Chemistry: A Molecular Approach

Sixth Edition

Chapter 3
Molecules and Compounds

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Elements combine with each other to form compounds.
The dramatic difference between the elements hydrogen and oxygen and the compound water is typical of the
differences between elements and the compounds that they form.

• Selected • Hydrogen • Oxygen • Water

• Properties
• A hydrogen molecule has 2 hydrogen atoms represented as 2 white spheres fused together. • An oxygen molecule has 2 oxygen atoms represented as 2 red spheres fused together. • A space filling model of a water molecule, with a central oxygen atom and 2 outer hydrogen atoms.

• Boiling Point • Negative 253 degree Celsius • Negative 183 degree Celsius • 100 degree Celsius

• State at Room • Gas • Gas • Liquid

• Temperature
• Flammability • Explosive • Necessary for • Used to extinguish

• combustion • flame

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Mixtures and Compounds
• In a mixture, elements can mix in any proportions
Whatsoever (hydrogen, and oxygen,
• In a compound, elements combine in fixed, definite
proportions (water,

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Definite Proportion (2 of 2)

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Chemical Bonds
• Compounds are composed of atoms held together by
chemical bonds.
• Chemical bonds result from the attractions between the
charged particles (the electrons and protons) that
compose atoms.
• Chemical bonds are broadly classified into two types:
– ionic and
– covalent.

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Ionic Bonds
• Ionic bonds, which occur between metals and nonmetals,
involve the transfer of electrons from the metal atom to the
nonmetal atom.
• The metal atom then becomes a cation while the nonmetal
atom becomes an anion.
• These oppositely charged ions attract one another by
electrostatic forces and form an ionic bond.
• In the solid phase, the ionic compound is composed of a
lattice—a regular three-dimensional array—of alternating
cations and anions.

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The Formation of Ionic Compounds

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Covalent Bonds
• Covalent bonds occur between two or more nonmetals.
The two atoms share electrons between them, composing
a molecule.
• Covalently bonded compounds are also called molecular
compounds.

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Conceptual Connection 3.1 (1 of 2)
What type of bond—ionic or covalent—forms between
nitrogen and oxygen?

a. Ionic
b. Covalent

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Conceptual Connection 3.1 (2 of 2)
What type of bond—ionic or covalent—forms between
nitrogen and oxygen?
a. Ionic
b. Covalent

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Representing Compounds: Chemical
Formulas and Molecular Models
• A compound’s chemical formula indicates the elements
present in the compound and the relative number of atoms
or ions of each.
– Water is represented as
– Sodium Chloride is represented as NaCl.
– Carbon dioxide is represented as
– Carbon tetrachloride is represented as

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Types of Chemical Formulas
• Chemical formulas can generally be categorized into
three different types:
– empirical formulas: gives the relative number of
atoms of each element in a compound.
Communicates the least information.
– molecular formulas: gives the actual number of
atoms of each element in the molecule of a
compound
– structural formulas: uses lines to represent
covalent bonds and shows how atoms in a molecule
are connected or bonded to each other. It can also
convey the molecule’s geometry. Communicates the
most information
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Types of Chemical Formulas (2 of 4)
• For H2O2, the greatest common factor is 2. The empirical
formula is therefore HO.
• For CCl4, the only common factor is 1, so the empirical
formula and the molecular are identical.

Structural formula for H2O2

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Conceptual Connection 3.2 (1 of 2)
Select the structural formula for water.

a.
b.
c.

d.

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Conceptual Connection 3.2 (2 of 2)
Select the structural formula for water.

a.
b.
c.
d.

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Ways of Representing a Compound
Table 3.1 Benzene, Acetylene, Glucose, and Ammonia
• Name of • Empirical • Molecular • Structural • Ball-and- • Space-
Stick Filling
• Compoun • Formula • Formula • Formula
d • Model • Model
• Benzene • CH
• The structural formula of benzene.

