Animal Health Extension

Prepared by Mahdi Egie (PhD)

Lecture note for fourth year veterinary students

Haramaya University
2025

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: DESCRIPTION OF THE ETHIOPIAN LIVESTOCK SECTOR ............... 4

1.1 Livestock Genetic Resources ............................................................................................ 5

1.2 Classification of Livestock Production System ................................................................ 6

1.3 Factors Influencing Livestock Productivity .................................................................... 12

CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION ............................................ 17

2.1 Types of Education ......................................................................................................... 18

2.2 Elements of Extension Education ................................................................................... 18

2.3 Objectives of Extension Education ................................................................................. 19

2.4 Principles of Extension ................................................................................................... 20

2.5 Extension Educational Process: ...................................................................................... 24

2.6 General extension approaches ......................................................................................... 25

CHAPTER THREE: COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION AND ITS APPROACHES . 27

3.1 The Communicator ......................................................................................................... 27

3.2 The Message ................................................................................................................... 29

3.3 The Channels of Communication ................................................................................... 29

3.4 The Receiver or the Audience ......................................................................................... 41

3.5 Feedback in the Communication Process ....................................................................... 43

3.6 Effects or Impact of Communication .............................................................................. 45

CHAPTER FOUR: EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS .................................................. 46

4.1 Animal Health Extension Teaching Approaches ....................................................... 48

4.2 Materials used for teaching farmers ................................................................................ 50

4.3 Other Communication and Advanced Technologies ...................................................... 51

4.4 Challenges for Animal Health Extension in Ethiopian Situation ................................... 51

4.5 Formal and informal leaders ........................................................................................... 52

CHAPTER FIVE: TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION, APPLICATION AND

CONSEQUENCES................................................................................................................... 54
5.1 Basic Concepts of Technology ....................................................................................... 54

5.2. Criteria for Choosing an Appropriate Technology ........................................................ 56

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 5.3. Technology Adoption and Consequences ...................................................................... 57

CHAPTER SIX: UNDERSTANDING FARMERS’ LOCAL CONDITIONS ....................... 77

6.1 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) Techniques ......................................................................... 77
6.1.1 Types of RRA ........................................................................................................... 79

6.1.2 The principles of rapid rural appraisals .................................................................... 79

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 CHAPTER ONE: DESCRIPTION OF THE ETHIOPIAN LIVESTOCK SECTOR

Ethiopia is believed to have the largest livestock population in Africa. Livestock is a major
component in agriculture in Ethiopia and elsewhere in Sub Saharan Africa countries
contributing more than 50 percent and 20 percent in agricultural and total Gross Domestic
Product (GDP), respectively. The livestock sector plays an important role in the rural economy
of Ethiopia. The importance of livestock in Ethiopian agricultural economy has been well
recognized. Next to crop, livestock is the single largest asset in rural Ethiopia. Given Ethiopian’s
agro climatic diversity, a large variety of livestock are available for draught power, milk, meat,
eggs, etc. and thus ensuring additional income to the livestock farmers. Also, cattle are symbolic
of an individual’s wealth and status. About 80 percent of the Ethiopian rural households are
keeping the livestock out of which the resource poor farmers own nearly 90 percent of the
livestock. Therefore, livestock and livelihood have an intimate relationship particularly in arid
and semi-arid areas. Further, livestock production in Ethiopia is largely an output of small
holders and majority of rural households depend either directly or indirectly on livestock for
their livelihoods.

It is eminent that livestock products and by-products in the form of meat, milk, honey, eggs,
cheese, and butter supply etc., provide the needed animal protein that contributes to the
improvement of the nutritional status of the people. Livestock also plays an important role in
providing export commodities, such as live animals, hides, and skins to earn foreign exchanges
to the country. On the other hand, draught animals provide power for the cultivation of the
smallholdings and for crop threshing virtually all over the country and are also essential modes
of transport to take holders and their families long-distances, to convey their agricultural
products to the market places and bring back their domestic commodities. They provide
additional sources of income, food, clothing, labor and cultural prestige. Livestock as well
confer a certain degree of security in times of crop failure, as they are a “near-cash” capital
stock. Furthermore, livestock provides farmyard manure that is commonly applied to improve
soil fertility and also used as a source of energy such as dung cake as a fuel for fires and as bio-
gas energy. Even more importantly, livestock provides a major source of supplementary income
for a large majority of rural households and this sector is therefore, highly livelihood intensive
and more importantly provides sustenance during drought and other natural calamities to rural
families.

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Due to the very important role that the livestock sector plays in the economy of the country,
formulation of development plan regarding the sector is indispensable. Improvement in
livestock production is, therefore, an important pathway for increasing the income of marginal
and small farmers and landless laborers, given the uncertainties of crop production.

1.1 Livestock Genetic Resources

With its varied climatic and topographic conditions, its ethnic composition and the size of its
national herd, Ethiopia is a major repository of livestock resources and genetic diversity but
little has yet been done to describe them other than in superficial terms. “Breeds" are recognized
by morphology, or more often by the name of an ethnic group or locality. Much still needs to
be done at the genetic level to gain a fuller understanding of the relationships among types,
classes, breeds and populations.

Cattle: Most local cattle are zebus; recognized breeds, including Boran, Fogera, Horro, Sheko
(Gimira), Abigat (Adal), are indigenous to and synonymous with particular regions. The Fogera
and Horro are known as milk producers, the first being reared round Lake Tana in Amhara State
and the second in Eastern Welega in the west of Oromiya State. The Boran, renowned as a beef
breed well beyond the boundaries of Ethiopia, is also "indigenous" to Kenya and Somalia where
its tribal owners claim territory; it is found in the south and east of the country in the Southern
Nation Nationalities and Peoples' Regional State (SNNPRS) and in Somali Regional State. The
Nuer breed in the southwest is considered to have tolerance to high tsetse challenge. European
breeds, especially Friesian and Jersey, have been imported for many years and crossed with
indigenous cattle to improve dairy production.

Sheep: Almost all sheep in Ethiopia are indigenous; several breeds have been identified but are
less clearly differentiated than cattle. These have evolved in-situ under various, but universally
harsh, conditions of health care, feeding and management and often of climate. Their output is
low but is probably capable of being improved if better circumstances are provided. National
Research Institutions and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) have done some
preliminary breed characterization. Formal cross breeding has been confined to the Debre
Berhan station of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) at about 2,800 meters some 120 kilometers
north of Addis Ababa. The main "improver" breeds have been Awassi and Corriedale but little
success has been achieved in transferring results to the smallholder sector.

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Goats: Until very recently, the situation was very similar to that for sheep; their huge genetic
resource was largely unknown in terms of breeds or population composition and there was
confusion over terminology. Some early types identified included a short haired goat in the
Danakil Desert, the white and variegated goats of the Hararghe highlands, a Bati goat in Wello
valued for its skin, the Arusi goat and other types of the western lowlands. More recently a
comprehensive survey of goat populations included physical inspection and handling of more
than 14,000 animals. In this study a number of qualitative and quantitative variables were used
to characterize goats into four major categories and 14 distinct types; estimates of geographical
distribution and population size were also attempted. Further information was gained on
production systems, management practices, flock structure and reproductive history.

Camel: In Ethiopia, camels are found at pastoral area. The breeds are one humped breed belongs
to camel dromedary.

Poultry: local poultry are classified in to ecotypes which include Horro, Jarso, Sheko Tilili and
the like. There are also some exotic breeds introduced to Ethiopia. This includes Fayomi, White
leg horn, Isa brown, Lehmann silver, Rhode Island Red, Cockock, and Hubbard breeds.

Equines: Ethiopia has numerous Horse, Donkey and Mules. They are partially classified on the
bases of morphometric and ecology with limited genetic diversity. Their distribution varies in
which donkey are found mainly in lowland, while the horse are more common in mid-land to
highland.

1.2 Classification of Livestock Production System

The five traditionally classified agro-ecological zones (Bereha, kola, weinadega, dega and
wurch) which are based on altitude and temperature gives foundations for clarification of
Ethiopian livestock sector. Ethiopian farmers have long recognized that altitude, climate, water
availability, vegetation and other physical and biotic factors are interrelated to agricultural
potential and production. The traditional classification, developed over thousands of years,
divides the country into major and minor agro-ecological groups based primarily on altitude and
rainfall. Each zone and sub zone is further characterized by variations in economic activity,

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population density and other socio- cultural attributes such as cropping and livestock rearing
patterns.

The dominant livestock sectors in all agro-ecological zones are small-scale subsistence farms in
the highlands and livestock rearing in the lowlands. Large enterprises like state farms were
government holdings which are being privatized. Current private investments are mainly in the
agro-industrial sector especially on dairy and beef production. Livestock production systems in
Ethiopia are as complex as the agro-ecological zones, and amplified further by the cultural
diversity of people. General descriptions of the major livestock production system are discussed
below based on the scale of production:
• Small scale
• medium scale
• Large scale

There are different levels of production management system in Ethiopian livestock.

• Extensive production system
• Semi-intensive production system
• Intensive production system

Farming system in Ethiopia is by large dominated by smallholder extensive system where mixed
and pastoral production is within the system.

Ethiopian livestock production systems can be classified into three broad categories:
• Subsistence crop related livestock production
• Purely pastoralist production and
• The private commercial or parastatal production.

In the first two systems enterprises are mainly small holdings, while the last includes medium
to large-scale market oriented production units. Parastatal and commercial livestock production
systems with more intensive animal production, are mostly found around peri-urban and urban
areas and to a lesser extent, around the previous farmer’ co-operatives and few private rural
areas. Dairying and fattening of oxen and small ruminant are the most popular activities.

I, Small-Scale Subsistence Production: In this system where food and cash crop growing is
the main agricultural activity, farm size ranges from 0.5-1 hectares. Soil fertility maintenance is
a major problem. Livestock are for draught, seasonal milk and meat production and a source of
food and income. Cattle are the main stock. Feed resources are natural pasture, crop residues

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and to lesser extent improved pasture and forages. Milk yield is 1 liter/day, and average land
area 0.25 hectares per animal.

Feeding Systems: Livestock mainly feed on natural pasture, weeds of arable land, fallows and
crop residues left after harvest. Bottomlands are set aside for hay to be used for severe dry
periods. In the highlands farmers’ fence small areas of pasture, which are grazed by oxen at the
time of ploughing and used to feed young calves. Most stock graze on hilltops, swamps, forest
margins, roadsides and stony or unfertile lands.

Fallows and crop residues are grazed in the morning and evenings as cattle are taken to and from
daytime grazing areas. Small calves, which cannot go to distant areas, graze fallows and crop
residues. Cut and carry feeding and dry season feed supplemented with crop residues and agro-
industrial products are common in the mid and high altitude mixed farming systems.

In high potential areas dairy farmers grow improved pasture and forages, mainly fed on cut and
carry, and hay. Dairy associations have started silage making for their milk cows. Farmers
involved in small-scale fattening do cut and carry and hay (from natural pasture and crop
residues) feeding. Residues of local grain by-product and beverages are mixed with salt and
given to milking cows, plough oxen and fattening animals. In the lowlands (pastoral areas)
livestock graze and browse.

II. Integrated Crop-Livestock Production System: In the mixed production systems, cattle
play an important role by supplying draught, while equines are the highland beasts of burden.
Small ruminants and poultry are the main source of cash and family consumption. In the higher
areas (above 3,000 meters) barley and sheep predominate; this system covers parts of North-
Wollo; the Eastern Mountains of Gojjam and the Semen Mountains of Gonder.

III. Highland Annual Crop and Livestock Farming: The high crop-related livestock
production system is found between 1,500 and 3,000 meters with an estimated area of
12,500,000 hectares. A wide range of cereals, oil crops and food legumes are grown. Cattle are
kept for traction and fuel, a small number of sheep and goats provide cash. The system is
common in the highlands of Tigray, Wollo, Gonder, Gojjam, Shewa and parts of Wellega. Farms
are very small and often fragmented. Due to high population density and expanded cultivation,
grazing areas are reduced to lands unsuitable for cropping, or fallows, waterlogged land and

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steep slopes. The feed situation in this system is precarious and a challenge to the development
of both the resource itself and food grain production.

IV. Highland Perennial Crop Farming: Another mixed system found between 1,500 and
3,000 meters. This area has intensive crops with cultivation and livestock number per household
being higher; it is predominant in Southern Ethiopia, particularly the Chat (Catha edulis) and
coffee growing areas of Harerge; and enset (Ensete ventricosum) plantations of Walaita, Sidamo
and Gurage. It also touches the coffee growing area of Jima and Wellega. Livestock are not
important for traction as hoe cultivation is used in the highland perennial crops. Feed in this
system is from native pasture and crop residues.

V. Small-scale Livestock Production: In many agro-ecological zones at low altitudes 1,500-

500 meters (kola-zone) growing seasons are short to very short, so only drought resistant crops
can be grown, unless irrigation is possible. Livestock are important throughout this zone. The
poor conditions for crops and the extensive system of livestock production imply low human
population.

The lowlands are the home of a diverse array of pastoral people who depend on livestock, which
feed on native vegetation, and net productivity is very variable over time and space. The
lowlands are home to 29 ethnic groups, of which more than 90 percent are pastoralists.
Livestock provide subsistence and employment for more than 10,000,000 people and are a
source of meat, milk and fiber for residents of some two dozen major towns and cities within or
adjacent to the lowlands. Subsistence nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists are the major
stockholders on the grazing land. Afar, Somali and Borana are the major pastoral groups in the
north eastern, eastern and southern grazing lands.

VI. The Extensive Pastoral System: Lowlands below 1,500 meters are arid or semi-arid. Here
livestock rearing is the mainstay of people, and livestock and livestock products provide
subsistence, either directly as milk, milk products, meat and blood, or indirectly in the form of
purchased cereals through sales of animals; crop production is limited. This production system
is extensive; feed and water supply are achieved through either constant or partial herd mobility.
A strong traditional built-in system or social laws maintain a sustainable resource management,
govern this system. The pastoral lands of Ethiopia are in the border regions and the ethnic groups
are often trans-boundary. For example: Afar pastoralists are found in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and

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Djibouti; Somali pastoralists of eastern Ethiopia are also found in Djibouti, Somalia, and Kenya,
and the Borana homeland is between Ethiopia and Kenya.

