changing point of view as Earth rotates
about its axis and revolves around its orbit.
EARLY UNIVERSE
Humans, in an effort to understand the universe, had come up with several models. Before the
invention of the telescope, they had to relay with their senses for a picture of universe with much
philosophical and religious symbolisms. Around 600 B.C, Thales of Miletus proposed that Earth
is a disk floating on water. In 500 B.C, Anaximander, also from Miletus, proposed that Earth is a
cylinder and that its surface is curved.
A civilization flourished, several models were proposed. These models can be grouped into two
categories: geocentric and heliocentric. The geocentric considers Earth as the center of the
universe. The heliocentric assumes the sun to be at the center of the universe.
Here are some geocentric models of the universe proposed by the Greeks. IN all these models,
Earth and the other heavenly bodies were assumed to be spheres.
Pythagoras (c. 570 - c. 495 BC) — Universe is mathematical; mathematics as the best way to
66

express truth about the Universe; Sun, moon and Earth are spherical; placed Earth as the center
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of the Universe.
Plato’s Saving the Appearances (c. 427 - c. 347 BC) – Greek philosopher and teacher Plato
adopted the Phytagorean view of the motion of heavenly bodies as combinations of circular
motion about Earth. He assumes that all motions in the universe are perfectly circular and that all
heavenly bodies are ethereal or perfect.
Most of the time, planets moved from west to east as
predicted. But occasionally, they backtrack for a
while, that is, they move westward before resuming
their eastward motion. This is called retrograde
motion.

The followers and students of Plato were tasked to

explain the retrograde motion of the planets. In
particular, Plato challenged them with this problem:
“ What circular motions, uniform and perfectly
regular, are to be admitted as hypotheses so that it
might be possible to save the appearances presented
by the planets?” This challenge is known as “ Plato’s Fig. 1. Shows the retrograde motion of Mars
Saving the Appearances” in the history
of astronomy.

Eudoxus (of Cnidus, 408 - 355 BC) —

followed previous models of the universe but
added auxiliary spheres to provide appropriate
tilt to the planets’ path; uses a series of 27
concentric spheres on which the sun, the moon,
and the planets moved in perfect circular
motion.

Fig.2 Spheres of a planet around Earth according to

Eudoxus

Aristotle’s Model (384 - 322 BC) — two-domain system with terrestrial domain containing four
elements that tries to attain perfection by being in their natural location relative to the center of the
Universe: the center of the Earth. He was a learner of Plato.
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Two – domain view of the Universe

Fig. 3 Summary of the ancient Greek two-domains view of the Universe.

Figure 3 summarizes the ancient Greek two-domains view of the Universe. According to them, the
Universe is divided into two domains: Terrestrial and Celestial domains. The Celestial domain is
perfect hence can only be made up of the perfect substance they called “ether” and can only move
in perfect motion: circular in path and constant in speed.
The terrestrial domain objects are imperfect and that the tendency of things to attain perfection is
the cause of their motion. Meanwhile, they also believed that things, depending on their
composition of the elements — fire, air, water, and earth — tend to move towards the center of
the Universe (center of the Earth) or away from it with earth, naturally, as at the center. Fire and
water naturally move away from the center.
Based on the notion of how the Universe is made up and the tendency of things to move towards
their perfection, natural motion is believed as that brings things towards their more perfect state.
Thus, heavy objects fall “faster” than lighter ones. Even so, they already know the effect of air
drag being related to medium density (air or water) as well as the mass of the object. Their notion
of falling faster may be closer to terminal speed than the concept of acceleration.
Aristotle’s model was based on the three types of
terrestrial motion: natural, violent, and alteration.
Natural motion is related to the tendency of an object
to seek its natural place in the universe. The natural
motion of primordial elements is radially rectilinear.
However, terrestrial objects can be compelled to move
in unnatural ways by the application of a force. This
motion is considered violent motion. Aristotle
considered vertical motion as natural and horizontal
motion as violent. He also considered motion as a type
of change or alteration. Aristotle subsumed motion
under the larger category of change which may include
generation, corruption, and alteration in quality.
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Ptolemy’s Model
Apollonius, known in his times as “ the Great
Geometer”, introduced the idea of epicycle to
explain planetary motion. An epicycle is a
circle on which planet moves. The center of
this small circle in turn moves around Earth
along a bigger circular path called deferent.
To account for the variation of the speed of
the sun during its annual motion, Hipparchus
refined this model by considering that Earth
was off – center or eccentric in the deferent
where the sun moved. Around 140 AD,
Ptolemy devised a more complex epicycle
model. He defined a point on the other side of
the center of the deferent and called this as equant. The equant and the center of the Earth are
equidistant from the center of the deferent. When viewed at the equant, the epicycle orbited earth
at a constant rate. Each planet has its own epicycle and deferent. The Ptolemaic model of the
universe survived for more than fourteen centuries.

Fig. 4 . Ptolemy’s epicycle model

Here are some heliocentric models of the universe proposed by the Greeks.
Philolaus, a Greek astronomer of the fifth century, proposed the pyrocentric model of the universe.
According to him, neither Earth nor the sun was the center of the universe. Planets and heavenly
bodies were supposed to move around a “fire” located at the center of the universe.
Aristarchus in 300 BC proposed the first heliocentric model of the universe by considering this
“central fire” as the sun. He also placed the other known planets at that time based on their
distances from the sun. However, Aristarchus’s theory did not last because of the general
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satisfaction for the Ptolemaic Model.

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Copernican Model
Nicholas Copernicus asserted that Earth spin on its axis every day and revolves around the sun just
like the other planets. Only the moon orbits Earth. He still maintained the concept of uniform
circular motion and the epicycles of Ptolemy. He gave reasonable explanations for the variation of
brightness of planets and their retrograde motions. However, his model had two major scientific
problems : (1) the absence of stellar parallax and (2) the lack of perceived motion of Earth. Stellar
parallax is the apparent displacement of a star because of a change in the observer’s point of view.
The retrograde motion according to the Ptolemaic system is the literal retrograde motion (though
still apparent) due to the epicycles. The constraint of the Ptolemaic system is the requirement of
the two-domain framework that all celestial objects must be following purely circular motion.
Superposition of this circular motion, according to the Ptolemaic system reproduces the motions
observed.
The Copernican system, inspired by simplicity, explains that the apparent retrograde motion is
truly apparent due to the difference in the orbital speeds of the planets. At different times of the
year, the outer planet (such as Mars, relative to observer on Earth) moves as it does usually across
the fixed stars. However, once the Earth overtakes the planet (inner planets move faster than the
outer planets according to the model as they do as we know today), Mars apparently moves
backwards until Earth sufficiently passes away at which point Mars starts to follow and resume its
apparent motion relative to the background stars.