• C subscript 6 H subscript 6 • The ball and stick model for benzene. The spheres and rods replace the letters and bond lines in the structural formula. • The space filling model for benzene. The rods from the ball-and-stick model are removed and spheres are enlarged.

• C atoms form a 6-sided ring, with alternating single and double bonds. Each C atom is single bonded outward to an H atom.

• Acetylene • CH
• C subscript 2 H subscript 2 • The structural formula for acetylene is a linear structure as follows. H, single bond, C, triple bond, C, single bond, H. • The ball and stick model for acetylene. The spheres and rods replace the letters and bond lines in the structural formula. • The space filling model for acetylene. The rods from the ball-and-stick model are removed and spheres are enlarged.

• Glucose
• T
h
e
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
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f
o
r
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.

• A
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a
C
H
d
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b
l
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b • T
o h
• C H subscript 2 O • C subscript 6 H subscript 12 O subscript 6 n e • T
d b h
e a e

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d l s
t l p
o a a
O n c
. d e
T s f
h t i
e i l
s c l
e k i
c m n
o o g
n d m
d e o
, l d
f f e
o o l
u r f
r g o
t l r
h u g
, c l
a o u
n s c
d e o
f . s
i T e
f h .
t e T
h s h
c p e
a h r
An Atomic-Level View of Elements and
Compounds

• Elements may be either atomic or molecular.

• Compounds may be either molecular or ionic.

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View of Elements and Compounds
• Atomic elements exist in nature with single atoms as
their basic units. Most elements fall into this category.
– Examples include Na, Ne, K, Mg, etc.
• Molecular elements do not normally exist in nature with
single atoms as their basic units; instead, they exist as
molecules—two or more atoms of the element bonded
together.
– There are only seven diatomic elements and they are

– Also, are polyatomic elements.

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Molecular Elements

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Molecular Compounds
• Molecular compounds are usually composed of two or
more covalently bonded nonmetals.
• The basic units of molecular compounds are molecules
composed of the constituent atoms.
– Water is composed of molecules.
– Dry ice is composed of molecules.
– Propane (often used as a fuel for grills) is
composed of

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Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds are composed of cations (usually a metal)
and anions (usually one or more nonmetals) bound together
by ionic bonds (always contain positive and negative ions.)
• The basic unit of an ionic compound is the formula unit, the
smallest, electrically neutral collection of ions (sum of the
charges of the cations must equal the sum of the charges of the
anions.)
• Table salt is an ionic compound with the formula unit NaCl which is
composed of Na+ and Cl- ions in a 1:1 ratio.
• The formula of an ionic compound reflects the smallest whole-
number ratio of ions.

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Molecular and Ionic Compounds

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Naming Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds can be categorized into two types,
depending on the metal in the compound.

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Naming Type Ionic Compounds
One

• Type ionic compounds contain a metal whose charge

is invariant from one compound to another (representative
elements) form only one type of charge. when bonded with a
nonmetal anion.

• The metal ion always has the same charge

and can be predicted from their group numbers.

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Metals Whose Charge Is Invariant from One
Compound to Another

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Conceptual Connection 3.6 (1 of 2)
Which metal has the same charge in all of its compounds?

a. Fe
b. Mo
c. Pb
d. Sr

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Conceptual Connection 3.6 (2 of 2)
Which metal has the same charge in all of its compounds?
a. Fe
b. Mo
c. Pb
d. Sr

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Table 3.2 Some Common Monoatomic
Anions
• Nonmetal • Symbol for Ion • Base Name • Anion Name
• Fluorine • F superscript negative

• fluor • Fluoride
• Chlorine • C l superscript negative

• chlor • Chloride
• Bromine • B r superscript negative

• brom • Bromide
• Iodine • I superscript negative

• iod • Iodide
• Oxygen • O superscript 2 negative

• ox • Oxide
• Sulfur • S superscript 2 negative

• sulf • Sulfide
• Nitrogen • N superscript 3 negative

• nitr • Nitride
• Phosphorus • P superscript 3 negative

• phosph • Phosphide

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Naming Binary Ionic Compounds of
Type Cations
One

• Binary compounds contain only two different elements.