A nomadic pastoral system denotes an economy that derives the bulk of its food supply from
livestock, using a great variety of herding practices, on natural pasture, provided that the system
involves some degree of mobility. A transhumant system allows members of the communities
to practice some crop production in settlement areas. Despite the attempt to integrate farming
with livestock around settlement areas, crop production has remained opportunistic. Pastoralism
presupposes a sustainable balance between the human and animal population and the pasture.
Such a balance is precarious and rarely occurs, even with highly developed indigenous social
organization.

Pastoralists maintain livestock under environmental conditions of risk and uncertainty using
traditional strategies. Such strategies in Ethiopian nomadic and semi nomadic systems include:
• Maintenance of multi-species herds and supplementation of pastoral resources with
agricultural by-products;
• Herd splitting into spatially appropriate units, to minimize the effect of localized
overgrazing and over-browsing, disease, and other environmental vagaries;
• Establishment and maintenance of social systems for sharing, borrowing, giving, and
conservation of common resources. There are well-defined and extensive institutional
frameworks for sharing resources and rehabilitation of members’ herds after a time of crisis;
• Maintenance of as large herds as possible to minimize the chance of losing all and
maximize the chance of having some left over after hazards;
• Reduction of the number of household members during bad times, such as severe
drought and disease outbreaks, by sending away all able-bodied people, not required in the
system, to work in agro-pastoral and other agricultural areas.

Extensive grazing systems: Pastoralists’ resource management is traditional; regulations are

decided by the local community. Traditional rulers decide from collective choices taken after
discussion. The rules structure individual and collective choice, which allows the herders to
manage grazing as common property. Decisions are made with a high level of community
involvement of men, aimed at efficient and sustainable use of resources.

An important point to mention is their tree management rules. Trees have high value to pastoral
people; they are used as fodder, as food in periods of stress and are important for shade. Pastoral
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people are not allowed to lop trees when there are other fodder sources available, i.e. grass and
bush. They do not cut trees for firewood but gather dead wood, mainly along perennial and
seasonal watercourses. Pastoralists are never allowed, and do not cut fruit trees. Selected men
decide tree management rules and a man from each extended household is elected to uphold
them; he gives permission to lop trees when needed.

Pastoralists know how to select the most appropriate seasonal grazing and browsing areas, and
protect areas which have already been grazed. They make decisions on a daily basis in their use
of natural resources. They do not have complex rules of management and are only concerned
with the key resource; such as dry season feed areas. Pasture production on such land is low.
This makes the pastoralists survival subject to unpredictable natural events that force them to
make agreement with highland people to have seasonal access to each other’s grazing and
natural resources. The widely known rules of grazing management are:
• Conservation of grazing area
• Moving animals during dry periods
• Demarcation of grazing lands and settlement areas
• Division of the herd into mobile grazing and home-based grazing groups
• Migration of family members
• Bush control (burning), and
• Shifting cultivation

Pastoralists experience strong seasonal fluctuation in feed availability and quality; an

increasingly popular practice is the establishment of a special enclosure where standing hay is
surrounded by thorn-bush fence to be used in the dry season for feeding immature stock and
lactating cows. In addition to feed storage, this allows optimal plant growth and helps the pasture
condition as it allows both seed setting and plant re-growth. During good rain years, feed is most
available in the rainy season and then markedly declines in the dry season, so haymaking is also
becoming common, especially by partially settled pastoralists. Crop residues are also used in
areas where there is cultivation.

Characteristics of Extensive Production

• Local breeds
• Low performance
• Kept in a traditional husbandry
• Few input and output
• Limited animal health and production improvement

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VII. Medium Scale Intensive Dairying and Fattening: Farmers use all or part of their land to
grow improved pasture and forage, some buy agro-industrial by-products and use their land for
food and cash crops. Manure is used on crops. Milk is the main source of income and farmers
use family labour and sometimes hire help for dairying and fattening. Feeds are from improved
pasture and forages and purchased concentrates. Milk production is continuous from crossbreed
animals (Local Zebu crossed with Friesian), ranging from 5-8 liters/day; a crossbred animal
occupies 0.5 to 1 hectare, on holdings of 1-2 hectares. Major inputs include crossbred cows,
artificial insemination, credit, veterinary extension and training.

VIII. Commercial Dairying and Fattening: Commercial dairying occurs around cities where
demand for milk is high. The main feeds are agro industrial by-products (concentrates)
purchased bush hay, improved pasture and forages and crop residues. Milk, often sold directly
to consumers, is the main source of income. High-grade crossbred cows, are fed on purchased
concentrates and roughages; the enterprise is commercial. Milk production is continuous and
yield per crossbred cow ranges form 10-15 liters; a cow is held on between 0.25-0.5 hectares.
Inputs include concentrates, roughages, grade stock, artificial insemination, credit, and
extension, training and veterinary services.

There is large-scale ranching, particularly fattening for domestic and export markets; ELFORA
Pvt. Ltd. Company (ex. Livestock/Meat Development Corporation) is one large-scale
(commercial) livestock/Meat producing company operating here.

1.3 Factors Influencing Livestock Productivity

Livestock productivity is importance as farmer’s income, livelihoods, and ultimately the

survival of entire populations and cultures relying on animal production. Numerous factors
affect livestock productivity but he most significant and frequently limiting effects are Climate,
Diseases and Parasites, and Nutrition. Other man-made factors include religion and cultural
beliefs that strongly influence choices in animal production species or breeds. Finally,
economical constraints, marketing choices, and access to infrastructures such as roads, harbors,
and railways are also strong factors that have great impacts on livestock welfare and
productivity.

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 Figure 1. Major factors influencing livestock productivity and their interconnection.

Climate Influence
Climatology characteristics such as ambient temperature and rainfall patterns have great
influence on pasture and food resources availability cycle throughout the year, and types of
disease and parasite outbreaks among animal populations. In the literature, there are numerous
climate classifications types. The most widely used is classification divides world climates
under the following categories:
- Tropical climate (uneven distribution of rainfall during rainy and dry),
- Dry climate (prolonged dry periods of several years),
- Temperate climate (long and extremely cold winters),
- Continental climate (long hot summers), and
- Polar climate (winters with a significant amount of snowfall).

Generally speaking, it is assumed that animal production is a vital economic activity in all
categories with the exception of polar climates. Domestic animals that have been selected in
such climate conditions have developed strategies in order to cope with factors associated with
climate variability either by maintaining body temperature (homeostasis) under high or low
environmental temperatures through a broad range of physiological responses; or by adapting
to seasonal nutrition scarcity, in particular seasonal weight loss through physiological and
behavioral adaptations.

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Tropical climate, in general, the rainy season is characterized by high ambient temperatures and
humidity. To cope with such conditions, farm animals have developed several physiological
strategies such as higher surface of skin area, localized fat depots, or behavioral strategies like
late afternoon grazing and the search for shade.

To avoid increase in body temperature and maximize heat loss when animals are subjected to
high ambient temperatures, the amount of heat produced by the body must equal to the amount
dissipated to the surrounding environment. B. indicus rely on a combination of six strategies in
order to accomplish this objective:
- increasing surface area per unit of body weight;
- increasing temperature gradient between animal and air;
- increasing conduction of heat from the body core to the skin;
- decreasing solar radiation reflection (achieved by coat cover which is lighter in color,
sleeker, and shinier) ;
- increasing metabolic rate (the amount of energy produced by unit of surface area) and
feed intake, and
- adjusting cellular mechanisms.

Such a combination of strategies is achieved by a number of physiological abilities. Zebu cattle

(B. indicus) also have a greater ability to produce sweat because of a higher density of larger
and more superficially located sweat glands. Increases in sweat production allows zebu to
dissipate more heat.

B. indicus are adapted to high ambient temperatures that make them the cattle type of choice for
most of the extensive production systems in the tropics and subtropics. They are known for
having higher tolerance to tick infestations and tick-borne diseases and also have greater
capacity to digest fodders with high dietary fiber content.

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 Figure 2. Schematic view of climate change consequence

Diseases and Parasites Influences

Diseases and parasites are among the most severe factors that impact livestock production and
productivity through depressed food intake, increase in the loss of weight, reduced growth and
power, etc.

Livestock diseases can cause direct losses (deaths, stunting, reduced fertility, and changes in
herd structure) and indirect losses (additional costs for drugs and vaccines, added labor costs
and profit losses due to denied access to better markets. Livestock in developing countries is
exposed to a range of diseases that affect productivity; it is a serious hurdle when it infects draft
animals during the plowing season, limiting their ability to work. This reduces farmers’ incomes
from renting out draft animals and causes a reduction in the area of land that can be planted with
staple food crops. Similarly, Salmonellosis and Brucellosis have also a detrimental effect of
animal production. Mastitis causes major economic losses through reduction in milk yield and
waste because milk from infected cows is unfit for consumption.
Ruminant diseases caused by gastrointestinal nematode parasite infections are the diseases with
the greatest impact on animal health and productivity. Ovine hemonchosis is an endemic
helminth disease of considerable economic importance in tropical and sub-tropical regions of
the world. Production losses result from depression in food intake, increase in the loss of

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endogenous proteins, reduced efficiency of use of food energy for tissue deposition, and
impairment of bone growth in sheep.

Prevention and control measures resulted a reduction in the burden of livestock diseases. Such
reduction is the direct result of the availability and effectiveness of drugs and vaccines, as well
as improvements in diagnostic technologies.

Nutritional Influences
The rain pattern during the year strongly conditions livestock production systems through
pasture development and disease and parasites outbreaks, therefore, influencing animal
productivity. Tropical climates are characterized by the existence of a season of varied duration,
when rainfall is scanty or non-prevalent. Such season is termed dry season in the tropics. During
rainy season pastures are available in higher quantities and show good nutritional quality
whereas dry season’s pastures have poor nutritional quality with high fiber and low protein
contents, which often results in seasonal weight loss.

Figure 3.Schematic representation of the effects of poor nutrition

To mitigate this problem, animal production systems, strategies such as transhumance or cattle
and human population migrations in pastoral societies or to supplementation with concentrates
and minerals in developed countries were exercised. Animals that evolved in such production
systems tend to have physiological adaptations that enable them to cope with seasonal weight
loss.

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 CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

The term extension education was first used by Cambridge University in 1873, with an objective
to take educational advantages of the university to ordinary people. After being influenced by
this, the Land Grant Colleges in the United States of America formally established the
Agricultural Extension work by integrating different activities of the colleges.

The concept of extension is then it was spread to other parts of the world as well as to Ethiopia.
The concept of extension was then applied to various fields depending upon the sector which is
being addressed. This has led to the development of disciplines like agriculture extension,
livestock extension, home science extension, fisheries extension etc. The word extension is
derived from the Latin roots ‘ex’ meaning “out” and ‘tensio’ meaning “stretching”. Extension
education is stretching out to the people who are beyond the limits of educational institutions.

Most definitions refer to extension education as an out of school education.

The National Commission on Agriculture Three (1976) refers to extension as an out of school
education and services for the members of the farm family and others directly or indirectly
engaged in farm production to enable them to adopt improved practices in production,
management, conservation and marketing. Several authors defined extension in various ways
emphasizing the importance of one or the other aspect of extension. Extension is also defined
as a professional communication intervention deployed by an institution to induce change in
voluntary behavior with a presumed public or collective activity as indicated by Rolling (1988).
. According to Van den Ban and Hawkins (1996), extension involves the conscious use of
communication of information to help people to form sound opinions and make good decisions.
These definitions indicate that extension is for extending educational advantages, forming sound
opinions to make good decisions and inducing changes in voluntary behavior.

The main objective of all extension work is to teach people living especially in rural areas how
to raise their standard of living by their own efforts using their own resources of manpower and
materials with the minimum assistance from Government. Extension is largely educational in
nature and approach. Hence, the words “extension” and “extension education” are used
interchangeably. This is the type of education is to extend and to spread useful information to
rural people. It is for rural people outside the regularly organized schools and class rooms. Its
aim is to bring the desirable changes in human behavior. It is closely related with the

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development of the ability of the farmer's understanding and adoption of new technology. The
farmers need to be supplied with recent, useful and practical information. Rural people should
know and adopt useful research findings from time to time and transmit their problems to
researchers for further research. There are links in the chain of rural development: research
institutions, extension organizations and efficient communication between researchers and
farmers.

2.1 Types of Education

There are three basic types of education

I. Formal education: The teacher starts with theory and works up to practical; students
study subjects, and must adapt themselves to the fixed curriculum offered, authority rests with
the teacher class attendance is compulsory. Teacher instructs the students, teaching is only
through instructors which mainly vertical, teacher has more or less homogeneous audience and
more theoretical. A type of education which is an institutional activity, uniform, rigid, full time,
structured, subject oriented and leading to certificates.
II. Informal education: Not Uniform, flexible, part-time, unstructured and learn-oriented.
III. Extension education: The teacher starts with practical and may take up theory later on
farmers study problems, it has no fixed curriculum /course of study, authority rests with the
farmers and participation is voluntary, teacher teaches and learns from the farmers, teaching is
only through local leaders and is mainly horizontal, teacher has a large heterogeneous audience
and flexible, it is more practical and intended for immediate application to the problems. A
science, it deals with the creation, transmission and application of knowledge designed to bring
about planned changes in the behavior of the people with the view to help them to live better
live standard by learning the ways to improve their farm, home and community situation.