Fig.5. Comparison between geocentric model and heliocentric model

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Brahe’s Model
Tycho Brahe was considered the last and the greatest astronomical observatory in Hven, under the
patronage of Danish King Frederick II. In his observatory, he accurately measured and recorded
the positions of the sun, moon, and planets for 20 years. Realizing that his data did not fit into the
models of Ptolemy and Copernicus, he proposed hid own model of universe. In his universe, the
sun orbited Earth while the other planets orbited the sun. A hybrid of heliocentric and geocentric
models (also labeled “geoheliocentric system”).

Fig. 6. Brahe’s model of the universe

Notable Differences in the Model Systems

Model system Center Orbits Stars
Ptolemaic Earth All other celestial bodies orbit the Outermost celestial
Earth sphere, fixed
Copernican Sun All planets including Earth orbits Outermost celestial
the Sun, only Moon sphere, fixed
orbits the Earth
Tychonic Earth The Moon and the Sun orbits the Outermost celestial
Earth, all other sphere, fixed
planets orbit the Sun; debatable
whether some of
orbits (or shells) transect each
other; the version of
Tyco involves non-crystalline
orbital spheres of the
planets
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 Self - check
Draw the three alternative models of the Universe.

1. What are the two general categories of the models of the universe?

2. What are the differences and similarities between Ptolemy’s and Copernicus’ models of the
universe?

The Birth of Modern Astronomy

After the death of Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei, and Johannes Kepler made significant
contributions in modern astronomy. Their approaches to astronomy were different from one
another. Tycho Brahe was a good collector of astronomical data. Kepler was a mathematician and
pure theorist while Galileo was an experimentalist. Galileo used simple experiments and
deductions in advancing his view of the universe. Their contributions helped dethrone Earth from
the center of the universe.
Galileo’s Astronomical Observations
Galileo Galilei was one of the first person who used the telescope to look at the celestial objects.
Galileo also improved by 1609 on the original telescope first made in 1608 as it appeared in
Netherlands. It can be said that he had the best refracting telescope of his day. The following lists
some of the things that he saw with his telescope, all of which contradicted the models of Ptolemy
and Aristotle and provided new data that supported Copernican model.
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 1. The moon has mountains, valleys, and craters. This
suggested that the moon is not so different from Earth.
2. The surface of the sun has some blemishes, which are
now called sunspots. This contradicted the Greek
concept of the sun as being a perfect celestial body.
3. Moons of Jupiter. This showed that not all heavenly
bodies have to revolve around Earth. There are other
centers of revolution that are themselves revolving.
4. Venus has phases similar to the moon. This showed
that Venus is just illuminated by the light from the sun
and that it is revolving around the sun.
5. Many stars are too faint to be seen by the naked eye
became visible with his telescope

Fig.7. Galileo’s Telescope

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Johannes Kepler was hired as sort of “research assistant” by Brahe primarily to prove that Brahe’s
model (geoheliocentric model) of the Universe is consistent with the available data. Kepler needed
Brahe’s data to do mathematical analysis while Brahe needs Kepler to make mathematical
calculations to prove that the model satisfies the observed data.

Brahe died before his model is proven. Kepler inherited vast data set that will prove crucial for
developing his Three Laws of Planetary Motion later. It took Kepler many more years trying out
many possible models to fit the available data being concerned largely on the philosophical
implications of his models and the belief that there has to be simple numerical relationships among
phenomena like the Pythagoreans.

After working on Brahe’s very extensive data of Mars, Kepler was able to formulate his three laws
of planetary motion.

1. Law of Ellipses. As shown in figure 8. It states that

the planets move in ellipses having a common focus
situated at the sun. The other focus is empty. The
closest point to the sun in a planet’s orbit is called
perihelion. The farthest point is called aphelion.
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Fig. 8. Kepler’s Law of Ellipses

2. Law of Equal Areas. The planet moves around
the sun in such way that a line drawn from the
sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal
intervals of time. For this to be true, the planet
moves fastest at perihelion and slowest at
aphelion.

3. Law of Harmonies. It states that the squares of the

periods of the planets are proportional to the
cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
Period is the time to make a one complete
revolution around the sun.

𝑇1 𝑑1
( )² = ( )³
𝑇2 𝑑2

where T1 and T2 are the periods and d1 and d2 are the mean distances of planets 1 and 2 from
the sun, respectively.
The period of other planets is usually compared to the period of Earth which is a year. A year
is equal to 365 ¼ days

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Chapter Eight :

Motion
1. Aristotelian vs. Galilean Motion

More than 2000 years ago, ancient Greek scientists were familiar with some of the
ideas in physics that we study today. They had a good understanding of some of the
properties of light, but they were confused about motion. One of the first to study motion
seriously was Aristotle, the most outstanding philosopher-scientist of his time in ancient
Greece. Aristotle attempted to clarify motion by classification.

1.1 Aristotle on Motion

Aristotle divided motion into two main classes: natural motion and violent motion.
We shall briefly consider each, not as study material, but only as a background to
present-day ideas about motion.
Natural motion could be either straight up or straight down, as in the case of all
things on Earth, or it could be circular, as in the case of celestial objects. Violent motion,
Aristotle's other class of motion, resulted from pushing or pulling forces. Violent motion
was imposed motion.
To sum up, Aristotle taught that all motions are due to the nature of the moving
object, or due to a sustained push or pull. Provided that an object is in its proper place,
it will not move unless subjected to a force. Except for celestial objects, the normal state
is one of rest.

1.2 Copernicus and the Moving Earth

It was in this intellectual climate that the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus
(1474-1543) formulated his theory of the moving Earth. Copernicus reasoned that the
simplest way to account for the observed motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets through
the sky was to assume that Earth (and other planets) circle around the Sun.
Because Aristotle's views had become so formidably a part of Church doctrine, to
contradict them was to question the Church itself. For many Church leaders, the idea of
a moving Earth threatened not only their authority but the very foundations of faith and
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civilization as well. For better or for worse, this new idea was to overturn their
conception of the cosmos-although eventually the Church embraced it.
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1.3 Galileo on Motion

It was Galileo, the foremost scientist of the early seventeenth

century, who gave credence to the Copernican view of a moving
Earth. He accomplished this by discrediting the Aristotelian ideas
about motion.
Galileo easily demolished Aristotle's falling-body
hypothesis. Galileo is said to have dropped objects of various
weights from the top of the Leaning Tower of Pisa and to have
compared their falls. Contrary to Aristotle's assertion, Galileo found
that a stone twice as heavy as another did not fall twice as fast.

Aristotle views that an object requires a push or pull to keep it moving. And it was
this basic principle that Galileo denied when he stated that, if there is no interference
with a moving object, it will keep moving in a straight line forever; no push, pull, or
force of any kind is necessary.
Galileo tested this hypothesis by experimenting with the motion of various objects
on plane surfaces tilted at various angles. He noted that balls rolling on downward-
sloping planes picked up speed, while balls rolling on upward-sloping planes lost speed.
From this he reasoned that balls rolling along a horizontal plane would neither speed up
nor slow down. The ball would finally come to rest not because of its "nature" but
because of friction. This idea was supported by Galileo's observation of motion along
smoother surfaces: When there was less friction, the motion of objects persisted for a
longer time; the less the friction, the more the motion approached constant speed. He
reasoned that, in the absence of friction or other opposing forces, a horizontally moving
object would continue moving indefinitely. In the absence of retarding forces, the
tendency of the ball is to move forever without slowing down. We call this property of
an object to resist changes in motion inertia. Galileo's concept of inertia discredited the
Aristotelian theory of motion.