The names of binary ionic compounds take the following
form:

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Examples: Type Binary Ionic
One

Compounds

• The name for KCl consists of the name of the cation,

potassium, followed by the base name of the anion,
chlor, with the ending -ide.
– KCl is potassium chloride.
• The name for CaO consists of the name of the cation,
calcium, followed by the base name of the anion, ox,
with the ending -ide.
– CaO is calcium oxide.

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Naming Type two Ionic Compounds
• The second type of ionic compound contains a metal that
can form more than one kind of cation, depending on the
compound, bonded to a nonmetal anion.
• Metals of this type are often transition metals (tend to
form multiple types of charges and cannot be predicted
from their group numbers).
• The metal’s charge must be specified for a given
compound.
• The proportion of metal cation to nonmetal anion helps us
determine the charge on the metal ion.

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Naming Type Binary Ionic
Compounds (1 of 2)
Two

• The full name of compounds containing metals that form

more than one kind of cation have the following form:

• The charge of the metal cation can be determined by

inference from the sum of the charges of the nonmetal.

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Type Two Ionic Compounds
• Iron, for instance, forms a 2+ cation in some of its
compounds and a 3+ cation in others.
– FeS: here, the iron cation has +2 charge
– here, the iron cation has +2 charge
– here, the chromium cation has +3 charge
– CuO: here, the copper cation has +2 charge
• Some main group metals, such as Pb, Ti, and Sn, form
more than one type of cation.

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Naming Type Binary Ionic
Compounds (2 of 2)
Two

• For these types of metals, the name of the cation is

followed by a roman numeral (in parentheses) that
indicates the charge of the metal in that particular
compound.
– For example, we distinguish between
as follows:
▪
▪

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Table 3.3 Some Metals That Form Cations
with Different Charges (1 of 2)
• Metal • Ion • Name • Older Name*
• Chromium • Chromous
• C r superscript 2 positive • Chromium Second

• Chromic
• C r superscript 3 positive • Chromium Third

• Iron • Ferrous
• F e superscript 2 positive • Iron Second

• Ferric
• F e superscript 3 positive • Iron Third

• Cobalt • Cobaltous
• C o superscript 2 positive • Cobalt Second

• Cobaltic
• C o superscript 3 positive • Cobalt Third

• Copper • Cuprous
• C u superscript positive • Copper First

• Cupric
• C u superscript 2 positive • Copper Second

• Tin • Stannous
• S n superscript 2 positive • Tin Second

• Stannic
• S n superscript 4 positive • Tin Fourth

• Mercury • Mercurous
• H g superscript 2 positive, subscript 2 • Mercury First

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Mercuric
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• H g superscript 2 positive • Mercury Second
Table 3.3 Some Metals That Form Cations
with Different Charges (2 of 2)

*An older naming system substitutes the names found in this column for the name of the metal and its
charge. Under this system, chromium oxide is named chromous oxide. Additionally, the suffix
-ous indicates the ion with the lesser charge, and -ic indicates the ion with the greater charge. We
will
not use the older system in this class.

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Example: Type Binary Ionic
Compounds
Two

• To name determine the charge on the chromium.

– Total charge on cation + total anion charge = 0.
– Cr charge + 3
– Since each Br has a charge, then:
▪ Cr charge
▪ Cr charge
▪ Cr = +3.
– Hence, the cation is called
is called bromide.
• Therefore,
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Polyatomic Ions
• Many common ionic compounds contain ions that are
themselves composed of a group of covalently bonded
atoms with an overall charge.
• This group of charged species is called polyatomic ions.
– contains
– contains
– contains

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Naming Ionic Compounds Containing
Polyatomic Ions
• We name ionic compounds that contain a polyatomic ion
in the same way as other ionic compounds, except that
we use the name of the polyatomic ion whenever it
occurs.
• For example, is named according to its cation,
sodium, and its polyatomic anion, nitrite.