2.2 Elements of Extension Education

There are five elements of extension education process

I. Analysis of the situation: Analysis of facts are needed about the people, their interests,
education, social customs, habits, folkways/old customs and about types of farming, marketing,
size of holding and communication, transport facilities, and others problems of organizations as
well as resources available with the organizations.
II. Deciding upon objectives: It enables the people to select limited number of problems,
state their objectives clearly, the solutions to be offered has to give satisfaction and the

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objectives should express the behavioral changes in the people/social or economic outcomes
which are desired.
III. Teaching plan of work: Involves contents to be taught, methods and techniques of
communications in order to create learning situation, the ability to choose and use those methods
better adapted to particular objectives and it is the measure of an extension worker’s
effectiveness.
IV. Evaluation: This determines what extent objectives have been reached, also testes of
how accurately and clearly, and the objectives have been stated. The process of evaluation may
be simple/complex and informal/formal.
V. Reconsideration: Review of previous efforts and results which reveal a new situation.
If this new situation shows the need for further work, the whole process may begin again with
new or modified objectives.

2.3 Objectives of Extension Education

Extension is education and its aim is to bring the desirable changes in human behavior.
Education should be conceived as a lifelong process of learning. Extension education is an
education that is desired for rural people outside the regularly organized schools and class rooms
for bringing out social and cultural development. Extension means to extend/spread useful
information and ideas to rural people.

Thus, the objective of extension is to raise the standard of living of the rural people by helping
them in using their natural resources like land, water and livestock in the right way. Rural people
are helped in planning and implementation of their family and village plans for increasing
agricultural production, improving existing village industries. It should also help in providing
minimum health, educational and housing facilities for improving family living conditions in
the village.

The specific objectives of animal health extension are given here:

1. To develop the people,
2. To disseminate the useful and practical information relating to animal health, including
improved husbandry, health, vaccine delivery, deworming, and improved health care practices.
3. To apply practically the useful knowledge to farm and house,
4. To help the members of the farmer's family to a larger appreciation of the opportunities,
the beauty and the privileges of rural life and to know more about the environment in which
they live,

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5. To improve all aspects of the life of the rural people within the framework of national,
economic and social policies involving population as a whole.

2.4 Principles of Extension

Principles are the specific guidelines or the base for any decision making process or initiating
an action. The principles are the guiding force behind any work. In the history of extension
work, there are certain general principles of extension education which have been applied and
tested. These principles have more or less general application. Thus, the extension work is based
upon these working principles and the knowledge of principles is necessary for an extension
worker. The widely accepted principles of extension education which are related to animal
health extension are given hereunder with brief explanations.

A. Principle of interest and need

Extension work must be based on the needs and interests of the people. These needs and interests
differ from individual to individual, from village to village, from block to block and from state
to state and therefore, there cannot be one program for all people. The rural people should
voluntarily participate in the extension work. To be effective it should start from the interests
and need of the rural family. The extension education should fulfill these needs of the people
and create interest among them for extension programs. Many times the needs of the people and
extension programs are quite different. Sometimes, the extension workers clearly see the
important needs of the community but the people hold some other needs to be more important.
In such cases, the extension\worker should give priority to the felt needs of the people. While
doing this, he/she should create an atmosphere of confidence, which would help in converting
the unfelt needs of the people into the felt needs in future.

B. Principle of cultural difference

In order to make the extension programs effective, the approach and procedure must be suited
to the culture of the people who are taught. In a vast country like Ethiopia, there is a lot of
difference in the culture and thinking between people of different states. Different cultures need
different approaches. The extension worker has to recognize this difference between different

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cultures and use it in increasing effectiveness of his/her work. Improvement can only begin from
the level of the people where they are at the beginning of extension education. This means that
the extension worker has to know the level of the knowledge and the skills of the people,
methods and tools used by them, their customs, traditions, beliefs and values before starting the
extension program.

C. Principle of cultural change

The culture of people undergoes change while doing extension work. There will be change
without extension work also, as change is necessary for the growth and development of society.
To change the behavior of the people through extension, the extension worker should gain the
confidence of the rural people. They should believe that what the extension worker says has
relevance to their daily life. To start with, the extension worker should demonstrate the
beneficial results of the useful ideas on the fields of some farmers so that they will have faith in
him. Those who see the demonstrations would tell others and all of them could realize that the
extension worker has really something useful to contribute. They would discuss their difficulties
with the extensive workers. The level of education of the people would rise from such simple
events. First, the extension worker has to help the farmer in increasing his yields and then he/she
can concentrate on proper marketing of these increased yields. Depending of the changes in the
needs of rural people, the extension worker has to change his area of work.

D. Principle of participation

Extension helps people to help themselves. Good extension work helps the rural people in
identifying their problems. It is directed towards assisting rural families to work out their own
problems rather than giving them ready-made solutions. Many things are learned while doing a
particular work. Actual participation and experience of people in these programs creates self
confidence in them. If the people participate in any project, they develop a sense of belonging
towards that project. This also develops leadership in the village and extension worker can
obtain participation of the people by requesting the social leader to preside at a meeting. The
leadership qualities are developed in rural people, if they participate in extension programs.
Confidently they come forward to undertake future programs.

E. Principle of adaptability

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People differ from each other, one group differs from another group and conditions also differ
from place to place. An extension program should be flexible so that necessary changes can be
made whenever needed, to meet the varying conditions. People differ in their level of
understanding and knowledge; therefore, only one extension method will not be of use in
providing information to all. Written material will be of use for those who can read it, meetings
will be of use for those who can attend them and demonstrations will be of use to those who see
them. Research shows, that the use of more than one extension method carries the message
effectively to the people. New methods must also be devised to meet new situations and
changing conditions.

F. Principle of grass-root organization

For extension work to be effective and real, it has to be a synthesis of democracy obtained at the
level of family and more particularly at the village level. Different groups work in rural
communities. Extension programs made based on the interests and needs of the people would
give better results. For a higher level of living, corresponding organizations of different
professions should be developed at the village level.

G. Principle of leadership

Extension work is based on the full utilization of local leadership. After identifying the local
leaders, they should be trained and encouraged to do extension work. Many people never had
any ability in this direction until extension workers gave them the opportunity. The selection
and training of local leaders to enable them to help to carry out extension work is essential to
the success of the programs, Extension worker should utilize these leaders for increasing the
speed of extension work. People have more faith in local leaders and they should be used to put
across a new idea so that it is accepted with least resistance.

H. Principle of whole family approach

Extension work will have a better chance of success if the extension workers have a whole
family approach instead of separate and un-integrated approach. Extension work is therefore,
for the whole family i.e. for male, female and the youth. The family is the unit of any society.
All the members of the family should be equally involved in the extension programs. It creates

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mutual understanding. If the extension worker neglects one member of the family, there is a
possibility of the rejection of the innovation.

I. Principle of co-operation

Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint democratic enterprise in which rural people

cooperate with their village, block and state officials to pursue a common cause. The idea behind
the extension work is the coming together of the rural people and the extension workers for
social up-liftment. The extension programs should be the people's program with government
aid. All should cooperate and help each other for this taste of social up-liftment.

J. Principle of satisfaction

Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. A satisfied customer is the best
advertisement. The end product of the effort of extension teaching is the satisfaction that comes
to the farmer and his family as the result of solving a problem meeting a need or acquiring a
new skill. Thus, the development programs should lead to the satisfaction of participants. If
people are not satisfied by participating in the program they will not participate in the future.
Recognition and appreciation for work well done encourages voluntary leadership.

K. Principle of evaluation

Extension is based upon the methods of science and it needs constant evaluation. The
effectiveness of work is measured in terms of the changes brought about in the knowledge, skill,
and attitude and adoption behaviour of the people but not merely in terms of achievement of
physical targets. Extension work is educational in nature and therefore, its effectiveness should
be measured by measuring the changes in people. It is necessary to review the development
made so far to see whether the extension work is proceeding in the right direction. If not, it is
necessary to take corrective measures. The results of evaluations would help the extension
workers in improving the quality of the programs in the future.

L. Principle of learning by doing

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In extension work, farmers should be encouraged to learn new things by doing and by direct
participation. Farmers hesitate to believe until they see the proof. The motive for improvement
must come from the people and they must practice the new ideas by actually doing them. It is
learning by doing which is most effective in changing people behaviour and developing
confidence to use the new methods in future.

M. Principle of trained specialists

Like other sciences, agriculture is also improving rapidly, in all aspects. Therefore, maintaining
competency in anyone of these fields is a continuous job. It is very difficult for a multi-purpose
extension worker to keep himself abreast with all the latest findings of research he has to deal
with in his day-to-day activity.

Trained specialists have to be provided, who keep themselves in touch with their respective
research stations or institutes and extend to the extension worker, the latest scientific
developments, which have scope for adoption in particular areas. If there are no trained
specialists behind the extension work then extension cannot thrive. These specialists are the link
between research and application of research on farmers’ fields. They have the responsibility of
solving the problems of the extension workers in their subject. The subject matter specialists
should have a broad outlook and he should know other related fields so that he can deal with the
problems of the farmers and give suitable solutions and guide lines.

N. Principle of applied science

Applied agricultural science is not a one-way process. The problems of the people are taken to
the scientists who do the experimentation necessary to find out the solutions. The extension
worker translates the scientific findings of the laboratories in such a way that the farm families
can voluntarily adopt them to satisfy their own needs.

2.5 Extension Educational Process:

Extension education is a process and it is participatory in its approach. According to Leagans
the sequences of steps involved in the process are:
(i) Situation analysis
(ii) Formulation of objectives
(iii) Deciding the content and teaching methods
(iv) Outcome evaluation and impact analysis and

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(v) Feedback and formulation of corrective action. In this way the continuous process of
extension education goes on resulting in progress of the farmers from a given situation to a
desirable situation.

2.6 General extension approaches

Livelihood Approach: It is very well documented that livestock provided livelihood security
to at least one fourth of our population.

Group Approach: The Extension approach needs to be changed from individual to group
mainly because the decision making is shifted from individual to groups of producers. The
development of sustainable farming practices often requires collective decision making,
whereas extension in the past mainly supported individual decision making.

Market Driven Approach: It is being clear now that the adoption of technologies is market
driven rather than technology driven. With the available technologies, it is not a problem to
produce milk, chicken, meat, eggs or wool but it is very difficult to market these products due
to lack of proper marketing infrastructure. Procurement, transportation and sale of livestock
products are more difficult and complex than producing them.

Entrepreneurial Development Approach: It is well known that some farmers have got
entrepreneurial abilities which enable them to try new methods of farming. Such entrepreneurs
who are usually described as innovators exist in almost all social systems and skill of the
extension personnel lies in identifying as well as encouraging such people to enter into new
ventures of livestock development. The experiences of these pathfinders could be profitably
utilized to upscale for wider use. It is necessary to identify such entrepreneurs, prepare success
stories and give wide publicity through various mass media channels to enable the interested
people to emulate them.

Participatory Approaches: Of late it is very well recognized that the farmers are considered
as partners in development rather than as end users of technology. Evidence supports that it is
beneficial to involve the livestock farmers in developing, adopting and evaluating the
technologies. Many of the extension programs were not successful due to poor participation of
farmers.

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Multi-Disciplinary Approach: with the realization that the problems in the field are usually
multi-dimensional which requires the expertise of different fields of knowledge, emphasis is
being given to multidisciplinary approach in formulating as well as implementing the research
projects. The livestock extension issues revolve around livelihood, livestock, women, social
groups, markets, economics of production, policies etc.

Farming Systems Approach: Farming System Approach replaces the conventional single
discipline based, commodity oriented approach. The farming system approach considers the
farm, the farm household and off-farm activities in a holistic way to take care not only of farming
but also all aspects of nutrition, food security, sustainability, risk minimization, income and
employment generation which make up the multiple objectives of farm households.

For communicating an idea, experience or technology, extension worker use audio-visual aids
because audio-visuals help to communicate the message effectively and efficiently. Audio-
visual aids are just tools or aids or vehicle for transfer of ideas, technology or message. The
success depends upon the selection of right type of audio-visual aids at the right way. The
materials that can be used for extension teaching and communication vary based on the type of
technology, type extension approach, the economic status of the country, the sociocultural,
available infrastructure and facility. The materials that can be used for animal health extension
is described in chapter three.

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CHAPTER THREE: COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION AND ITS APPROACHES

Communication: The most important challenge in communication of livestock technologies is

to find out ways and means to convey the messages to the livestock farmers in an effective
manner which enable them to take appropriate decisions on adoption of the technologies. To
meet this challenge, it is important to understand the communication process, extension teaching
methods, audio visual aids and their usage for effective communication.

There are several models to explain the concept of communication. There are six important
elements involved in the communication process. There are six key elements of
communications.
Brief meanings of the key elements are as follows.
1. Communicator: is the person from whom the message originates.
2. Message: is the information or the meaning the communicator wants to convey.
3. Channel: is the media through which the communicator sends/conveys his message.
4. Audience: is the receiver of the message or to whom the message is sent.
5. Feedback: gives the details about audience response to the given communication
process.
6. Effect or Impact: In extension education the element “effect” can be called as “impact”.
It is the end result of the communication. It is the change that has taken place with the receiver
due to the communication.

3.1 The Communicator

The communicator is the person who originates the communication or information. As such he
must take the initiative of establishing communication links with the community and keeping
these functioning. Too often, unfortunately, the original communicators of ideas have a very
limited view of their responsibilities and frame their communications for publication in
scientific journals or for discussion with other professionals. They overlook entirely the ultimate
use of the information and frame it in technical language understandable only to a limited group
in their own field of work.

The task of translating the scientific text into common terms usually falls on extension agents.
They have to isolate the relevant information and present it in a form their clients can understand
and accept. Communicators at this level need to be believed by and have the confidence of their

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clients. They can only establish this acceptance or credibility by learning to communicate
effectively at the appropriate level.

The success of the communicator depends on having:

• good communications skills - teaching, writing, speaking, drawing, etc.;
• knowledge of and ability to relate to the audience (social/cultural), speaking in terms
they understand;
• a positive attitude towards the audience, the topic, him/herself, and the current
educational situation; and
• excellent knowledge of the subject and the present circumstance.