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In 1642, several months after Galileo died, Isaac Newton was born. By the time
Newton was 23, he developed his famous laws of motion, which completed the
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 overthrow of the Aristotelian ideas that had dominated the thinking of the best minds
for nearly two millennia.

2. Newton’s Laws of Motion

2.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion: Law of Inertia

Aristotle's idea that a moving object must be propelled by a steady force was
completely turned around by Galileo, who stated that, in the absence of a force, a
moving object will continue moving. The tendency of things to resist changes in motion
was what Galileo called inertia. Newton refined Galileo's idea and made it his first law,
appropriately called the law of inertia. From Newton's Principia (translated from the
original Latin):

Every object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in

a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces
impressed upon it.

The key word in this law is continues: An object continues to do whatever it

happens to be doing unless a force is exerted upon it. If it is at rest, it continues in a
state of rest. This is nicely demonstrated when a tablecloth is skillfully whipped from
under dishes on a tabletop, leaving the dishes in their initial state of rest. This property
of objects to resist changes in motion is called inertia.

2.1.1 Linear Motion

Everything moves-even things that appear to be at rest. They move relative

to the Sun and stars. As you're reading this, you're moving at about 107,000
kilometers per hour relative to the Sun, and you're moving even faster relative to
the center of our galaxy. When we discuss the motion of something, we describe
the motion relative to something else. If you walk down the aisle of a moving bus,
your speed relative to the floor of the bus is likely quite different from your speed
relative to the road. When we say a racing car reaches a speed of 300 kilometers
per hour, we mean relative to the track. Unless stated otherwise, when we discuss
the speeds of things in our environment, we mean relative to the surface of Earth.
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Motion is relative.
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Position
 The position x of a particle on an x axis locates the particle with respect to
the origin, or zero point, of the axis. The position is either positive or negative,
according to which side of the origin the particle is on, or zero if the particle is at
the origin. The positive direction on an axis is the direction of increasing positive
numbers; the opposite direction is the negative direction on the axis.

Displacement
The displacement ∆x of a particle is the change in its position:
∆x = x2 – x1.
Displacement is a vector quantity. It is positive if the particle has moved in
the positive direction of the x axis and negative if the particle has moved in the
negative direction.

Average Velocity
When a particle has moved from position x1 to position x2 during a time
interval ∆t = t2 – t1, its average velocity during that interval is
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
The algebraic sign of vavg indicates the direction of motion (vavg is a vector
quantity).Average velocity does not depend on the actual distance a particle moves,
but instead depends on its original and final positions.
Average Speed
The average speed savg of a particle during a time interval t depends on the
total distance the particle moves in that time interval:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡

Average Acceleration
Average acceleration is the ratio of a change in velocity ∆v to the time
interval ∆t in which the change occurs:
∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡
The algebraic sign indicates the direction of aavg.

Constant Acceleration
A body moving with changing speed is said to be accelerated. Acceleration
is defined to be the change in velocity for every unit of time. In symbols
∆𝑣 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
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𝑎=
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡2
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 Acceleration which is in the same direction as the change in velocity is a
vector quantity. The object’s velocity can be changed in three ways: by changing
its speed, by changing its direction of motion, or by changing both its speed and
direction of motion. Therefore, there can be acceleration even if there is no change
in speed. An object moving at constant speed accelerates when it changes direction.
A moving body is uniformly accelerated when the rate of change in velocity
is constant. For uniform acceleration the distance travelled is directly proportional
to the square of time elapsed. Also, for uniform acceleration the speed is directly
proportional to time elapsed. Motion like this can best be analysed and interpreted
by plotting and calculating the slope of the distance against time, distance against
time square, and velocity against time graphs. The five kinematic equations that
describe uniform acceleration are:

These are not valid when the acceleration is not constant.

Free-Fall Acceleration

An example of motion with constant acceleration is that of a body falling

under the influence of the earth’s gravitational attraction. Such motion has held the
attention of philosophers and scientists since ancient times. Aristotle thought that
heavy objects fall faster than light objects, in proportion to their weight. Galileo
argued that a body should fall with an acceleration that is constant and independent
of its weight.
The motion of falling bodies has since been studied with great precision.
When air resistance can be neglected, Galileo is right; all bodies at a particular
location fall with the same acceleration, regardless of their size or weight. If the
distance of the fall is small compared to the radius of the earth, the acceleration is
constant. If we use an idealized model in which we neglect air resistance. The
earth’s rotation, and the decrease of acceleration with increasing altitude, we have
a motion called freefall.
The constant acceleration of a freely falling body is called acceleration due
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to gravity, or the acceleration of free fall, and we denote its magnitude with the
letter g. at or near the earth’s surface, the value of g is approximately 9.8m/s2.
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 Because g is the magnitude of a vector quantity, it is always a positive number. On
the surface of the moon the acceleration due to gravity is caused by the attractive
force of the moon rather than the earth, and g = 1.62 m/s2.
The motion of a freely falling body can be described by the equations:

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡

1 2
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡
2
If it dropped from rest, vo = 0. Solving for g gives:
2𝑦
𝑔=
𝑡2
2.1.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Law of Acceleration

Consider a hockey puck at rest on ice. Apply a force, and it starts

to move it accelerates. When the hockey stick is no longer pushing
it, the puck moves at constant velocity. Apply another force by
striking the puck again, and again the motion changes. Applied force
produces acceleration.

Acceleration depends on the net force. To increase the

acceleration of an object, you must increase the net force acting on it. If you double
the net force on an object, its acceleration doubles; if you triple the net force, its
acceleration triples; and so on. This makes good sense. We say an object's
acceleration is directly proportional to the net force acting on it. We write

acceleration ~ net force

The symbol ~ stands for "is directly proportional to." That means any change
in one is the same amount of change in the other.

Mass Resists Acceleration

Push your friend on a skateboard and your friend accelerates. Now push equally
hard on an elephant on a skateboard and the acceleration is much less. You'll see
that the amount of acceleration depends not only on the force but on the mass being
pushed. The same force applied to twice the mass produces half the acceleration;
for three times the mass, one-third the acceleration. We say that, for a given force,
the acceleration produced is inversely proportional to the mass. That is,
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 1
Acceleration ~
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

By inversely we mean that the two values change in

opposite directions. As the denominator increases, the whole
quantity decreases. For example, the quantity 1/100 is less
than 1/10.