• Hence, is sodium nitrite.

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Table 3.4 Some Common Polyatomic
Ions
• Name Formula • Name Formula

• Acetate • C subscript 2 H subscript 3 O subscript 2 superscript negative • Hypochlorite • C l O superscript negative

• Carbonate • C O subscript 3 O superscript 2 negative

• Chlorite • C l O subscript 2 superscript negative

• Hydrogen carbonate • Chlorate • C l O subscript 3 superscript negative

(or bicarbonate)
• H C O subscript 3 superscript negative

• Perchlorate
• Hydroxide
• C l O subscript 4 superscript negative

• O H superscript negative

• Permanganate
• Nitrite
• M n O subscript 4 superscript negative

• Sulfite
• N O subscript 2 superscript negative

• Nitrate
• S O subscript 3 superscript 2 negative

• Hydrogen sulfite (or

• N O subscript 3 superscript negative

• Chromate bisulfite)
• H S O subscript 3 superscript negative

• C r O subscript 4 superscript negative 2

• Dichromate • C r subscript 2 O subscript 7 superscript 2 negative

• Sulfate • S O subscript 4 superscript 2 negative

• Hydrogen sulfate (or

• Phosphate
bisulfate)
• H S O subscript 4 superscript negative

• P O subscript 4 superscript 3 negative

• Hydrogen • Cyanide
phosphate
• C N superscript negative

• H P O subscript 4 superscript 2 negative

• Peroxide
• Dihydrogen
• O subscript 2 superscript 2 negative

phosphate
• H subscript 2 P O subscript 4 superscript negative

• Ammonium • N H subscript 4 superscript positive

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Oxyanions (1 of 2)
• Most polyatomic ions are oxyanions, anions containing oxygen and another
element.
• Notice that when a series of oxyanions contains different numbers of oxygen
atoms, they are named according to the number of oxygen atoms in the ion.
• If there are two ions in the series,
– the one with more oxygen atoms has the ending -ate, and
– the one with fewer has the ending -ite.
• For example,

– is nitrate.
– is sulfate.

– is nitrite.

– is sulfite.

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Oxyanions (2 of 2)
• If there are more than two ions in the series, then the
prefixes hypo-, meaning less than, and per-, meaning
more than, are used.
• Oxyanions of an element in the same group will have the
same formulas and naming except for the element’s root
name.

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Conceptual Connection 3.7 (1 of 2)
Identify the polyatomic ion and its charge in each compound:

a.

b.
c.

d.

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Conceptual Connection 3.7 (2 of 2)
Identify the polyatomic ion and its charge in each compound:

a.

b.
c.

d.

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Hydrated Ionic Compounds
• Hydrates are ionic compounds containing a specific
number of water molecules associated with each
formula unit.
– For example, the formula for epsom salts is

– Its systematic name is magnesium sulfate

heptahydrate.
– chloride hexahydrate.

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Common Hydrate Prefixes
• Common hydrate prefixes

• Other common hydrated ionic compounds and their

names are as follows:
– is called calcium sulfate hemihydrate.
– is called barium chloride hexahydrate.
– is called copper sulfate hexahydrate.

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Molecular Compounds: Formulas and
Names (1 of 2)
• Unlike ionic compounds, the formula for a molecular
compound cannot readily be determined from its
constituent elements because the same combination of
elements may form many different molecular compounds,
each with a different formula.
– Nitrogen and oxygen form all of the following unique
molecular compounds:
and

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Molecular Compounds: Formulas and
Names (2 of 2)

• Molecular compounds are composed of two or more

nonmetals.
• Generally, write the name of the element with the smallest
group number first.
• If the two elements lie in the same group, then write the
element with the greatest row number first.
• Prefixes are given to each element indicate the number of
atoms present.