A good communicator:
- knows his audience, its wants and its needs;
- knows his message and how to present it to that particular audience;
- knows the most effective channels of communication to reach the audience with his
message;
- knows his own abilities and limitations, both in technical knowledge and as a
communicator;
- is interested in his audience, its welfare, and how his message can help them;
- is interested in improving his skills in communication;
- prepares his messages carefully, using appropriate materials and aids to arouse interest
and ensure a successful reception of its contents;
- speaks clearly and uses terms and expressions the audience can easily understand;
- realizes that establishing a bond of mutual understanding between the speaker and the
audience is mostly the responsibility of the speaker;
- is very conscious of the limitations of time and the span of attention of listeners;
- does not try to cover the whole of a major topic at any one time;
- selects only those parts most appropriate to the particular situation; and
- does not involve the audience too long at any one time.

Based on the same source, a poor communicator:

- omits to supply information which is relevant or useful to the audience;
- fails to give full information and to relate it to the activities of the learners;
- forgets that time and energy are needed to absorb and think over new ideas and practices;
- keeps on talking, even when the audience have stopped, listening;
- fails to develop credibility with his audience;

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- fails to understand and allow for the local values, customs belief s and prejudices of the
audience; and
- fails to start out at the correct level .of the audience’s knowledge, skills, interests and
needs.

3.2 The Message

Animal health extension staff normally believe they have some important information and ideas
which they hope the people will receive, understand and incorporate into their normal pattern
of activities. In some cases they may not achieve this due to incomplete or erroneous information
being given to the people, poor presentation of it, or for a number of other reasons. To avoid
these difficulties, they need to consider the purpose of the message, its content and how to
present it.
The purpose or objective should be clearly defined in their own minds. What change in behavior
in relation to animal health do they want to bring about? Is it a change in knowledge, attitude,
skill, or in what they expect the audience to do? In general, an objective which is limited in
scope to one of these factors at a time is more likely to be successful. The message must be
relevant to the receiver. It should be of interest and appear attractive to him. It must be related
to something he understands, feels or thinks: something he can accept in relation to his culture
and beliefs.

The preparation of a message can do a great deal to make it acceptable to the receiver. It should
be organized and presented in terms he understands and in the form of argument or discussion
he normally uses. In particular it should conform to accepted social standards and customs of
speech, writing or illustrations. Differing treatments can make a message dull, boring, or even
totally unacceptable to an audience. Skills in this field, however, are developed more by
experience of local reactions to messages than by theoretical training.

3.3 The Channels of Communication

The channels of communication may be classified as:

- Written,
- Spoken (audio), and
- Visual.

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There are also combined methods, such as audio-visual which are often more effective than any
of the channels used in isolation. A l6 mm film with sound or a CD/DVD player, may present a
complex message more effectively than speech alone.

Written communication

Written communication is indispensable in the day-to-day operations of any organization

particularly an extension service.

The advantages of written communication are: -

- with many people, it has greater status and carries more authority than oral
communication, particularly if it carries an impressive official stamp;
- in some countries it is essential for transacting any type of official business;
- it provides a generally low-cost method of spreading information to large numbers of
people;
- when used in an interesting way, such as in attractive leaflets or magazines, it holds a
reader’s attention and may stimulate him to seek more information on the matter; and
- the material can be retained for as long as is necessary and is valuable for confirming
detailed instructions given orally or by audio-visual methods.

The disadvantages of this method are:

- many people whom animal health extension staff want to reach are not yet fully literate;
- it is entirely one-way communication unless the reader follows up the contact with a
request for further information; and
- few people will change their traditional practices just because they happen to have read
about alternative methods.

When planning, developing, and organizing information that may be applied to many forms of
written communication, the process that can be used to develop short presentations, radio
programs, handouts, and large units of information, such as complete courses of instruction,
lengthy presentations, publications, or books include:

Decide on the purpose of the communication and the specific target audience(s). Ask
yourself What do I want to say and to whom do I want to say it? These should relate to some
predetermined communication or educational goals and objectives - perhaps a part of an overall

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plan. It is helpful to write these down and refer to them during message development to keep
your efforts on track.

Make a list of possible points you may want to include. Jot down these ideas without paying
much attention to their organization. Concentrate on your target audience and what you believe
is most important for them to know about your topic and if the points will meet the intended
goals.

Organize an outline of the main points. Consider several possible means of organizing them
into a logical, natural-flowing sequence. If you are familiar with the topic, the outline of main
points should come primarily from your existing knowledge. These are some possible methods
of organization:
• chronological - some topics are best-suited to a time sequence; for example, in preparing
drug for injection you might begin with cleaning the equipment, followed by sterilization; then
preparing drug, cleaning injection area and injecting the drug through proper injection route;
• simple to difficult - this method builds from the simpler to the more complex ideas; i.e.,
in explaining the various methods of controlling ticks you might begin with manual methods
and proceed to dusting and spraying with acaricides;
• known to unknown - begin with what people already know about the topic and lead
into new ideas and approaches;
• least to most important - start with less important information and build to the most
important (often new) ideas;
• name the topic (also called billboarding) - begin by listing the points or topics to be
covered; then, follow through with each one in the same sequence; and
• question and answer - think of the questions the target audience would most likely ask;
then, list each question, followed by your answer.

Add the secondary points and supporting information. After organizing the main points, fill
in the outline with added information to support the main points. While you may be familiar
with the topic and have developed the main point outline from existing knowledge, you may
now benefit from some research to generate the best supporting information. Such information
may be obtained from an expert on the topic, a publication, or even a library search.

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Write without interruption. When you are making good progress with your writing, stay with
it to keep the ideas flowing. Don’t stop to correct spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Avoid
going for a drink of water or to check your mail.

Write like you talk. Ignore the scholarly style of writing and write in short, simple sentences,
using contractions, personal words, and sentence fragments.

Link your message to the target audience’s experience. Speak the same language they speak;
avoid highly-technical words and language. Relate your ideas to real-life examples to which
they can relate.

When possible, build some audience participation into the message. Ask them questions to
get them thinking. When making a live presentation, plan for some audience discussion. If you
ask them a question, give them time to come up with a response.

Spoken communication

Spoken communication takes place during contacts such as:

- home or farm visits;
- enquiries made at offices;
- telephone calls;
- meetings, discussions and demonstrations of all kinds; and
- radio and TV programs.

Except for radio and TV these contacts allow two-way communication which has great
advantages. The initial response or reaction of the recipient of a message may be as important
for future planning as the content of the message itself. Lack of understanding can be detected
in the reply and may be cleared up on the spot. Gestures, facial expressions and even the tone
of voice, both of the speaker and the listener, contribute substantially to an assessment of how
well the communication is being received. One obstacle which must be overcome is that: an oral
message is not recorded in any way and the receiver may remember it in a different way from
that which the sender intended. Particularly, where precise instructions on veterinary techniques
are given orally, the receiver has no means of referring back to what was said. For this reason,
oral messages are best followed up by some form of written instructions, where these are
appropriate, or by a follow-up visit or demonstration to illiterate clients.

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Only a limited number of people can be contacted face-to-face in a day. This is likely to be
limited as much by the clients’ availability based on their patterns of work, as by the extension
agents’ willingness to meet and discuss matters with them. This makes oral communication
expensive in terms of staff time and effort unless, some form of group contact is organized, but
it is nevertheless a very effective method of communication for those contacted and may be the
only effective method for people lacking skills in reading and interpreting diagrams. Language
itself, however, can be a barrier where the extension staff and the receivers speak different
languages or even dialects. Spoken communication then requires a third person to act as an
interpreter with all the possibilities of differences in emphasis, or even misinterpretation that
implies. The process is awkward, slow and often unreliable. Even when both the extension staff
and the receivers speak the same language, differences in dialect, local usages of particular
words or expressions, and levels of language may present barriers to effective communication.

The use of language on the telephone must strike a balance between the exchange of lengthy
customary greetings common in face-to-face meetings and the highly codified language used,
for example, in air-traffic communication. Extension staff should be trained to set a good
example in the economical use of limited telephone links in rural areas.

Domestic radio is the quickest and far-reaching medium for conveying oral messages to people
in inaccessible areas. It is particularly valuable, and much used, for spreading animal health
information in many countries. It is claimed that radio is a low cost method of spreading
information. This is true if the information is received and understood by the people, but radio
can be an expensive medium, if air-time at peak periods has to be paid for, or if the audience is
small or does not fully understand the message.

Without some personal feedback and follow-up, it is difficult to assess how successful a means
of communication it has been. Its use is limited normally to giving general information as it is
difficult to give specific instructions on technical matters by this method.

Spoken communication enables the communicator to establish a personal bond with the receiver
that no other method can equal. In spite of its limitations, when supplemented by some visual
aids, it is likely to remain a most useful method of extension work for the foreseeable future.

Organizing the speech

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As with other kinds of writing, you must clarify your purpose for giving the speech and relate
that to the target audience. Decide exactly what you want to say, who should hear it, and why
they need it. Then outline the important points, organizing them so they flow logically and
naturally. Speeches should contain three parts: (1) the introduction, (2) body, and (3) conclusion.

Introduction: As speech length varies considerably, introductions should be planned

accordingly. Other considerations relate to what the audience has been exposed to prior to your
speech and what will follow. These are some suggested elements of a speech introduction.

Greet the audience - look around the room before you begin to acknowledge their presence.
With a short speech, you might merely say hello or good afternoon. With a longer speech, take
time to express your appreciation to the organizers and/or agency for the invitation to share your
views and ideas. Say some kind words about the group and their activities or reason for being
present. Smile. Be positive, with an element of humility.

Set the stage - relate your speech to their previous experience and why they will be interested in
your topic. Sometimes it is natural to refer to a prior presentation. Don’t be overly promotional,
but be motivational; relate your topic to how they will benefit from listening to what you have
to say.

Give a brief preview of your message - depending on the topic and the length of the speech, give
listeners a preview of your main idea or even the main points.

Get their attention - gain attention by making a vivid statement or presenting an amazing fact
or two. Some speakers open with a question relevant to audience interests; others include a bit
of related humor, or quote someone famous to gain attention.

Body: Depending on the time and circumstances, you can organize the body of your speech into
one to five main points. The points should flow logically and naturally.

Signposts - clearly indicate when each main point begins, such as: My first point is....
Pause between each point; don’t run them together.

Enthusiasm - renew your eagerness with each new point. Try to sound excited so they will
become interested in your ideas.

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Supporting facts - follow each main point with detailed information; do your homework
(research), and be creative with supporting arguments. Use facts, quotes, stories, examples, word
pictures, etc.

Conclusion: Depending on the time and circumstances, sum up your case in the conclusion.

End cue - indicate you are about to conclude your speech, but be careful not to drag on very
long. People expect you to end soon after your ending cue.

Review - don’t add much new information at this time. Quickly restate the main points or central
idea.

Final statement - possibly add one clinching fact or argument. This should relate to real life so
they can see how your idea(s) can be of value to them. End with a challenge, or quickly tell what
you expect them to do with the ideas and information.

Eliminating speech anxiety

Everyone experiences some level of speech anxiety or stage fright. Beginning or inexperienced
speakers are often so nervous they suffer a partial mental block. Their brains are not fully
operational when they speak before a group, especially if they believe the speech is important
for one reason or another. Even experienced orators sometimes feel a modest level of anxiety,
but they know how to prepare for the presentation and control their anxiety. The answer to
reducing anxiety is to have a good mindset, be prepared, and practice. Good speeches take
considerable effort. After experiencing several successful presentations, you will gain
confidence and your anxiety will lessen.

• Reasons for speech anxiety: Others know us by how we look, dress, and act. We
instinctively know we are exposing our intelligence and character when we speak and we fear
that we will not present ourselves well, that people might think less of us if we don’t meet their
expectations. These are good reasons to be nervous.

• Reduce anxiety with a good mindset: Look around the room at the group to whom you
must speak. Is there anyone you want to see fail? Aren’t you interested in getting to know the
others through their speeches? The truth is that everyone in the room is supportive and wants to

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hear what you have to say and to see you succeed. They are willing to forgive any mistakes you
make (within limits) and are on your side.

• Prepare by practicing positive imagery: As you prepare for your speech, imagine
yourself successfully delivering it. Imagine an audience that is interested in your ideas and are
attentive and supportive. This will help build a positive attitude and inner confidence.

• Write a good speech: Take the time to write a speech that will maintain attention -
usually with a thorough outline with well-organized information. Find out as much as you can
about your intended audience and adapt the presentation to their interests. Include some attention
getters or interest holders that will capture and hold their fascination. Use a variety of methods
to add color to your speech.

• Rehearse: Practice your delivery by speaking out loud to an imaginary audience. Do

this until you are comfortable and smooth with the verbal delivery. Work on awkward spots -
those points or ideas that you have difficulty in verbalizing. You may have to try another
approach - maybe rewrite a section to get a certain point across. With adequate rehearsal, you
will avoid awkward gaps where you stumble around mentally, trying to think of the words you
need to proceed with the point. Most of the best professional speakers are best because they
rehearse.

Visual communication

Visual aids are teaching aids that are used to support oral presentations, such as flipcharts, slides,
overhead transparencies, etc. Display graphics are visual communication materials that stand
alone and do not normally have someone nearby to explain them. Common display graphics
used in education are posters and exhibits. The advertising industry uses many forms of display
graphics in newspapers and magazines. Pictures, charts, diagrams, posters, exhibits, and
displays can perform important communication functions in countries where people are familiar
with the use of symbols. Visual and oral methods combined are mainly used by extension staff
to serve people with a limited level of literacy. Pictorial methods are now being used frequently
and effectively to draw attention to an animal health extension message in many countries. Staff
must be careful, however, to verify that the illustrations and symbols used are properly
understood and mean to the people what they are intended to mean. There can be considerable
differences in understanding of what symbols mean between peoples of different backgrounds.

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Films in particular must not use too sophisticated techniques to present information or they may
simply be dismissed as “magic”.

The advantages, of visual communication are: -

- Visual aids increase learning and retention: Studies show that visuals increase learning by
35% and retention of information by 50%.

Visuals assist with organizing information - they make it easier to understand and file away.
You can emphasize the most important points with visuals.

Visual aids speed up learning - the universal language of visual communication saves teaching
time. You can show things that are difficult to explain verbally. Slow learners are especially
helped.

Visually-communicated ideas are stored in the right side of the brain – when visuals accompany
a verbal presentation, receivers store the information in both sides of the brain for improved
learning and retention.