Law of Acceleration

Newton was the first to discover the relationship among three basic physical
concepts-acceleration, force, and mass. He proposed one of the most important
rules of nature, his second law of motion. Newton's second law states

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting

on the object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to
the mass of the object.

In summarized form, this is

𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Acceleration ~
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

We use the wiggly line ~ as a symbol meaning "is proportional to." We say that
acceleration a is directly proportional to the overall net force F and inversely
proportional to the mass m. By this we mean that, if F increases, a increases by the
same factor (if F doubles, a doubles); but if m increases, a decreases by the same
factor (if m doubles, a is cut in half). By using consistent units, such as newtons
(N) for force, kilograms (kg) for mass, and meters per second squared (m/s 2) for
acceleration, the proportionality may be expressed as an exact equation:
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Acceleration =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

In its briefest form, where a is acceleration, F net is net force, and m is mass, it
becomes
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡
a=
𝑚

An object is accelerated in the direction of the force acting on it. Applied in the
direction of the object's motion, a force will increase the object's speed. Applied in
the opposite direction, it will decrease the speed of the object. Applied at right
angles, it will deflect the object. Any other direction of application will result in a
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combination of speed change and deflection. The acceleration of an object is always

in the direction of the net force.
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 2.1.3 Newton’s Third Law: Law of Interaction

2.1.4 Summary of Newton’s Three Laws

Newton's first law, the law of inertia: An object at rest tends to remain at
rest; an object in motion tends to remain in motion at constant speed along a
straight-line path. This property of objects to resist change in motion is called
inertia. Mass is a measure of inertia. Objects will undergo changes in motion only
in the presence of a net force. Newton's second law, the law of acceleration: When
a net force acts on an object, the object will accelerate. The acceleration is directly
proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass. Symbolically,
a = F/m. Acceleration is always in the direction of the net force. When objects fall
in a vacuum, the net force is simply the weight, and the acceleration is g (the symbol
g denotes that acceleration is due to gravity alone). When objects fall in air, the net
force is equal to the weight minus the force of air resistance, and the acceleration is
less than g. If and when the force of air resistance equals the weight of a falling
object, acceleration terminates, and the object falls at constant speed (called
terminal speed). Newton's third law, the law of action-reaction: Whenever one
object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and
opposite force on the first. Forces occur in pairs, one action and the other reaction,
which together constitute the interaction between one object and the other. Action
and reaction always occur simultaneously and act on different objects. Neither force
exists without the other. Isaac Newton's three laws of motion are rules of nature
that enable us to see how beautifully so many things connect with one another. We
see these rules at play in our everyday environment.

3. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Physicists like to study seemingly unrelated phenomena to show that a relationship

can be found if the phenomena are examined closely enough. This search for unification has
been going on for centuries. In 1665, the 23-year-old Isaac Newton made a basic
contribution to physics when he showed that the force that holds the Moon in its orbit is the
same force that makes an apple fall. We take this knowledge so much for granted now that
it is not easy for us to comprehend the ancient belief that the motions of earthbound bodies
and heavenly bodies were different in kind and were governed by different laws.
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Newton concluded not only that Earth attracts both apples and the Moon but also
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that everybody in the universe attracts every other body; this tendency of bodies to move
 toward one another is called gravitation. Newton’s conclusion takes a little getting used to,
because the familiar attraction of Earth for earth bound bodies is so great that it overwhelms
the attraction that earthbound bodies have for each other. For example, Earth attracts an
apple with a force magnitude of about 0.8 N. You also attract a nearby apple (and it attracts
you), but the force of attraction has less magnitude than the weight of a speck of dust.
Newton proposed a force law that we call Newton’s law of gravitation: Every
particle attracts any other particle with a gravitational force of magnitude:
𝑚1𝑚2
𝐹 =𝐺
𝑟2
Here m1 and m2 are the masses of the particles, r is the distance between them, and
G is the gravitational constant, with a value that is now known to be
G = 6.67 x 10-11 N.m2/kg2 = 6.67 x 10-11 m3/kg.s2.
The strength of the gravitational force—that is, how strongly two particles with
given masses at a given separation attract each other—depends on the value of the
gravitational constant G. If G—by some miracle—were suddenly multiplied by a factor of
10, you would be crushed to the floor by Earth’s attraction. If G were divided by this factor,
Earth’s attraction would be so weak that you could jump over a building.

4. Momentum and Energy Conservation

4.1 Momentum
When we combine the ideas of inertia and motion, we are dealing with momentum.
Momentum is a property of moving things.
We all know that a heavy truck is harder to stop than a small car moving at the same
speed. We state this fact by saying that the truck has more momentum than the car. By
momentum we mean inertia in motion. More specifically, momentum is defined as the
product of the mass of an object and its velocity; that is,
Momentum = mass x velocity
Or, in shorthand notation,
Momentum = mv
We can see from the definition that a moving object can have a large momentum if
either its mass or its velocity is large or if both its mass and its velocity are large. The
truck has more momentum than the car moving at the same speed because it has a greater
mass. We can see that a huge ship moving at a small speed can have a large momentum,
as can a small bullet moving at a high speed. And, of course, a huge object moving at a
high speed, such as a massive truck rolling down a steep hill with no brakes, has a huge
momentum, whereas the same truck at rest has no momentum at all-because the v term
in mv is zero.
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4.2 Impulse
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 If the momentum of an object changes, then either the mass or the velocity or both
change. If the mass remains unchanged, as is most often the case, then the velocity
changes and acceleration occurs. What produces acceleration? We know the answer is
force. The greater the force acting on an object, the greater its change in velocity and,
hence, the greater its change in momentum.

But something else is important in changing momentum: time-how long a time the
force acts. If you apply a brief force to a stalled automobile, you produce a change in its
momentum. Apply the same force over an extended period of time, and you produce a
greater change in the automobile's momentum. A force sustained for a long time
produces more change in momentum than does the same force applied briefly. So, both
force and time interval are important in changing momentum.

The quantity force X time interval is called impulse. In shorthand notation,

Impulse = Ft.

4.3 Conservation of Momentum

When momentum, or any quantity in physics, does not change, we say it is

conserved. The idea that momentum is conserved when no external force acts is elevated
to a central law of mechanics, called the law of conservation of momentum, which states

In the absence of an external force, the momentum of a system

remains unchanged.

In any system wherein all forces are internal-as, for example, cars colliding, atomic
nuclei undergoing radioactive decay, or stars exploding-the net momentum of the
system before and after the event is the same.

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CHAPTER NINE :

How Light Act as a Wave and a Particle

We have defined energy as the ability to do work and work as the product of force and
distance. Now consider a transverse pulse moving along a spring toward the person holding the
far end. When the pulse reaches him/her, he/she feels a force pulling up or down on his/her hand,
and the force will move his/her hand slightly. Thus, it does work on his/her hand. The person who
started the wave pulse put energy into the spring, and this energy traveled in the form of a wave to
the other end.