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Binary Molecular Compounds

• These prefixes are the same as those used in naming hydrates:

mono = 1 hexa = 6
di = 2 hepta = 7
tri = 3 octa = 8
tetra = 4 nona = 9
penta = 5 deca = 10
• If there is only one atom of the first element in the formula, the
prefix mono- is normally omitted.
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Conceptual Connection 3.8 (1 of 2)
The compound is nitrogen trichloride, but
is simply aluminum chloride. Why?

a. The name forms differ because is an ionic compound

and is a molecular compound. Prefixes such as mono-,
di-, and tri- are used for ionic compounds but not for molecular
compounds.

b. The name forms differ because is a molecular

compound and is an ionic compound. Prefixes such as
mono-, di-, and tri- are used for molecular compounds but not for
ionic compounds.

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Conceptual Connection 3.8 (2 of 2)
The compound is nitrogen trichloride, but
is simply aluminum chloride. Why?
a. The name forms differ because is an ionic compound
and is a molecular compound. Prefixes such as mono-,
di-, and tri- are used for ionic compounds but not for molecular
compounds.

b. The name forms differ because is a molecular

compound and is an ionic compound. Prefixes such as
mono-, di-, and tri- are used for molecular compounds but
not for ionic compounds.

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Acids (1 of 3)
• Acids are molecular compounds that release hydrogen
ions when dissolved in water.
• Acids are composed of hydrogen, usually written first in
their formulas, and one or more nonmetals, written
second.

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Acids (2 of 3)
• Sour taste
• Dissolve many metals
– such as Zn, Fe, and Mg;
but not Au, Ag, or Pt
• Formulas generally start with H,
– e.g., HCl,

• HCI is a molecular compound that, when dissolved in water,

forms ions, where aqueous (aq) means
dissolved in water.

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Acids (3 of 3)

• Binary acids are composed of hydrogen and a nonmetal.

• Oxyacids are composed hydrogen and an oxyanion.

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Naming Binary Acids
• Write a hydro- prefix.
• Follow with the nonmetal base name.
• Add -ic.
• Write the word acid at the end of the name.

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Naming Oxyacids
• If the polyatomic ion name ends in -ate, change ending to -ic.
• If the polyatomic ion name ends in -ite, change ending to -ous.
• Write word acid at the end of all names.

oxyanions ending with -ate

oxyanions ending with -ite

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Practice: Name the Acid (1 of 2)
1.

2.

3.

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Practice: Name the Acid (2 of 2)
1. hydrosulfuric acid

2. chloric acid

3. acetic acid

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Writing Formulas for Acids
• When the name ends in acid, the formula starts with H
followed by an anion.
• Write the formula as if it is ionic, even though it is
molecular.
• Hydro- prefix means it is binary acid; other prefix or no
prefix means the anion with H is an oxyacid.
• For an oxyacid,
– if the ending is -ic, the polyatomic ion ends in -ate.
– if the ending is -ous, the polyatomic ion ends in -ous.

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Formula Mass
• The mass of an individual molecule or formula unit
– also known as molecular mass or molecular weight
• Sum of the masses of the atoms in a single molecule or
formula unit
– whole = sum of the parts!

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Molar Mass of Compounds (1 of 2)
• The molar mass of a compound—the mass, in grams,
of 1 mol of its molecules or formula units—is numerically
equivalent to its formula mass with units of g /mol. ram

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Molar Mass of Compounds (2 of 2)
• The relative masses of molecules can be calculated from
atomic masses:

• 1 mole of contains 2 moles of H and 1 mole of O:

So the molar mass of

• Molar mass = formula mass (in g /mole)ram

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Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by
Weighing
• Molar mass in combination with Avogadro’s number can be used
to determine the number of atoms in a given mass of the
element.
– Use molar mass to convert to the amount in moles. Then
use Avogadro’s number to convert to number of molecules.