Visually-communicated ideas interact more quickly with mental images (pictures) drawn from
past experience - this increases globalization (fitting new information into one’s grand scheme
of truths).

- Visual aids improve the effectiveness of the presenter: Using visual aids facilitates the
following:

Visuals elicit better planning and organization - when planning visuals you must think through
your message from the receivers’ point of view.

You interact with your visuals - you feel less pressure when the audiences’ eyes are focused on
your visuals, so you relax and teach better.

Audiences appreciate and enjoy visuals - improved interest raises the presenters’ confidence.

- Visual aids improve the audience’s perception of the speaker: They see you as being
better prepared to communicate and/or teach. They see you as looking more professional.

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They find you as more persuasive and convincing, more credible and trustworthy. They see
you as being more entertaining. You hold their interest.

Planning a visual presentation

The first five elements of this process are common to planning any other kind of communication.

• Determine your purpose: Be specific about what you want to accomplish. Do you want
to change attitudes, knowledge, or skills? What are your goals?
• Target an audience: Select a specific target audience and tailor your presentation to
them. In addition to the usual audience characteristics (age, sex, income, education, etc.), what
are their knowledge and attitudes about you, your organization, and your topic?
• List the main message points: Then organize them for logical flow.
• Add supporting points to the main message: Add the necessary details to describe and
support your principal points. Then rethink the ordering of them. Is there something missing?
Did you include something that isn’t necessary? You may need to remove it.
• Write your presentation out as completely as a script: This step is not always
necessary, but is if you expect others to use it. Writing out a complete script can be very helpful
if you wish to do your best job of preparation; but it’s important for presenters to deliver thoughts
to the audience, rather than reading the precise words of sentences.

Use the left one-fourth of the script page for pictures or descriptions of your visuals. Leave extra
space between each thought - these thoughts may be a word, a phrase, or one or more sentences.

Write as you talk - use conversational language with contractions, sentence fragments, personal
pronouns, etc.
Vary sentence length - but try to average about 12 words per sentence.
• Read your script out loud: This will help you catch certain awkward word
combinations that are difficult to verbalize, and improve the flow. Change difficult word
combinations into easier language.
• Mark visual support spots on the script: Where visuals will be helpful to emphasize
an important point or clarify a difficult concept. Visuals may be added to maintain interest and
continuity. In the visual description area at the left side of the page, describe or make a sketch
of the immediate visual idea that comes to mind.

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• Think through a variety of visual ideas: Then select the ones that best enhance the
communication of that particular point. Simple, to-the-point visuals are usually more effective.
Minimize the use of words; maximize the use of pictures, charts, and other visual techniques.

The use of color in visual materials is important; if properly used it can greatly enhance the
impact of visual materials. In general, the colors chosen should be “logical”, i.e. grass should be
green or brown, according to the season or circumstances, tree trunks grey or brown and rivers
blue or fawn according to the state of erosion. Care must be exercised in the use of colors for
posters, or for printing pamphlets, circulars, handouts or abstract diagrams. Certain colors may
be taboo or “unlucky” in particular areas while others may have a particularly favorable
significance. This may be important if “color coding” is used for easy identification of particular
types of documents. It may not be easy to extract information on inauspicious colors from local
people as the topic may be one they are not willing to discuss with strangers.

The illustrations below show several approaches to designing a visual aid

• Reduce the words on a visual: Complete sentences are seldom necessary. Limit the
words to key words and phrases; try to include an illustration or graphic to increase interest and
learning. The presenter can orally add further descriptions of milking techniques; the visual aid
only needs to contain the basic points.

Figure 4. Reduce the words on a visual

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• Reduce the elements on a visual: Too many elements on a visual give an overcrowded
appearance and discourage viewers.
• Legibility of visual aids: As shown above, too many words and elements reduce the
legibility of visual aids. With too many lines of letters and/or numbers, there is no space to make
them large enough for easy viewing. It is also important to avoid overcrowding so your
information is focused; it should be brief and easy to comprehend. The following other factors
of legibility apply:
Size - letters, numbers, and illustrations should be large enough for all viewers to see easily.
This relates to room size and how far away viewers are from the visuals. There is space for
larger letters, numbers, and illustrations if the visual is kept simple.
Contrast - lines that form your letters, numbers, and illustrations should contrast with the
background. Black on white is the greatest contrast. Dark and medium colors on a very light
background work well and are easier on the eyes than black on white. Pale yellow letters on a
white background doesn’t provide enough contrast for easy viewing.
Line thickness - letters and numbers should have a line thickness of onesixth to one-eighth of
their height. Illustrations also require good line thickness for good visibility.
Style - simple letter styles are easier to see than fancy, ornate letters. Avoid unnecessary detail.
Compare the following fonts for easy viewing. View them from three or four meters to see the
styles that maintain their visibility.

• Maintaining ample margins to avoid placing elements against the edge of the design
area: It gives a crowded look and viewers are less comfortable when the margins are inadequate.
Maintain ample margins on at least two or three edges. Compare the appearance of the poster
designs below. One has crowded margins and the other allows ample space at the edges.

Figure 5. Maintaining margins

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• Grouping elements to maintain simplicity: It is easier to create a pleasing design when
you keep it simple, with only a few elements: The illustrations below show the elements
ungrouped in the design on the left, and grouped in the design on the right.

Figure 6. Grouping elements in a visual

Extension staff, in any field of work, must adapt their methods to the particular subject, to the
ability of the audience to understand the different techniques used and to the facilities available.
Usually they will employ a combination of two or more channels of communication in the same
meeting or presentation. A well written personal letter is attractive to many people.

3.4 The Receiver or the Audience

The audience is made up of all those whom the communicator wishes to receive, understand and
use the ideas or information he is presenting. Messages are interpreted by receivers related to
their past experiences and are received through their perceptions screen. Message reception is
influenced by the receiver’s:
• ease of obtaining the message;
• communication skills, such as the ability to read, listen, and interpret symbols;
• motivation to receive information and to learn;
• attitude toward the sender and his or her organization, the topic, and the present situation;
and
• knowledge of the subject (prior experience), and if he or she can relate the information
to reality.

If an audience is to make progress, an extension agent must help them to change their
knowledge, attitudes and behavior. If no change takes place, there has been no effective
communication and no progress. Communication has taken place if the people learn useful facts

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(acquire knowledge), or if some of them begin to feel a new procedure may offer some benefits
(change their attitude), or decide to adopt a new technique (change their behavior).

People are different in many ways. One major difference is in their ability to understand
veterinary ideas and practices. For this reason, communication sometimes fails because the
communicator uses terms too difficult, or too unfamiliar, for an audience to understand. Animal
health extension staff cannot expect much progress in getting people to plant forage crops on
parts of their land if the idea is presented to them in words and expressions very unfamiliar to
them. A good test is for extension staff working in a common language such as English to
translate some technical instructions into a local language to appreciate how difficult it can be
to find suitable terms to express many important concepts to the people.

Good extension practices, therefore, require a thorough study of the clients in order to know
their abilities, interests and backgrounds. This is done normally through the conduct of a study
of the social and economic conditions of the area in which they live. In more leisurely times,
this was accomplished simply by living and working amongst them for a considerable period
and recording the knowledge acquired. This must often, now, be speeded up by the use of
carefully worded surveys or questionnaires. An understanding of the groups with whom
extension staffs are to work is essential to plan their approach or strategy in terms of methods
and the use of available resources.

An obstacle to good communication is “noise” (or barriers). Some basic problem areas (noises)
that are inherent in communication are:
• Encoding deficiency relates mostly to the sender’s lack of communication skills and
knowledge of the audience. This might involve using words or examples the receivers do not
understand. A sender might refer to prophylaxis when disease prevention would have been
understood. He/she might speak with a nasty, scolding tone that confuses the audience.
• Gatekeepers are people that control the media or other access to communication
channels. For instance, an extension worker might have important message about livestock
disease that threatens his district, but a warning message can only be broadcast on the radio if
the radio station programmer allows it.
• Interference is often a more physical problem to reaching a target audience. If extension
worker is allowed to voice an announcement over a local radio station, the receiver may not

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receive the message because of radio interference, or a baby crying so loudly the farmer can’t
hear the message.
Experienced communicators can anticipate when barriers are likely to occur, and try to forestall
them. For example, the lack of material for an animal health extension project may be such a
barrier to effort by the community. To overcome this barrier the extension staff can assist with
the provision of veterinary materials before proceeding with the main task. Generally speaking,
they should not advocate any change of practice unless they have made provision for
overcoming any of the barriers to achievement which are likely to arise.

Barriers to Effective Communication: The following are some of the common problems
which come in the way of effective communication:
- Lack of planning
- Unclarified assumption (s) of the sender
- Semantic distortion
- Badly expressed message
- Loss by transmission
- Poor listening and premature evaluation
- Fear, distrust and threat
- Insufficient adjustment period to change
- Biasness of the communicator.

3.5 Feedback in the Communication Process

Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the communication process that ensures the receiver
has received the message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended by the sender. It increases
the effectiveness of the communication as it permits the sender to know the efficacy of his
message. The response of the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal. Feedback is crucial in two-
way communication to ensure both sides are the same page and can prevent misunderstanding
or confusion.

Feedback can be defined as a process in which the output of an action is returned, it can be said
“fed-back”. Basically, feedback is the observation of receiver’s response in other words we can
say that what receiver has understood from the message or the information delivered to him and
this message is in turn is send back to the sender.

This feedback is very important in effective communication as it defines that what the receiver
has understood from it, thus when the feedback is given it becomes clear that the receiver

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understood it or not. When you will not tell or reply about thing which was told to by the speaker
or the sender he will not be able to get the correct idea of your understanding and he will demand
something else and you will do something else, thus it will lead you towards miscommunication
which will just make the things much worse for the further proceeding.

Feedback also helps to get the things correct if they go in the wrong way. Perfect
Communication would exist when a thought or idea is transmitted so that the mental picture
perceived by the receiver was the same as that envisioned by the sender. Any idea no matter
how great is useless until it is transmitted and understood by others. So, feedback develops
understanding between the two parties (the sender and the receiver) and lead them to a point
where parties can lead to a good decision which is correct.

Guidelines for Receiving Feedback

- Be supportive and kind towards the person giving the feedback.
- Pay attention to the feedback.
- Provide clarification and make sure you understand.
- Verify the feedback with other people.
- Seek out anonymous feedback.
- Explain the use of feedback.
- Check out for more Options.
- Express gratitude to the feedback giver.

Reasons why feedback is essential in communication

- Confirmation of understanding: in effective communication, people need to know that
their message has been received and comprehended as intended. Without feedback, it is possible
that the sender won’t be aware that their communication has been misunderstood, which might
cause confusion.
- Improves communication: feedback helps increase communication by informing the
sender of what went well and what didn’t.
- Develops trust: feedback delivered positively and encouragingly can aid in developing
trust between the sender and recipient. Over time, this may result in closer ties and improves
communication.

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- Identifies areas of improvement: negative feedback can be used to identify areas of
improvement.

3.6 Effects or Impact of Communication

The Effects of Effective Communication

- Overcoming confusion and Communication barriers
- Making sound decisions that improve the performance
- Encouraged Feedback
- Improved mutual understanding
- Creation of trust between extension agent and the farmer
- Establishment proper channels to communicate properly and
fastly

The Impact of Effective Communication

- Enhanced productivity, services and improved performance
- Improved accuracy and speed with which farmers perform their
tasks
- Fulfilled customers need
- Confidence to communicate with anyone

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 CHAPTER FOUR: EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS

Knowledge transfer from the professionals to the society is a key intervention for the prevention,
control and eradication of important endemic disease. Previously there is no strategically well
deigned approach to teach the society about the animal health and zoonosis. As there are
professionals on agricultural extension (focusing more on plants) and public health extension
workers who are focusing on improvement of public health. But, such extension service is not
well practiced on animal health. The eminent gap of perception of the society about animal
disease was actually arisen due to the absence of well-designed attempt of animal health
extension service. Even though the fact that animal health care means care of the society which
comes in bold particularly in the case of zoonotic disease, it is partially neglected between the
medical and veterinary professionals.

Currently, there is increasing trend of veterinary professional diversity, number and also
veterinary infrastructures, universities and other service posts which can be considered as
baseline for animal health extension. But still the service given mainly targets the convectional
attempt of disease treatment and pilot vaccination delivery to the animals with limited attempt
for transfer of the knowledge about the disease and associated risk factors to the community at
large. Chemotherapy becoming the dominant and routine attempt to prevent and treat sicknesses,
which usually come up with problems of antibiotic resistance and other side effects.

As it is known that “prevention is better than cure” the service to be delivered need to targeted
more on the prevention of the disease. For sustainable development of the sector: efficient,
multidisciplinary and community based health service is central. Clearly, it needs to include an
attempt of improving the understanding of the community about the disease as it is quite
important to alert the mind of animal owners rather than only treating the physical body of the
animal.

On other side disease determinant concept is very important as the cause of the disease may vary
and will directly or indirectly determines the fate of an animal. Such determinant issue
particularly environmental risk factors and animal management practice is usual manipulated
by the farmers. Farmers are always key person behind the health of an animal as he can decide
where to keep, how to keep, what to fed and when to bring the animals to the clinic. So,
emphases need to be redirected to such prevailing determinants and it can easily be addressed

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using the animal owner themselves. Thus, the veterinary service should encompass the strategies
of combating such area.

Livestock owners have been living with their animals for generations and have built enormous
indigenous experiences with animal health. It is recognized that illiterates can learn when
visualization is used. People learn a lot by doing practice, from pictures, posters and other
demonstrations. They easily understand by learning simple courses first and may gradually
advance to more additional courses as needed. This enables them to build modern knowledge
on existing fertile grounds by strategically linking the system of animal health extension to the
conventional public and private veterinary services.

On behalf of these, veterinary teaching and health extension service play the focal point. Hence
it is very important to re-design and include an active veterinary health extension program to
the conventional animal health care services. With this aspect the present module has written to
address some policy and alternative approaches so that it can be used to teach pastoralists,
farmers and other stack holders of livestock sector.