Can you generate wave pulse and wave trains along a rope? Then try the succeeding activity.

What you will do

Activity 1.1
1. Get a piece of rope about 2 m long. Fix one end of a rope by tying it around a post or a rod.
2. Have a single disturbance in one end of the rope. What is formed? This time move that
same end with a series of disturbances. What did you observe? The single disturbance made
in a rope is called wave pulse while a series of disturbances are called wave trains.

3. How do you differentiate wave pulse from wave trains?

4. What is the medium used in this activity through which wave propagates?

Types of Waves

There are two types of waves: the transverse waves and the longitudinal waves. These are
mechanical waves that require a medium for propagation. Water waves and rope waves are
examples of transverse waves. On the other hand, light wave is an example of electromagnetic
wave, which does not require any medium for propagation. Recall what you did when you generate
waves in a rope. When you disturb one end of the rope, how did the rope waves travel with respect
to the direction of wave motion? Yes, rope waves travel in a direction perpendicular to the direction
of wave motion. This kind of wave is what we call transverse wave.

Below is an illustration of transverse wave.

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On the other hand, longitudinal waves are waves which travel in a direction parallel to the direction
of wave motion or parallel to the direction of vibration. The figure below illustrates longitudinal
waves.

Characteristics of Waves

Water waves are easily produced and observed. By touching one point on the surface you can see
the peaks of the waves form circles and move outwards from the source of the disturbance.

Some of the characteristics used to describe transverse wave motion are enumerated below:

1. The high points are called crests or peaks while the low points are called troughs.
2. The amplitude is the maximum displacement from the rest position. It is the height of the crest
or depth of a trough measured from the normal undisturbed position.
3. The wavelength, λ, is the distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs.
It is also equal to the distance between any two identical points on successive waves, for
example points A and B, and points C and D.
4. The frequency, f, is the number of crests or troughs that pass a point per second. This is
equivalent to the number of complete waves generated per second. Frequency is measured in
terms of hertz (Hz).
5. The period, T, is the time taken to generate one complete wave. It is also the time taken for
the crests, or any given point on the wave, to move a distance of one wavelength.

T = 1/f

6. The speed, v, of the wave is the distance moved by a wave in one second. Since the wave
crest travels a distance of one wavelength in one period, the wave speed,

v = λ / T or ν = f λ
Sample Problem:
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The frequency of some approaching ocean waves is 2 Hz and the length between two wave
crests is 3 m. What is the speed of the ocean waves moving towards the shore?
 Given:
f = 2 Hz
λ=3m

Formula: v = f λ
= 2 Hz x 3 m
= 6 m/s

Self - check

Solve the following exercises:

1. A vibration of frequency 5 Hz sends a wave of wavelength 0.8 m down a rope. What is the
speed of the wave?
2. A wave of wavelength 1.5 m travels down a rope at a speed of 6 m/s. What is the frequency
of the wave?

3. Below is an illustration of a transverse wave. Identify the characteristic of the wave that is
called for in the given item. Write your answer on the space provided below the figure.
Refer to the description of each characteristic as mentioned in the early part of Lesson

1 2 direction of travel
C D
3

A B

4. How are the frequency, period and speed of a transverse wave related?

Speed of Light

When we say speed of light, we mean speed of light in a vacuum. The speed of light in a vacuum
is represented by lower case letter c. Up to the seventeenth century, there was a conflicting ideas
about the speed of light. Aristotle, Hero of Alexandria, Johannes Kepler, and Rene Descartes
believed that light travels in vacuum at an infinite speed. There were other scientists believed
that light travels at a finite speed in vacuum and performed experiments to determin its value.

Galileo is often credited with being the first scientist who tried to determine the speed of light by
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measuring the time it takes for light to travel the distance between two hilltops that were a mile
apart. Galileo held a lamp at on hilltop, while his assistant held another lamp at the other hilltop.
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The assistant was task to remove the cover of his lamp once he sees the light of Galileo’s lamp.
Galileo measured the time between the flash of his lamp and when he received the flash of the
other lamp. The time was so short that Galileo was not able to determine it accurately. He just
concluded that light must have been travelling very fast.

The first astronomical determination of the speed of light was done by Ole Roemer in1676 based
on the eclipses of Io, one of the Jupiter’s moon. An eclipse of Io on Jupiter as seen from Earth
happened in June but in December, it was 22 minutes behind the schedule. Roemer noted that in
June, Jupiter was closest to the Earth; in December, it was farthest from Earth. He reasined out
that 22 minute delay was the time it took for the light to traverse the diameter of earth’s orbit.
With Roemer’s date, Huygens perform the calculation and came up with the value of
approximately 220 000km/s. This is roughly 27% lower than the actual value of the speed of
light. The discrepancy was due to the inaccuracy in measuring the time delay as well as the
imprecise measurement of the diameter of Earth’s orbit at his time.

Self - check
1. What are mechanical waves? What are electromagnetic waves?

2. How did Roemer establish that the speed of light id finite?

The Nature of Light

What is light? Is it matter or is it energy? Is it a particle or is it a wave? Do you know that for
centuries, scientists disagreed about the nature of light? Sir Isaac Newton in his corpuscular theory
of light thought that light is made up of particles that travels through space on a straight line. On
the other hand, Christian Huygens, a Dutch physicist, thought that light is made up of waves similar
to that of water waves. This is called the wave theory of light.

When scientist discovered the interference of light they thought they had proved that light consists
of waves. They felt that particles did not act this way. Yet, at that time, scientists believed that
waves must travel through a medium. They could not explain how waves of sunlight traveled to
the earth through a vacuum or space. Later, it was found that an electromagnetic wave, such as
light, could travel through a vacuum. Electromagnetic waves are disturbances caused by both
electric and magnetic fields. According to James Clerk Maxwell, light is that small part of the
electromagnetic spectrum which affects our vision. Light is propagated in space as
electromagnetic waves. This is known as electromagnetic wave theory of light.

More recently, scientists found evidence to prove that light does consist of particles. In
photoelectric effect, Einstein discovered that light shining on certain metals can make electron
jumps out of the metal. Brighter light can make more electrons jump, but they jump out at the
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same speed. However, different colors of light make electrons jump out at different speeds.
Scientists could explain these observations if light was made up of particles of energy called
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photons. Based on this, the Quantum Theory was proposed by Max Planck in 1900 and advanced
by Albert Einstein in 1905. This theory assumes that light is radiated in discrete packets or bundles
of energy called photons, which also exhibit wave characteristics. Based on the scientists’
investigations of the different behaviors of light, it is now considered to have dual characteristics
– those of a wave and those of a particle. These behaviors can only be observed under different
conditions.
Know This
When does light behave as a particle? When does it behave as a wave?
In general, if light interacts with light such as in interference, it manifests wave
behavior. If light interacts with matter like in the photoelectric effect, the
particle behavior is strongly manifested.

Light of higher frequencies shows more of a particle behavior while

light of lower frequencies shows more of the wavelike behavior.