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Composition of Compounds:
Mass % composition
• Mass percentage of each element in a compound can be
determined from
1. the formula of the compound and
2. the experimental mass analysis of the compound.
• The percentages may not always total to 100% due to
rounding.

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Mass Percent Composition as
Conversion Factor

• Like chemical formulas, mass percent composition of an

element in a compound shows the mass ratio the
element and the compound.

• These ratios can be used as conversion factors between

mass of element and mas of compound.

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Conceptual Connection 3.11 (1 of 2)
The molecular formula for water is Which ratio can be
correctly derived from this formula? Explain

a.
b.

c.

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Conceptual Connection 3.11 (2 of 2)
The molecular formula for water is Which ratio can be
correctly derived from this formula? Explain

a.
b.

c.

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Example 3.14 Mass Percent Composition
Calculate the mass percent of Cl in Freon-112 (C2Cl4F2), a CFC refrigerant.

Sort
You are given the molecular formula of Freon-112 and asked to find the mass percent of Cl.
Given: C2Cl4F2
Find: mass percent Cl
Strategize
The molecular formula tells you that there are 4 mol of Cl in each mole of Freon-112. Find the mass percent
composition from the chemical formula by using the equation that defines mass percent. The conceptual plan shows
you how to use the mass of Cl in 1 mol of C2Cl4F2 and the molar mass of C2Cl4F2 to find the mass percent of Cl.

Conceptual Plan

Relationships Used

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Example 3.14 Mass Percent Composition
Continued

Solve
Calculate the necessary parts of the equation and substitute the values into the equation to find mass percent Cl.

Solution

Check
The units of the answer (%) are correct. The magnitude is reasonable because it is between 0 and 100% and chlorine is
the heaviest atom in the molecule and there are four atoms of it.

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Determining a Chemical Formula from
Experimental Data

Empirical Formula
• Simplest, whole-number ratio of the atoms or moles of
elements in a compound, not a ratio of masses
• Can be determined from elemental analysis
– Percent composition
– Masses of elements formed when a compound is
decomposed, or that react together to form a
compound

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Finding an Empirical Formula (1 of 2)
1. Convert the percentages to grams.
a. Assume you start with 100 g of the compound.
b. Skip if it is already in grams.
2. Convert grams to moles.
a. Use the molar mass of each element.
3. Write a pseudoformula using calculated moles as
subscripts.

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Finding an Empirical Formula (2 of 2)
4. Divide all subscripts in pseudoformula by the smallest
number of moles.
a. If the result is within 0.1 of a whole number, round to
the whole number.
5. If subscripts are not whole numbers, multiply all mole
ratios by a number to make all whole numbers.
a. If ratio is .5, multiply all by 2.
b. If ratio is .33 or .67, multiply all by 3.
c. If ratio is 0.25 or 0.75, multiply all by 4, etc.
d. Skip if ratios are already whole numbers.

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Example 3.18 Obtaining an Empirical Formula from
Experimental Data
A laboratory analysis of aspirin determines the following mass percent composition:
C 60.00% ; H 4.48% ; O 35.52%
Find the empirical formula.

How To
Obtain an Empirical Formula from Experimental Data

Solution
Step 1 Write down (or calculate) as given the masses of each element present in a sample of the compound. If you
are given mass percent composition, assume a 100-g sample and calculate the masses of each element from
the given percentages.
Given: In a 100-g sample: 60.00 g C, 4.48 g H, 35.52 g O
Find: empirical formula

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Example 3.18 Obtaining an Empirical Formula from
Experimental Data
Continued
Step 2 Convert each of the masses in step 1 to moles by using the appropriate molar mass for each element as a
conversion factor.

Step 3 Write down a pseudoformula for the compound using the number of moles of each element (from step 2) as
subscripts.
C4.996H4.44O2.220

Step 4 Divide all the subscripts in the formula by the smallest subscript.

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Example 3.18 Obtaining an Empirical Formula from
Experimental Data
Continued
Step 5 If the subscripts are not whole numbers, multiply all the subscripts by a small whole number (see table) to
get whole-number subscripts.