Table 1. The domain of knowledge covered by Animal Health Extension

No Topic Teaching Methodology Remark

1 Animal Vaccination and Disease Prevention • Oral presentation General

• importance of vaccine • Written Pamphlets
• when/what/who/where to vaccinate? • white board,

2 Animal treatment importance • written Pamphlets, General

• Importance of early treatment • white board,
• Disease case history and reporting • Discussion
• Importance of proper treatment

3 Animal management/food and feeding • Oral presentation General

• Management associated diseases • Show how to
• Feeding problems/deficiency disease clean barn/lair age
• Management risk factors
• Preparation of balanced
food

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4 Zoonotic disease Concept/Risks • Discussion on the issue Major
• What are zoonotic diseases? • Oral presentation
• Rabies, BTB, Anthrax, • Awareness creation on
Taeniasis, the transmission pathways of
Salmonellosis, Brucellosis, How to such disease.
prevent/treat it?

5 Reproduction and Animal Physiology • written Pamphlets, Specific

• Importance of AI, Eustress detection • white board,
systems, improvement of milk prod.,
• Beef animal management/ castration

6 Other important infectious disease • Oral presentation. Specific

• Foot and Mouth Disease • Signify the issue and
• Trypanosomiasis forward protective
• Ticks and tick born disease
measures

7 Feedback Assessment Questionnaire survey

4.1 Animal Health Extension Teaching Approaches

I. Formal training: It is the type of training that can be given to the selected model
farmers or pastoralist for specific time (2 to 3 months) about the primary health care and animal
husbandry. The training approach is considered to be related to the extension approach. It
emphasizes more systematic and deeper learning of specific basic skills and related knowledge.
Training programmes involve assembling learners in a training centre for a specific period of
instruction. These trained extension workers transmits the useful knowledge gained by them to
the rural people. The Training and Visit system is a good example of the training approach in
Ethiopia. The training can be modified based on agro ecology or social structure characteristics
of the specific society or based on other factors. There are some characteristics of the formal
extension training:
• The farmers can be certified at the end of the training. Example of such training may
include CAHWS training, training the selected farmers at farmer’s training center and training
the selected farmers at other alternative places.
• Training manual is needed
• Stakeholders and beneficiaries like veterinarian, farmers, paravet, local leaders, NGO,
and related professionals are needed to be identified.

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• Various constraints like lack of regular training programmes for updating the knowledge
of extension workers, lack of communication from research, excessively large areas of operation
for village level workers and extension officers resulted in a new approach in extension.
II. Teaching Animal Attendants: It is continuous teaching system in which every animal
attendants come with their sick animals will get information about animal health. It is not formal
training but the animal health care service provider will have a regular program to create
awareness for the society about animal health care. There are some arrangements need to be
made to teach animal attendants.
• First the animal attendant of a given day will be informed to keep tied their animals in
the lairage of the clinic.
• Then all of the animal attendants will be gathered and teach them for about 30 minute
and after that, someone who want to discuss more on the subject matter can ask question for
clarification.
• The teaching day may be flexible: usually Monday or other days when there are many
animal attendants appeared.
• The teaching material can be formally prepared manual or leaflets/Pamphlets,
Brochures, posters and other visual aids. It is better if prepared by local language and in simple
statements.
• The teaching material should be readily available.
III. Case Level Teaching: This approach is just individual animal owner will be informed
about the case of his/her sick animal. This is thus specific to the disease (case came to the clinic
and specific animal owner). There are some steps to be considered to deliver the information
via case level teaching:
• First, the animal need to be diagnosed according to the usual cases (just by taking the
case history, clinical examination and if needed doing laboratory examination).
• After you examined the animal, you will tentatively guess the possible cause of the
disease.
• On that specific diagnosed disease, the animal owner will be told about the disease,
transmission, and associated risk factors. It may be simple recommendations on that specific
disease. Explain to the animal attendant about the protective and control measures for future.
Example. Trypanosomosis: If you see animal sick of similar disease/similar sign; you need to
bring on-time, isolate the animal from tsetse infestation area, spray insect repellant on the animal
body etc...

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IV. Other Alternative Teaching: Teaching of the farmer at community meetings or at other
Social gatherings. The topic and time should be very limited. (Only lay on critical information).
For example:
• Holy days,
• Religious or culture festival.
• Farmers’ or Pastoralist days
• Establishing animal health and welfare club at the schools. This helps to teach them by
discussing with teachers etc..,

4.2 Materials used for teaching farmers

For communicating an idea, experience or technology, extension worker use audio-visual aids
because audio-visuals help to communicate the message effectively and efficiently. They
provide the audience with a situation nearest to the reality and readily get the idea. Visuals help
to give correct initial concepts by giving true mental impressions. While planning for the use of
audiovisual aids the extension agent need to be selective in using the aids taking into
consideration different factors like the audience (age, sex, level of literacy, previous experience
etc.), availability and cost of equipment, familiarity of extension agent with the equipment,
facilities required for use of the aids, subject matter etc. Above all it also depends upon the
objective or purpose of the communication.

In extension teaching literature plays an important role in the message dissemination process.
The literature serves the purpose of communicating precise and reliable scientific information
in a simple and easily understandable language to a common man. Some of the common
literatures that forms the part of extension teaching learning process are briefly explained as
follows.
• Leaflet: A leaflet is a single sheet of printed matter. It is made to give accurate or specific
information on a specific topic.
• Folder: A single sheet of printed information in a folded form. There can be any number
of folds in a folder. Like leaflet, folder is also primarily meant for dealing with a specific topic.
• Pamphlet: A pamphlet consists of 3 to 12 pages and deals with a specific topic in a
detailed manner.
• Bulletin: The number of pages for a bulletin ranges from 12 to 20. A bulletin is a written
piece of information about a number of related topics presented in a detailed manner.

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• Booklet: When the number of pages exceeds 20 then it is called a booklet. Usually a
booklet deals with number of topics and the discussions are carried out more elaborately with
illustrations, pictures, figures and tables.
• Circulars: Letters are sent to a group of people by passing it out from one man to other
to pass on certain information or messages. Circular letters help to maintain a continuous contact
with farmers.
• Newspaper/ Newsletter/ Magazine/ Journal: Periodicals give a wide range of
information about what is going on in the next door and around. It is mass media which can be
of immense use in message dissemination. It helps to serve as a forum for extension activity in
an area. It plays the role of communicating the information to people of various levels and
acquaint the public with programs, activities and progress made in an area.

4.3 Other Communication and Advanced Technologies

• Oral presentation, Geographic Information System (GIS)
• Tele and Audio Conferencing
• Video show
• Demonstrations, White board, Pictorial presentation and posters
• Cyber Extension and Information Communication Technologies (ICTs).

4.4 Challenges for Animal Health Extension in Ethiopian Situation

In Ethiopian situation, many millions of people whether directly or indirectly depend on

livestock. Livestock owners spread throughout the country. Resource poor livestock farmers
contribute a lot to production of milk, meat, egg, hide and skin etc. Common property lands are
shrinking leading to increased dependency on purchased inputs. Majority of livestock keepers
are poor and are women highly involved. Veterinarian, who are the most credible source of
information on livestock rearing are found inadequate. The market for livestock and livestock
products is mostly unorganized. Per capita consumption of milk among the resource poor milk
producers is very low as they rear low productive animals. Above all there are many endemic
and epidemic diseases along with low perception of the people about strategic disease
prevention and control.

This dynamic livestock situation is posing several challenges to animal health extension
services. Some of the challenges with which the extension personnel have to cope-up with are;
1. How to reach millions of livestock owners spread in every nook and corner of the
country especially those who are thriving in Complex, Diverse and Risk prone environment?

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2. How to improve the living standards of the rural livestock owners through livestock
extension of animal husbandry and health extension service especially when the pressure on
land is increasing and common property lands are slowly fading out forcing the rural poor to
maintain the animals on purchased fodders?
3. How to sustain the production and quality of livestock products with decreasing area
under fodder and increase in the competition for feed resources and decreasing interests of the
people in livestock rearing?
4. How to face the emerging livestock disease situation as a sequel to the technological and
development interventions?
5. How to take cognizance of the changes that are taking place in the society which include
: Shift from farming to industry; Shift from rural to urban (migration ); Shift from grazing to
stall feeding; Shift in focus from social to economic issues.
6. How to deliver the improved technology packages and animal disease prevention and
control strategies in a suitable and understandable ways?
Target Groups and Stakeholders: Livestock development involves a number of target groups
with whom the extension agents need to work with. These groups include;
• Livestock owners: All those who own livestock (dairy farmers, sheep and goat keepers,
poultry farmers, etc.)
• Livestock service providers: Animal Husbandry department personnel, Marketing
institutions like Milk Cooperatives, Microenterprises, Training institutions like
Veterinary agency, Federal and Regional Diagnostic Laboratories, NGOs, Research and
Academic institutions like National Veterinary Institutes (NVI), Veterinary Universities/
Colleges, National dairy and Meat Institutes, Bankers, Insurance agencies etc.
• Input suppliers: Semen banks, feed mixing plants, Pharmaceuticals, vaccine production
units, Livestock product processing units, Fodder seed production units, Agro related industries
etc.
• Policy makers: Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Secretaries of AH
organizations, senior officials of Animal Health Department, Veterinary Associations, Milk
Federations, Researchers, Farmer organizations etc.

4.5 Formal and informal leaders

People who hold recognized positions of authority are known as formal leaders. Some inherit
their position; others are elected, and others are appointed by someone in higher authority. In

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any rural community there will be a number of formal leaders: for example, religious leaders;
the chairman of a cooperative; a traditional headman; heads of kinship groups and families; a
village; local leaders of political parties. The exact pattern will vary from one society to another,
but the extension agent should learn what the role of each leader is, and how much influence
each has within the community. This may vary from place to place, even within an extension
agent's area. A traditional chief in one village may be more influential than an elected , while in
a neighbouring village the opposite may be the case.

In many rural societies, the extension agent will have little success unless he first gains the
support of the traditional leaders. Only then will he be able to win the trust and confidence of
the members of the community. Informal leaders are not so easy to identify, because they do not
hold any particular position of authority. They are individuals who are respected by other people.
Extension agents can find out who these influential people are by observing who speaks out at
village meetings or by asking farmers who they normally go to for advice.

An extension agent can be more effective if he works through the existing structure of a rural
society and through its formal and informal leaders. However, such an approach also has its
limitations. Influential leaders often come from the more privileged sections of the community.
They may simply keep the benefits of extension, and of agricultural credit and inputs, to
themselves and their friends. By working through such leaders, extension may widen the gap
in living standards between the different sections of society. The agent, therefore, should seek
to work through existing formal and informal leaders, but should ensure that this approach does
not leave some farmers at a disadvantage.

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 CHAPTER FIVE: TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION, APPLICATION AND
CONSEQUENCES

5.1 Basic Concepts of Technology

Technology is the application of knowledge for practical purposes. Generally, technology is

used to improve the human condition, the veterinary practices, or to carry out other
socioeconomic activities.

Technology can be classified into two major categories:

(1) material technology, where knowledge is embodied into a technological product such as
tools, equipment, vet-chemicals, improved forage varieties or hybrids, improved breeds of
animals (e.g., semen from progeny-tested sires used for artificial insemination), and vaccines;
and
(2) knowledge-based technology such as the technical knowledge, management skills, and other
processes that farmers need to successfully utilize material technology (e.g., grow a forage,
produce animal products or castrate an animal using burdizzo).

The transfer of material technology to farmers generally involves the production, distribution,
and sale of seeds, implements, vet-chemicals, and other production inputs. Therefore, the
transfer process for material technology is generally simpler than training and disseminating
technical knowledge and management skills to large numbers of poorly educated farmers who
operate in different agro-ecological zones (i.e., the extension function). Also, the delivery
systems needed for these different types of technologies are generally different. In most cases,
the private sector is best suited to produce and distribute material technology.

On the other hand, most knowledge-based technologies such as improved forage or livestock
management practices are generally taught through vocational training programs for rural young
people or disseminated through a publicly funded extension system for adult farmers.

At the same time, most material technology requires technical knowledge so that these products
or tools can be used effectively. For example, to properly use a vet-chemical in parasitic control,
farmers need to know the proper application rates, the time and conditions for application, safety
procedures, and so forth. In addition, if farmers use a sprayer (another type of material
technology) to apply vet-chemicals, then they need to know how to operate, adjust, calibrate,

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and clean the equipment to achieve the best results. Therefore, material and knowledge-based
technologies are generally closely intertwined. Private sector firms in developing countries have
very limited technical capacity to train farmers in these product-related skills and knowledge;
therefore, the transfer of most knowledge-based technologies is, by design or by default, left to
the national or provincial extension system.

Categories of Technology

To understand the different roles that research, extension, drug suppliers, and other system
actors should play in the technology development and transfer process, it is essential to
differentiate between the different categories of technology. Although there are some common
elements, each category of technology has its own unique functional relationships. Each
category of technology follows a different channel as new technology is developed and
transferred to farmers. In each case, it is possible to develop a functional map of the existing
system to determine if serious linkage problems exist.

The types of technologies that should be examined include the following:

Livestock Technologies
Genetic (breed improvement)
Livestock management practices
Animal health practices
Forage or range management

Veterinary Technologies
Veterinary drugs and vaccines
Veterinary equipment and disinfectants
Diagnostic and treatment procedures
Disease prevention measures

It is important to note that different types of crop or livestock technologies have both hardware
and software components. For example, a new forage variety, as a type of material technology,
cannot be fully exploited without having a complementary set of agronomic or forage
management practices. Likewise, improved breeds of livestock generally require higher levels
of management, including improved nutrition, housing, and preventive health practices.

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 5.2. Criteria for Choosing an Appropriate Technology
There could be many criteria to be considered to say a technology is appropriate. In this section
we will look at eleven criteria for choosing appropriate technology.
These are:

a) A technology should meet a felt need of a community.