Self - check

Direction: Match the theories about the nature of light in column A with their
corresponding proponents in column B.

Column A Column B
Theory Proponent
1. Wave Theory a. James Clerk Maxwell
2. Corpuscular Theory b. Christian Huygens
3. Electromagnetic Theory c. Max Planck
4. Quantum Theory d. Sir Isaac Newton
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Reflection and Mirrors
What can you see when you look at a mirror, or a polished metal or a still pool of water? You can
see your image. Why? These objects are image reflecting objects.
Types of Image
There are two types of images formed by reflecting surfaces. They are real and virtual
images. Real image is always inverted and is formed by actual rays of light. It can be projected
on the screen. Virtual image is always erect and is formed by apparent rays of light. It cannot be
projected on the screen.
Reflection of Light normal ray
When light hits a smooth surface like a mirror,
light is reflected. Reflection is the turning back of
light when it hits a barrier. The angle between the
incident ray and the normal rays is called the angle of incident i r reflected
incidence. The angle between the reflected ray and ray ray
the normal ray is the angle of reflection.
The laws of reflection state that: smooth surface

6. the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the

normal to the reflecting surface all lie in the i = angle of incidence
same plane. r = angle of reflection
7. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.
Spherical Mirrors
There are two kinds of spherical mirrors, the concave and
convex mirrors. If the reflecting surface is curved inward, it is
a concave mirror. If the reflecting surface is curved outward it
is a convex mirror.
a. concave mirror b. convex mirror

What you will do

Activity 2.2 Image in spherical mirrors
1. Get a spoon. This can serve as your mirror.
2. Look at the concave surface of the spoon. Place the mirror very near your face.
Describe your image.
3. Bring the spoon an arm length distance away from you. Describe your image.
4. Look now at the convex surface of the spoon. Observe your image as you bring the
spoon farther from you. Describe your image.

Refraction and Lenses

How does light travel? What happens to the ray of light when it passes through different
media, say air to water?
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What you will do
Activity 3.1 Refraction of light

8. Get a glass half-filled with water.

9. Place a pencil in this glass of water
10. Look at the pencil at the top of the glass. What happens to the pencil?
11. Look from the side of the glass. Do you notice any difference?
12. Remove the pencil out of the water. Is there a difference between the
way it looks in water and the way it looks in air?

The pencil appears bent when it is partly submerged in water. This

shows that a light ray bends as it passes from air to water. The change in
direction or the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another of different optical
density is called refraction. Refraction also makes the water appear shallower. Because of
refraction, a fish appears higher in the water when viewed from the bank than it actually is. A
teaspoon placed in a glass of water appears to be bent or broken at the surface of the water. A coin
placed in the bottom of a teacup, out of the line of vision of an observer, will become visible when
the cup is filled with water
Refraction and the Speed of Light
When light travels from air to water, its speed decreases. A medium is optically dense if
it slows down the speed of light. Water is optically denser than air.

When light travels from an optically less dense to denser medium at an angle, say from air
to glass, light bends toward the normal (Figure 9.a). When light travels from a denser to a less
dense medium at an angle, say from glass to air, the light bends away from the normal (Figure
9.b). The angle formed between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence,
i, and the angle between the refracted and the normal is called the angle of refraction, r.

incident normal incident normal

i = angle of incidence
ray ray ray ray
i i
r = angle of refraction
air glass

glass air
refracted
r
r ray
refracted
ray
(a) (b)
Fig. 9
(a) Refraction of light as it passes from air to glass
(b) Refraction of light as it passes from glass to air
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 Where does light travel fastest? The speed of light is different in almost transparent
material. In a vacuum the speed of light is about 3.0 x 10 8 m/s, and in water the speed is 1.88 x
108 m/s. The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to its speed in another substance is called the
absolute index of refraction, n, for that substance.
Remember this;
Speed of light, c
Index of refraction =
Speed of light in a given substance, v
c
n=
v
So, if you know the index of refraction of a substance you can determine the speed of light
in that substance.
Also, the higher the index of refraction, the slower the speed of light in the substance. This
means that the higher the optical density of a substance, the higher is its index of refraction.
Table 3.1 shows the index of refraction of some substances.
Table 3.1 Index of Refraction
Substance Index of Refraction, n
Air 1.0003
Glass, crown 1.52
Glass, float 1.63
Water 1.33
Diamond 2.42
Do you know what is the importance of the index of refraction? The index of refraction of
a pure, transparent substance is a constant quantity which is a definite physical property of a
substance. Hence, the identity of a substance can be determined by measuring its index of
refraction. The very high index of refraction of diamond provides a positive test for its
identification.
Laws of Refraction
The facts about refraction of light maybe summarized in three laws of refraction.
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence are all in
the same plane.
2. The index of refraction for a particular substance is always a constant.
3. When a ray of light passes at an angle from a medium of lesser to one of greater optical density, it is
bent toward the normal. Conversely, a ray of light passing at an angle from an optically denser
medium to a lesser medium is bent away from the normal ray.

Dispersion of Light
The index of refraction of a material is not really constant but slightly different for each
color of light. Hence, Lights on different color refracted by different amounts. Red having the
longest wavelength, is refracted the least. Violet, having the shortest wavelength, is refracted the
most. A prism is a piece of glass or a transparent material usually triangular in shape. Visible light
in passing through a prism is separated into its component colors. The process is called dispersion.
The components light are bent twice: first, when they enter the prism and second, when they leave
the prism. The dispersion increases during each refraction. This is why the color is separated.
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Isaac Newton first investigated dispersion by allowing white light to pass through a glass prism.
He also found out that if a dispersed white light were allowed to pass through another upside
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down prism, white light was produced.

 red
i
red
orange
violet yellow
green
white blue

light violet

Fig.10 Dispersion of light by a prism

The rainbow, nature’s
spectacular display of dispersion of light, is formed when sunlight passes through water
droplets suspended in air after a rain shower. Rene Descartes first gave a detailed
explanation of the formation of rainbow by mathematically tracing the path of light in a
spherical drop of water (fig. 11) in 1637

Fig.11 Dispersion of a single droplet of water showing the formation of the primary and secondary rainbow

Each droplet disperses all colors of light. However, our eyes can only see one particular
color for each droplet. This depends on the angle between the incident sunlight and
emerging refracted ray. It is 42° for the red and 40° for violet. All other colors lie between
these two values. The total effect produced by all the water droplets is the primary rainbow.
It is also possible for light to be reflected internally two times before coming of the water
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droplet. When this happens, a less bright secondary rainbow is produced. The angel
between the incident light and the emerging light is 52° for red and 54° for violet. In the
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 primary rainbow, the outer color is red and the inner color is violet. For the secondary
rainbow, the colors are reversed.
Scattering of Light
Do you know why the sky is blue during noontime? Why is the sky red at sunset?
There are particles in the sky that are capable of redirecting light in a process called
scattering. These particles are called scatterers.
When sunlight shines down on the atmosphere, the dust particles or molecules in the
atmosphere scatter the light in all direction. The amount of scattering of light depends on the
wavelength of the light. During noontime, most of the blue light of shorter wavelength in sunlight
is scattered and reflected to earth, so the sky looks blue. At sunset, the light travels longer distances
with more air and dust in the atmosphere. Thus, most of the blue light is absorbed before it reaches
you. Therefore, red light which has a longer wavelength is the most predominant color left when
the light from the sun reaches the eye. Hence, the sunset appears red.
Clouds contain a lot of water droplets and ice crystals which are large enough to scatter
almost equally all components of visible light. This causes clouds to appear white, however, as
clouds gather more water droplets and water crystals, they become heavier and thicker. Clouds
that contain too much water droplets are rain clouds. More light is scattered, resulting in less light
penetrating all the way through them. Moreover, if the water droplets near the cloud base grow
larger they become less effective scatterers and more effective absorbers of light. Thus, the rain
cloud appear dark.