The correct empirical formula is C9H8O4.

For Practice 3.18

Ibuprofen has the following mass percent composition:
C 75.69%, H 8.80%, O 15.51%.
What is the empirical formula of ibuprofen?

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Molecular Formulas for Compounds
• The molecular formula is a whole-number multiple of the
empirical formula.
• To determine the molecular formula, you need to know the
empirical formula and the molar mass of the compound.

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Example 3.19 Determining a Molecular Formula from an
Empirical Formula and Molar Mass
Butanedione—the component responsible for the smell and taste of butter and cheese—contains the elements carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. The empirical formula of butanedione is C2H3O, and its molar mass is 86.09 g/mol. Determine
its molecular formula.
Sort
You are given the empirical formula and molar mass of butanedione and asked to find the molecular formula.
Given: Empirical formula = C2H3O
molar mass = 86.09 g/mol
Find: molecular formula
Strategize
A molecular formula is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. Divide the molar mass by the
empirical formula molar mass to find the whole number.
Molecular formula = empirical formula × n

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Example 3.19 Determining a Molecular Formula from an
Empirical Formula and Molar Mass
Continued

Solve
Calculate the empirical formula mass.
Divide the molar mass by the empirical formula mass to find n.
Multiply the empirical formula by n to obtain the molecular formula.

Check
Check the answer by calculating the molar mass of the formula as follows:
4(12.01 g/mol) + 6(1.008 g/mol) + 2(16.00 g/mol) = 86.09 g/mol
The calculated molar mass is in agreement with the given molar mass.

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Combustion Analysis (1 of 2)
• A common technique for analyzing compounds is to burn a known
mass of compound and weigh the amounts of products.
– This is generally used for organic compounds containing C, H,
and O.
• By knowing the mass of the products and composition of the
constituent element in the product, the original amount of the
constituent element can be determined.
– All the original C forms the original H forms and the
original mass of O is found by subtraction.
• Once the masses of all the constituent elements in the original
compound have been determined, the empirical formula can be
determined.

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Combustion Analysis (2 of 2)

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Example 3.20 Determining an Empirical Formula from
Combustion Analysis
Upon combustion, a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen produces 1.83 g CO2 and 0.901 g H2O. Find the
empirical formula of the compound.

How To
Determine an Empirical Formula from Combustion Analysis

Step 1 Write down as given the masses of each combustion product and the mass of the sample (if given).
Given: 1.83 g CO2, 0.901 g H2O
Find: empirical formula

Step 2 Convert the masses of CO2 and H2O from step 1 to moles by using the appropriate molar mass for
each compound as a conversion factor.

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Example 3.20 Determining an Empirical Formula from
Combustion Analysis
Continued
Step 3 Convert the moles of CO2 and moles of H2O from step 2 to moles of C and moles of H using the
conversion factors inherent in the chemical formulas of CO2 and H2O.

Step 4 If the compound contains an element other than C and H, find the mass of the other element by
subtracting the sum of the masses of C and H from the mass of the sample.
Finally, convert the mass of the other element to moles.

The sample contains no elements other than C and H, so proceed to the next step.

Step 5 Write down a pseudoformula for the compound using the number of moles of each element (from
steps 3 and 4) as subscripts.
C0.0416H0.100

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Example 3.20 Determining an Empirical Formula from
Combustion Analysis
Continued
Step 6 Divide all the subscripts in the formula by the smallest subscript. (Round all subscripts that are within
0.1 of a whole number.)

Step 7 If the subscripts are not whole numbers, multiply all the subscripts by a small whole number to get
whole-number subscripts.
C1H2.4 × 5 C5H 12
The correct empirical formula is C5H 12.
For Practice 3.20
Upon combustion, a compound containing only carbon and hydrogen produces 1.60 g CO2 and 0.819 g H2O. Find
the empirical formula of the compound.

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