Meeting a felt need is easiest when people’s need is more specific. For example, if farmers’
problem is coccidiosis (poultry disease) while the extensionist tries to promote control of poultry
mite, controlling poultry mite is not an appropriate technology.

b) The technology has to be financially advantageous

Substantial and dependable food supply and income at local prices has to be secured.

c) The technology brings a recognizable success quickly

The potential of some technologies can be estimated before their results are actually measured
eg. By looking at the growing condition of certain forages, farmers will appreciate success.

A recognizable success will come sooner with forages already familiar to people e.g. Feeding
elephant grass to cows increases milk yield significantly during dry season. Quick recognizable
results largely support the credibility of a particular extension program especially if a technology
is in the first phase of a program.

d) The technology has to fit local farming patterns

If a farmer’s animal rearing system is an extensive one, the technology should support this
system.

e) The technology has to deal with those factors that limit production.
Factors like soil, water, light, air and genetic potential limit forage production and productivity.

f) The technology benefits the poor

Characteristics of a technology that benefits the poorest farmers include:
- Utilize the resources the poor people have;
- Reduces risk;
- Should be culturally acceptable e.g. Artificial Insemination; and, - Labor intensive
rather than capital intensive.

g) The technology has to be simple to understand

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Simple technologies use the small farmers’ knowledge and then fosters self-confidence and
dignity. Simple technologies are easy to modify and foster a dialogue between teacher & learner.

Characteristics of a simple technology

- Resembles the technology that farmers already use;
- involves forages or animals that farmers already know;
- technically unsophisticated; and,
- requires few inputs.

h) The technology aims at adequate market prices

Both adequate and reliable markets are necessary to create enthusiasm among farmers who are
innovative and participate in the program. A loss of money due to market failure leads to lose
of confidence and discourages exchange of knowledge and information about a technology.

i) The technology needs to be safe for the area’s ecology

The technology application should maximize an environmentally friendly production system.

j) The technology needs to be efficiently communicated

It requires minimum of on-site supervision, simple to teach and creates enthusiasm among
farmers.

k) The technology has to be widely applicable

More and more farmers could be involved and the program could have wider impact. Although
there are variations in topography, micro-climates or cultural groups, a well-chosen technology
can surmount these barriers.

5.3. Technology Adoption and Consequences

The adoption of recommended technologies depends upon the perceived technological

characteristics (Rogers, 2003). The user system evaluates the suitability of the technologies
based on the factors such as (i) relative advantage of the transferred technology over the existing
practices, (ii) the suitability or compatibility of the technology to their system, (iii) the degree
of technological complexity in integrating it in their existing system, (iv) the possibility of
testing the technology on trial basis in a limited way before the large scale adoption and (v)
observability of the relative benefits over the adoption of the technology in their system. For

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 example, the technologies related to disease prevention and control has got a limited
observability of the benefit by the farmers resulting in farmers‟ reluctance in vaccinating their
cattle (Table 3). It is well recognized that those technologies with high perceived relative
advantage, compatibility, trialability, observability and predictability are adopted immediately
whereas complexity of the innovation is negatively related to its rate of adoption.

Table 2: Perceived Technological Characteristics

Sl. No. Perceived Technological Description/ Example

Characteristics

1. Relative Advantage Dairy farmers consider cross bred cows produce more
milk than indigenous cows. Similarly they consider the
crossbred bullocks are inferior to local bullocks.

2. Simplicity vs. Complexity Proper disposal of dead cows (burial or burning) is a

complex practice.

3. Trialability AI as a practice can be tried on one cow and see for its
performance before adopting in all the cows.

4. Observability Benefits of vaccination or colostrums feeding to new

born calves, de-worming etc are difficult to observe in
the short period of time
5. Compatibility Culling of cattle especially cows through slaughter is not
compatible with the social system.

There cannot be any technology which is devoid of negative consequences. It is necessary for
the extension agent to provide the information on both positive and negative consequences of
the technology to the livestock farmers which enable them to take appropriate decisions (Table
4). However, this is possible if adequate information on the advantages and disadvantages of a
particular technology in a particular social system are gathered through on farm trials. It is
equally important for the extension agent to resist from the tendencies of painting a rosy picture
of a technology to avoid future mistrust between him and the livestock farmer.

Table 3. Consequences of technologies or practice

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The adoption of a technology usually follows a normal, bell shaped curve when plotted over
time on a frequency basis. If the cumulative number of adopters is plotted, the result gives a “S”
shape curve. Since all the individuals in a system do not adopt a technology at the same time,
based on their time of adoption since the technology is introduced in the system, the adopters
are categorized into, innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards.
Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas
than other members of a system.

The adoption process of a technology involves stages like awareness, interest, evaluation, trial
and finally adoption. The rate of adoption is the relative speed with which a technology is
adopted by the members in a social system. On adoption of a particular technology, in a given
system the resulting outcome is measured in terms of technological consequences. The
technological consequences can be classified into (i) desirable vs undesirable (ii) direct vs
indirect (iii) expected vs unexpected. The studies on technological consequences are, therefore,
conducted to evaluate the net technological impact in a given system due to its adoption in the
system.

5.3 Technology Application: Assessment and Refinement, Demonstration and Training

The technology application in the farmers‟ field is a pre-requisite for further steps in the process
such as dissemination and adoption. The technology application refers to assessment and
refinement, demonstration, and training of the farmers.

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5.3.1 The Technology Assessment and Refinement (TAR) refers to the process or a set of
activities undertaken before taking up new scientific information for its dissemination in a new
productive system. It is expected that the situation prevailing at farm condition differs from that
of experimental condition under which the scientist develops technologies resulting in
performance gap and dissatisfaction. Therefore, the technologies need to be reviewed, assessed
and refined in terms of specific needs, opportunities and constraints faced by the farmers in
different production systems. Some of the reasons for low acceptance of technologies are;
• not economically viable
• not operationally feasible
• not stable
• not matching with the farmers‟ needs and
• not compatible with the farmers‟ overall farming systems.
Therefore, the assessment and refinement of technology need to be:
• site specific
• holistic
• farmer participatory
• technical solutions to existing problems
• inter-disciplinary
• interactive and
• gender sensitive

The operationalization issue involves a shift from discipline to program mode, following the
principles of systems approach, integration of bio physical and socio economic factors, and
applied to local situations and farmers‟ resource in the form of On Farm Trials (OFT). On-Farm
Trial aims at testing a new technology or an idea in farmer’s fields, under farmers‟ conditions
and management, by using farmer’s own practices as control. The OFT is conducted in the
farmers‟ field to know the suitability or applicability of the chosen technology in the farmers
conditions. It should help to develop innovations consistent with farmer’s circumstances,
compatible with the actual farming system and corresponding to farmer’s goals and preferences.
There are five steps involved in conducting OFT. They are (i) diagnosis (ii) planning (iii)
conducting (iv) assessment and (v) extrapolation/extension.

The diagnosis involves understanding of farming system and system interaction in the given
situation, identifying the problems limiting productivity of the resources available to the
farmers, understanding the problem causes, and listing out of possible solutions.

The planning phase involves setting out the priorities for conducting on farm trials. On listing
out the priorities, the problem ranking is done based on the factors such as severity, importance,

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frequency and extent of prevalence. Further, the identification of the problem cause needs to be
done to look for possible solutions and analyze the feasibility or applicability of the solution to
solve the problem in the given situation. The identification is done through the methods like
PRA and formal survey methods (direct observation), yield surveys, previous studies such as
exploratory trials and long term monitoring of the situation.

Conducting on farm trials to see the technological applicability is a real challenge and need to
be done by following the step wise procedures such as selection of the farmer, animals or farm,
technology screening, actual implementation, recording of data, analysis, refinement based on
the local situation in case of technology performance shortfalls due to situational demands.

Assessment of the technology/refinement by using its performance indicators is an important

step in OFT as it involves selection of appropriate indicators, their measurement and making the
farmers familiar with the procedures of measurement and recording the values.

The final step is the extrapolation/extension (dissemination of technologies) in the similar

farming situations or micro climatic environment through conducting field demonstration, and
empowering the farmers with suitable training for successful adoption of the technology in the
given farming system.

Demonstrations
Demonstrations are very widely used extension teaching methods in demonstrating the skill or
method or the result of a particular practice to the audience. Demonstrations if organized
properly will arouse interest and improve the learning process. The demonstration is the most
effective way to show how thing works, how to do the work, principles involved in an operation
and to show the end results of the method adopted. On the basis of purpose for which the
demonstration is conducted it is classified into (i) method demonstration and (ii) result
demonstration.

Method Demonstration: A method demonstration is conducted to explain how to carry-out a

particular operation according to its principles so that it is carried out systematically and yields
better result. Through method demonstration the learners are taught “how to do something”. The
extension principle involved in the method demonstration is “learning by doing.” The learners
will be shown the right method for doing an old practice or taught about a new practice that are
introduced to them. The method demonstration teaches new skills and helps the learner to obtain
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practical knowledge about something they need to practice or do in their day to day life. These
demonstrations are intended to impart skills such as right method of milking, dehorning, feed
formulations, de-beaking in chicks etc.

Result Demonstration: The value of a new practice can be realized better by seeing the end
product or outcome in comparison with the existing practice. This is based on the principle of
“seeing is believing”. The result demonstration serves as an important tool to convince the
farmers about the value of a new idea or innovation that is introduced to them as an option to
their existing practice. Unless the farmers see the outcome or results of the recommended
practice in comparison with their existing practice with their own eyes and experience, it
becomes difficult for the extension worker to induce the farmer to adopt the recommended
breed, strain or practice. In such circumstances the result demonstration helps the extension
worker to make his job easy. The result demonstration could be ideally employed when it is
intended to demonstrate the effect of a new breed or feed formulation on milk production.
However, the main constraint in conducting the result demonstrations is the observability of
results. For instance the effect of drugs on health of the animals could easily be demonstrated
and compared to the effect of vaccination on disease incidence. In addition, demonstration of
certain practices like the superiority of a crossbred cow compared to a local cow in milk yield
will take very long time and the farmers may not have patience to wait for such time.

Training

Training is about extending and developing individuals’ capabilities for better performance in
their jobs. It involves the transfer of new knowledge, skills and attitudes to develop and maintain
trainees’ competencies to perform specific roles at their work place.

There are many definitions in the literature. Here are some that may be helpful in summarizing
many of the ideas on training:

Training is the process of acquiring specific skills to perform a job better (Jucious, 1963). It
helps people to become qualified and proficient in doing some jobs (Dahama, 1979). Usually an
organization facilitates the employees' learning through training so that their modified behavior
contributes to the attainment of the organization's goals and objectives. Van Dersal (1962)
defined training as the process of teaching, informing, or educating people so that (1) they may

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become as well qualified as possible to do their job, and (2) they become qualified to perform
in positions of greater difficulty and responsibility.

Education also provides knowledge, skills and attitudes and brings about changes in behavior
of individuals. However, training differs from education.

Training Education

- Usually short term - Long term

- Narrowly focused & specific - Broadly focused
- Designed to meet a specific - Aimed at preparing people and has immediate
need application for the future.

Training may be necessary for many reasons:

- When there is a discrepancy between an employee’s current performance and the
required standard of performance in his / her present position.
- When there are changes in a job description or the addition of new responsibility in the
present position.
- When an employee moves to a new position and acquires a new set of responsibilities.
- When some new way of doing something is developed.
Steps in Organizing a Training Program
Training is a circular process that begins with needs identification and after a number of steps
ends with evaluation of the training activity. A change or deficiency in any step of the training
process affects the whole system, and therefore it is important for a trainer to have a clear
understanding about all phases and steps of the training process. In the broadest view, there are
three phases of a training process: planning, implementation, and evaluation.

A. Planning Phase
The planning phase encompasses several activities, two of which - training needs assessment
and curriculum development - are very important.

B. Implementation phase
Once the planning phase of a training program is complete, then it is time to implement the
course. Implementation is the point where a trainer activates the training plan, or it is the process
of putting a training program into operation.

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 C. Evaluation phase
Evaluation is a process to determine the relevance, effectiveness, and impact of activities in light
of their objectives. Raab et al. (1987) define training evaluation as "a systematic process of
collecting information for and about a training activity which can then be used for guiding
decision making and for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training
components."

Planning Phase

The planning phase has three parts which are executed step by step. These steps are:
- Training Needs Assessment
- Design and Preparation of Training
- Cost estimation

I. Training Needs Assessment

A training need is said to exist when a gap between the work performance of an individual or
organization and a desired level of competency is perceived. This suggests that a training need
can be described as a set of specific skills, knowledge, and attitudes, which are needed by
individuals in a given organization or occupational category in order to perform a particular job
or task more efficiently.

Training Needs Assessment refers to the process whereby such training needs are identified,
prioritized, and selected for specific action as part of a training program. The first step of the
training cycle is the identification of training needs. Training should never be provided unless
needs have been clearly analyzed and identified. Once a problem has been identified, a number
of solutions may exist. It is very important, however, to realize that training is not always the
answer.

Whenever a deficiency of knowledge, skill or attitude exists, it is all too easy to fall into the trap
of thinking that some form of formal training program is necessary. It is often better to decide
what we must not teach or need not teach, in order to determine what we must teach.

Gane (1972) also notes that before deciding to provide training, one should consider whether
changing the organization, the equipment or the job itself, or changing the people concerned by
the selection, would ease the problem, before the expensive, uncertain process of training is
embarked on to change people’s performance directly.

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It might be asked why training is not a cure for all performance ills. The fact is that training has
high costs. Men and women are taken away from productive work and time and money are spent
on achieving objectives which might have been managed more cost- effectively.

Before considering training, therefore, the situation should first be analyzed carefully in order
to decide whether a deficiency in performance can be rectified using non-training measures,
such as making changes in human, technological, financial, organizational, social and
information systems. Specific examples could include making changes to the working
environment, improving housing, transport or the general infrastructure or, in an organization,
altering the criteria used in selecting staff.

Training should only be carried out when it is believed that the same results, in terms of job
performance, cannot be obtained so efficiently, effectively and economically by any other
strategy.