Colors of an Object

Why do objects show colors? Objects show colors because they reflect one or more of the colors
present in the white light. The color of an object depends on the wavelength of light that it reflects.
It should be recalled that the primary colors of light are red, blue, and green. If equal intensities of
these primary colors of light were shone on a spot, the spot is white. All other colors produced by
mixing suitable portions of primary colors are called secondary colors. For example,
Red + Blue = Magenta
Red + Green = Yellow
Blue + Green = Cyan
A transparent material selectively absorbs one or more frequencies of light and transmits what is
not absorbed. The color of a transparent material is the color of light it transmits. This explains
why light from a red laser passes more easily through a red cellophane than green cellophane.

If you look at a color printer cartridge, you notice three dots – cyan, magenta, and yellow. These
are the colors of ink your printer uses to make all other colors. Cyan, yellow, and magenta are
three primary colors for pigments.

Artists or painters do not use light but pigments or dyes. The process they use to produce different
colored paints is color subtraction. Each primary color of pigment absorbs a primary color of light.
The color of light it absorbs is its complementary color. Complementary colors, when added,
produce white. Magenta ad green, blue and yellow, and cyan and red are complementary colors.
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For instance a yellow pigment absorbs blue light, magenta absorbs green, and cyan absorbs red.
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Interference of light
Interference simply means combination of waves travelling in the same medium at the
same time.
When light strikes the outer surface of a transparent
material like a soap bubble, part of the light is reflected and
part of the light enters the inside surface. At the inside surface,
some of the light is reflected again. The two reflected beams
returning toward your eye may have a path difference that is
determined by the thickness of the film. If the light waves are
in phase, they interfere constructively and produce a bright
fringe. If they are out of phase, they interfere destructively
and produce a dark band. If white light is incident on the thin
film, light of different wavelengths (colors) constructively
interfere in different regions, giving rise to the rainbow-
colored appearance of the film.

Fig. 12. Interference of light in soap

bubbles

Thomas Young (1801) was the first to demonstrate interference of light using two slits.
Waves from a monochromatic light source are made to pass through two narrow slits, S 1 and S2
(Figure 13).
Fig. 13 Interference of light using two slits

According to Huygen’s principle, these slits are sources of secondary waves. One slit
spreads out the light and produces its own wave. The other slit also diffracts the light, producing
another wave. These waves produced in S1 and S2 are of the same wavelength and in phase with
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the initial light source. When the light waves from S1 and S2 meet at point P0 in phase, wave crests
meet wave crests and troughs meet troughs, constructive interference occurs, producing a bright
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area.
 Light waves from two slits may be completely out of phase when they meet at a point P 1,
that is, a crest meets a trough. In such a case, destructive interference occurs, producing a dark
area.

What you will do

Activity 4.2 Diffraction of Light
6. Look at the light through a slit between your fingers. What do you observe? Do you see
vertical white and dark bands? What causes the bands?
7. Repeat step 1 but make the slit narrower. What happens when the slit becomes narrower?

As you look at the light through one slit between your fingers you observe thin vertical
white and dark bands. This is because of the bending or spreading out of light after passing through
the opening. The bending of light as it passes through an obstruction such as a small slit is called
diffraction.

As the slit becomes narrow, diffraction patterns become more prominent.

Atmospheric Optics

Optical phenomena such as twinkling of stars, rainbows, sin dogs, halos, and mirages, are made
possible by the refraction of sunlight. There are small variations in the index of refraction of
earth’s atmosphere. This is due to the differences in the density of air as a result of temperature
variations.

When light from a star enters the atmosphere, it is refracted several times as it moves from one
mass of air to another that is of different index of refraction. This results in what is technically
called stellar scintillation or the twinkling of a star.

Light refracted by ice crystals in the atmosphere can produce sun dogs and halos. Ice halos are
rings and arcs of light that appear in the sky. Sun dogs are rainbow – colored splashes
appearing on the left or right of the sun. The moon may also have halos and moon dogs. These
halos and moon dogs normally happen during winter when there are ice crystals in atmosphere.

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When rainbows are nearly of same size, a set of fainter bows inside the primary rainbow may be
formed. These bows are called supernumerary bows and are formed by the interference of light
coming out of each rain drop at slightly different trajectories.

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CHAPTER TEN :

Electricity and Magnetism

Electrical Charges
As early as 600BC, humans were already aware of attracting ability of amber and
lodestone. Amber is a yellowish brown fossil resin. Thales of Miletus investigated the ability of
amber to attract nearby objects. In 1600, William Gilbert found out that many other substances
when rubbed against another have this ability of amber. He coined the term electricity from the
word elektron, which is the Greek word for another.
In 1752, Benjamin Franklin conducted experiments on glass rods rubbed with silk and rubber
rubbed with fur. The two glass rods repelled each other. The two rubber rods repelled each other
also. But the glass rod and the rubber rod attracted each other. He is responsible for formulating
the law of conservation of charges. Conservation of charges simply states that for an isolated
system, the sum of charges before and after an interaction must be constant. He also invented the
lightning rod to protect buildings and barns from lighting strikes.

The SI unit of charge is the coulomb, abbreviation as capital letter C. The charge of an
electron is – 1.6 x 10−19C. The charge of a portion is 1.6 x 10−19 C. The value 1.6 x 10−19 C is
designated by letter e.

e = 1.6 x 10−19 C
The charge of a body is represented by a capital letter Q.

Charles – Agustin de Coulomb conducted experiments to determine how the force of attraction
or repulsion between stationary charges is affected by the magnitude of charges and the distance
between them. this experiment was the law that bears his name Coulomb’s law.

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Magnetism from Electricity

On the morning of February 16, 1820, an important discovery was made

by accident. Professor Hans Christian Oersted in Denmark was giving a
lecture on electricity to his students. He closed a switch to demonstrate the
flow of current. There happened to be a compass nearby. Every time the
professor closed the switch, the compass needle turned. Oersted had
discovered that an electric current is surrounded by a magnetic field.

Hans Christian Oersted

His discovery made him conclude that a current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field. This
led to the principle of electromagnet. An electromagnet is a magnet that can be switched on and
off. It is a solenoid with a core. The strength of an electromagnet can be made stronger by
increasing the number of turns on the core.

Shortly after Oersted announced his discovery, Andre – Marie Ampere conducted experiments
and concluded that electric current passing through a coil or a solenoid produces magnetic field.
A solenoid is simply a long coil of several turns of wire. the magnetic field produced is stronger
than that of a straight wire. Ampere later formulated a law for computing magnetic field for
different conductor configurations. Not to be outdone, Jean – Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart
formulated the Biot – Savart law for determining the magnetic field at a point in space due to an
electric current.

Electricity from Magnetism

If electric current produces a magnetic field, then the reverse is also true. That is, a changing
magnetic field can produce electric current. The process by which a changing magnetic field
produces an electric current is called electromagnetic induction. Michael Faraday is credited for
this discovery. Michael Faraday concluded that when a wire is moved through a magnetic field, a
current is generated in the wire. This process of generating current by the relative motion between
a wire and magnetic field is called electromagnetic induction.
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What you will do

Activity 3.1 Make your own electromagnet

Materials: Large nail, copper wire, dry cell and paper clips
Procedure:
1. Gather all the materials needed.
2. Wrap the copper wire around the large nail.
3. Connect the free ends of the wire to a dry cell.
4. Place the iron nail coil near pieces of nail, paper clips and pins.
5. Observe what happens. _
Disconnect the wire from the dry cell. What happens?

Unifying Electricity and Magnetism

James Clerk Maxwell realized that the many results of independent studies about electricity and
magnetism showed that they are not distinct phenomena. Electricity and magnetism are but
manifestations of a single force – electromagnetic force. He devised mathematical equations that
unified electric and magnetic phenomena into now known as electromagnetic theory. Maxwell’s
equations form the basis of electromagnetism. Electromagnetism is a branch of physics that deals
with electricity and magnetism. The four equations are stated as follows;
1. Like charges; unlike charges attract.
2. Magnetic monopoles do not exist.
3. A changing electric field produces a magnetic field.
4. A changing field produces an electric field.
Maxwell demonstrated that changing electric and magnetic fields travel through space in form of
waves and at the constant speed of light.

Electromagnetic Waves
Heinrich Hertz designed an experimental set-up that enabled him to generate and detect
electromagnetic waves. Here’s how he did it.

B
Sparks are produced in the
spark balls (marked A) when
high voltage runs across the
circuit. It was observed that
similar sparks are produced on
spark balls B.
A

10
0e
Pa
g
No wires were connected A to B but the same phenomenon was seen in the two gaps. Hertz
concluded that vibrating charge, made evident by the sparks, produced EM waves that were
detected by the set-up B. Hertz’ experiment proved that electromagnetic waves do exist!

Hurray to Mr. Maxwell and Mr.

Hertz for a job well done!

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CHAPTER 12 :
Relativity
One principal subject of physics is relativity, the field of study that measures events (things
that happen): where and when they happen, and by how much any two events are separated in
space and in time. In addition, relativity has to do with transforming such measurements (and also
measurements of energy and momentum) between reference frames that move relative to each
other. (Hence the name relativity.)

The adjective special means that the theory deals only with inertial reference frames, which
are frames in which Newton’s laws are valid.(Einstein’s general theory of relativity treats the more
challenging situation in which reference frames can undergo gravitational acceleration; in this
chapter the term relativity implies only inertial reference frames.)

Starting with two deceivingly simple postulates, Einstein stunned the scientific world by
showing that the old ideas about relativity were wrong, even though everyone was so accustomed
to them that they seemed to be unquestionable common sense. This supposed common sense,
however, was derived only from experience with things that move rather slowly. Einstein’s
relativity, which turns out to be correct for all physically possible speeds, predicted many effects
that were, at first study, bizarre because no one had ever experienced them.

In particular, Einstein demonstrated that space and time are entangled; that is, the time
between two events depends on how far apart they occur, and vice versa. Also, the entanglement
is different for observers who move relative to each other. One result is that time does not pass at
a fixed rate, as if it were ticked off with mechanical regularity on some master grandfather clock
that controls the universe. Rather, that rate is adjustable: Relative motion can change the rate at
which time passes. Prior to 1905, no one but a few daydreamers would have thought that. Now,
engineers and scientists take it for granted because their experience with special relativity has
reshaped their common sense. For example, any engineer involved with the Global Positioning
System of the NAVSTAR satellites must routinely use relativity (both special relativity and
general relativity) to determine the rate at which time passes on the satellites because that rate
differs from the rate on Earth’s surface. If the engineers failed to take relativity into account, GPS
would become almost useless in less than one day.

Special relativity has the reputation of being difficult. It is not difficult mathematically, at
least not here. However, it is difficult in that we must be very careful about who measures what
about an event and just how that measurement is made—and it can be difficult because it can
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contradict routine experience.

1.1 The Postulates

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We now examine the two postulates of relativity, on which Einstein’s theory is based:
 The Relativity Postulate: The laws of physics are the same for observers in all inertial
reference frames. No one frame is preferred over any other.
Galileo assumed that the laws of mechanics were the same in all inertial reference frames.
Einstein extended that idea to include all the laws of physics, especially those of
electromagnetism and optics. This postulate does not say that the measured values of all
physical quantities are the same for all inertial observers; most are not the same. It is the laws
of physics, which relate these measurements to one another that are the same.
The Speed of Light Postulate: The speed of light in vacuum has the same value c in all
directions and in all inertial reference frames.
We can also phrase this postulate to say that there is in nature an ultimate speed c, the same
in all directions and in all inertial reference frames. Light happens to travel at this ultimate
speed. However, no entity that carries energy or information can exceed this limit. Moreover,
no particle that has mass can actually reach speed c, no matter how much or for how long that
particle is accelerated.(Alas, the faster than-light warp drive used in many science fiction
stories appears to be impossible.) Both postulates have been exhaustively tested, and no
exceptions have ever been found.

1.2 The Ultimate Speed

The existence of a limit to the speed of accelerated electrons was shown in a 1964
experiment by W. Bertozzi, who accelerated electrons to various measured speeds and—by an
independent method—measured their kinetic energies. He found that as the force on a very
fast electron is increased, the electrons measured kinetic energy increases toward very large
values but its speed does not increase appreciably. Electrons have been accelerated in
laboratories to at least 0.999 999 999 95 times the speed of light but—close though it may be—
that speed is still less than the ultimate speed c.
This ultimate speed has been defined to be exactly
c = 299 792 458 m/s.
Caution: So far in this book we have (appropriately) approximated c as 3.0 108 m/s, but in
this chapter we shall often use the exact value. You might want to store the exact value in your
calculator’s memory (if it is not there already), to be called up when needed.

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