Needs assessment is concerned with identifying the type of training needed, as well as those in
needs, down to the level of the individual, organization and its constituent elements
(departments, units and individuals)

Three levels may be identified specifically. These are:

1. Organizational level needs: Concerns identifying the type of training needed by
organizations and /or units and departments within them.
2. Occupational level needs: involves identifying the attitudes and knowledge refinements
for carrying out a particular type of job or function.
3. Individual level needs: deciding the organizational and occupational needs leads at the
question of who or which individuals are in need of what type of training.

Individual level Needs

Individual level needs assessment is an example of identifying needs as ability gaps, i.e.
deficiencies between existing and desired levels of knowledge, skill and attitudes required by
individuals to perform a job. In fact, to the extent that the ultimate aim of all training is to equip
individuals with the required levels of competency to perform their jobs. This level of
assessment provides a common interface between all levels of assessment discussed so far.

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Its importance is in helping trainers find out:
- Who needs training?
- What training they need most
- How this can be best achieved

The knowledge gained from this is indispensable for:

- Planning new training or;
- Tailoring the content and design of an existing program to the needs of prospective
trainees.

Methods of individual level needs assessment

The two most common and useful methods of individual level needs assessment are:
- Performance Appraisal
- Gap Analysis

Common techniques of investigation and data collections may be used to operationalize them.
Examples are:
- Observation - Group Discussion
- Questionnaires - Tests
- Interviews - Records /Reports

Performance Appraisal
The main purpose of a performance appraisal is to locate any short comings in the performance
of appraises based on their actual job performance. However, not all performance appraisals are
intended, or designed, for identifying individual training needs.

In fact, in many organizations performance appraisal is a part of an annual activity the results
of which are left without adequate analysis. Technically many methods may be available
(examination of work sample, observation, etc.). Interviews of a semi-structured nature are
likely to be more appropriate.

Gap Analysis
Gap analysis involves finding out whether there is a gap between what prospective trainees
know, and what they need to know in order to function effectively in their jobs. The purpose is
thus to find out if there is a gap, and whether training is a remedy.

Gap analysis is a follow-up to job and task analyses.

Job analysis: A job or function consists of a number of tasks. The clear advantage of a job
analysis is to assist trainers to avoid some tasks and to focus on others. In practice, however, job
analysis is much more complicated.
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 The main outcome of this type of analysis is, therefore, a list of the tasks that make up the job
and their assessment to define the focus of the training program. The assessment is in turn based
on three sets of considerations:
- the relative importance of each task
- the frequency with which they are carried out
- the frequency with which they are carried out
- the envisaged learning difficulty

Suggested procedure for completing job Analysis Worksheet

Steps Comments
1. list all tasks that might be included in the job You’ll not necessarily teach all these tasks, some will be deleted,
later an in the analysis
2. Determine how frequently each task is performed Use a scoring scheme
1. very / quite frequently 2. regularly
3. Occasionally 4. Seldom
3. Indicate the relative importance of each task Rate each task 1, 2, or 3 to indicate your judgment of their
importance : eg.
1. Extremely important 2. Moderately important
3. Marginally ‘’
4. Estimate the difficulty of learning the task 1. Extremely difficult 2. Very difficult
3. Moderately ‘’ 4. Easy
5. Tally up the total score Tasks with the lowest total score will be the priority tasks to be
included in the training activity.

Job Analysis Worksheet

Job: Vaccination

Tasks Frequency of Importance Learning Total Focus?

Performance

Preparation equipment

Cleaning and disinfecting

Preparing vaccine

Vaccinating animals

Frequency Importance Learning Difficulty

1= Very / quite frequently 1. Extremely important 1. Extremely difficult

2= Regularly 2. Moderately important 2. Very difficult
3= Occasionally 3. Marginally important 3. Moderately difficult

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4= Seldom 4. Easy

Task Analysis
Just as a job consists of various tasks, so does a task comprise of a number of steps or
components. As indicated earlier, in case job analysis fails to yield sufficient insights into the
nature of activity covered under a given job, it may be necessary to take the analysis further to
analyze each task. A study of these tasks, known as task analysis, enables trainers to develop a
fuller understanding of the detailed activities covered by a job, and to determine, at a more
detailed revel, the desirable focus of the training program. The procedure used for task analysis
is very similar to job analysis.

II. Design and Preparation of Training

Course development is an important part of the overall planning of training. It follows needs
assessment in the training phases and comprises typically of the following components:
- Defining training objectives in the light of needs identified
- Developing course curriculum to achieve the objectives
- Selecting and developing instructional design to ensure effective delivery of the training
course. This last step in turn involves decisions about designing and preparing training materials
and choosing appropriate aids.

Training Objectives
An objective is a statement of what is to be accomplished by an activity. In the training context,
objectives arise out of ‘gaps’ and ‘deficiencies’ identified in the process of needs assessment.
They indicate what is to be done about these gaps by stating an end-of training performance
outcome.

Objectives thus link two important stages of planning in the training phase: need assessment and
the design and preparation of training. Defining objectives is also important for the delivery of
training as well as for evaluating its outcomes.

How to Write Objectives

Clear objectives need to let the trainee and the evaluator know exactly
- What improvements are being sought
- Under what conditions these standards are to be attained
- What standards of performance are to be attained

To achieve these would in turn require that the specified objectives are observable, measurable
and understood by all.

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The three essential components of objectives are performance, conditions and standards.

Performance
Performance is stated in terms of what the trainee will be able to do by the end of the learning
experience.

In converting needs into objectives, three areas of performance may be focused on:

1. Skills: it is normally easier to write learning objectives for skill related jobs. As skills
are more readily observable or identifiable, they can be stated fairly specially compared to the
other two categories of learning.

E.g. Action verbs for constructing skill related objective

Assemble Design Make
Collect Fix Measure
Construct Install Perform
Demonstrate Locate Show

2. Knowledge: Most learning objectives involve some kind of knowledge, although

knowledge does not by itself change performance. One potential difficulty in writing knowledge
related objectives is to differentiate those which raise general awareness and understanding.

E.g. Action verbs for constructing knowledge related objectives

Analyze Describe List
Categorize Evaluate Match
Compare Express Order
Define Group Relate

3. Attitude: This is perhaps the most controversial areas of learning, and one which is least
susceptible to measurement.

E.g. Action verbs for constructing attitude related objectives

Accept Defend Prescribe
Agree Encourage Recommend
Choose Help
Cooperate Lead

Examples of performance statements are:

- The trainee will define in writing…….
- The trainee will collect fecal samples…….

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Conditions
This specifies the limitations or constraints under which the performance is expected to take
place. It should be noted that these are not limitations of the learning situation, but of the terminal
performance

Examples of conditions are:

- Given list of words……
- Using sampling equipment…..

Standards
This states or defines what an acceptable standard of performance is. Under the first component,
we were only looking for performance, and under the second the condition under which that
performance should occur. Under standards we look at the required criteria for judging
performance or how well the learner is expected to perform.

Examples of performance standards

- …… the accurate meaning.
- …… according to the step listed in the manual.

Examples of training objectives

- Given the list of words the trainee will define in writing the accurate meaning.
- Using sampling equipment the trainee will collect fecal samples according to the step
listed in the manual.

Training Course Development

After training objectives have been clarified, it becomes necessary to define the scope of the
training course, known as curriculum development. This is an important step in the translation
of training objectives into actual training program.

Generally a curriculum development is a listing or outlining of the content which is to be learnt.

It contains the main topic headings, sub- headings, headings, and may go to several levels of
specificity. The curriculum does not normally indicate how learning is to take place, rather what
is to be learnt. It spells out learning units, their sequence, and degree of importance or priority.

The main purpose of curriculum development is to clarify the subject matter to be trained and
to show how it will be approached. It can at the sometime be seen as a form of remote control
over the composition of the training to be recruited.

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Three stapes are involved in the design of training curriculum:
- Defining the course content or components (in terms of parts, chapters, sections or sub-
sections.
- Establishing the relative importance of each components, and
- Deciding the sequence in which they are to be covered

Training Materials
Training materials refer to all forms of support prepared for, and used in, training.
Training materials can be divided into two major types:
- Print materials and
- Audio-visual support

Print materials include handouts, worksheets, boxed extracts, selected articles, exercises,
posters, leaflets, etc.

Audio-visual aids include chalkboard, white board, flip charts, overhead projector, film slides,
video and film and audio cassettes, etc.

Training materials can be used in a variety of circumstances and for a variety of purposes:
- The spoken word may not be sufficient to convey complicated information. Some
illustration or attempt at representation may be additionally required. Thus, supplementary aids
may be used to reinforce the training massage.
- They can help store the conveyed information in the memory of trainees.
- They provide interest and attraction to trainees, who may otherwise succumb to the
monotony of verbal presentations.
- They promote participant involvement in the learning process.
- As a resource for future referencing, they extend the ‘shelf life’ of leaning well beyond
the training session(s).

III. Estimating Training Costs

Organizing and conducting an effective training program takes time, effort and money.
Unfortunately, money is not always available in the amounts organizers would like. It is,
therefore, important that those responsible for a training program learn to budget accurately for
any necessary expenditure to ensure that they can justify fully the requests they may make for
funds.

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The financial allocation for a training program must be based on a properly prepared budget
which can stand up to close scrutiny and be defended during discussion. No overall amount per
person can be suggested for a training program as the costs vary according to:
- the type of training provided;
- the size of the training group;
- the administrative costs of training such as supplies and classroom materials; equipment
and field materials; travel expenses; number of training staff involved; and, other staff expenses.

A framework within which estimated training costs may be allocated is given below.

Item Cost
Transport
Numb of participants x cost of transport for each round trip.
Number of guest staff x cost of transport for each round trip.

Per diem or subsistence allowance

Number of participants x amount per day x number of days on course, plus an appropriate number of days for travel
to and from the course.
Number of guest staff days required x appropriate allowances per day and for travel time.

Supplies and materials

Number of participants x cost of training materials per participant.

The accuracy of this estimate can be improved steadily if records of materials issued and unit costs are maintained
by the Documentation and Proceedings Committee.

Honoraria for lecturers

Number of hours (or teaching units) taught by lecturers x rate of honorarium per hour or unit.

Educational field trips

Determine the number of field trips planned.
Compute costs on basis of vehicle distance covered at the standard rate per kilometer for each vehicle used.
Include overtime or any special payments for drivers.

Overhead expenses
This item may be hard to determine precisely initially and it is often simply quoted as a percentage of the overall
costs of the program. It should cover any additional secretarial or domestic staff requirements during the course.
An allowance of 10 - 15% should be made initially in most cases. This can be adjusted for subsequent courses on
the basis of records of the actual costs incurred.

Miscellaneous
This is frequently computed on the basis of 10% of the total budgetary requirements, including overhead expenses.
It should be held in reserve to finance any item of expenditure which could not reasonably have been forseen and
which, if not met, would seriously affect the standard of training offered.

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Implementation phase

Training Techniques
In principle, there are a wide variety of techniques that trainers can employ to conduct their
courses. In practice, however, choice is constrained by such factors as trainer’s confidence and
competence, and resources available for training.

The use of a variety of training methods or techniques not only increases the interest on trainees
but also the program effectiveness. It also encourages active participation by the audience. A
training method is a strategy or tactic that the trainer use to deliver the content so that the trainees
will achieve the objectives. Using a specific training method, the trainer may also employ a
variety of training methods or techniques to enhance the effectiveness of the learning process.
These training methods or techniques are classified into three groups, reflecting their broad
common areas of functionality. These are:
- Presentational Techniques (lecture, demonstration)
- Participatory Techniques (group discussion, case study, role play, workshop) -
Exploratory Techniques (field trip/visit, assignment)

There are a variety of training methods or techniques available to a trainer to deliver his training
content. The eight most commonly used methods are:
- Lecture: the trainer orally presents new information to trainees.
- Group discussion: the trainer leads the group of trainees in discussing a topic. Group
size may vary but discussion may be less effective if the group is too large.
- Demonstration: the trainer shows the correct steps for completing a task, or shows an
example of a correctly completed task.
- Reading: the trainer gives trainees written material to be read that presents new
information.
- Exercise: the trainer gives trainees assignments to be completed related to the topic of
the training activity.
- Case study: the trainer gives trainees information about the situation and directs them
to come with a decision or solve a problem concerning the situation.
- Role play: trainees act out a real life situation in an instructional setting.
- Field visits/Study tour: trainees are given the opportunity to observe and interact with
the problem being solved or skill being learned.

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Evaluation Phase

Evaluation is a process which attempts to determine as systematically and objectively as

possible the relevance, effectiveness and impact of activities in the light of their objectives, i.e.
their aims and purposes.

Training Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information for and
about a training activity which can be used for planning and guiding decision making as well as
for assessing the relevance and effectiveness of various training components. It is also used to
determine the immediate results of the activity. Process implies that it must be undertaken
before, during and after training.

I. Evaluation before training

Training needs assessment is a tool for evaluation for planning. It provides the baseline date
upon which all planning decisions are made. This information will enable to make critical
decisions regarding formulation of training objectives and course content, etc.

Evaluation of Methods and Materials: There are many instructional methodologies and types of
materials from which to choose. However, not all are equally effective for reaching all types of
trainees or for teaching specific content.

Each instructional method/material has specific characteristics and advantages and depending
on such factors as types of trainees, subject matter being taught. It is therefore suggested that all
instructional methods intended to be used should be evaluated for their effectiveness with the
target audience.

II. Evaluation during training

Process evaluation is conducted to detect or predict defects in the procedural design of a training
activity during the implementation phase. Key elements of a training activity are monitored in
a systematic manner with the goal of identifying potential problems before they become serious.
It is also used to measure trainee progress toward the objectives set during the planning phase.

Process evaluation is a tool to help improve the efficiency and effectiveness of a training
program. The overall process evaluation strategy identifies and monitors on a continuous basis
the potential sources of failure and also tells about trainee progress towards achieving training
objectives.

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Process evaluation is conducted periodically throughout the duration of the training. It focuses
on anything that occurs during implementation that has an important effect on success of the
training activity. It examines such contributing factors as:
- Change in trainee knowledge, attitude or skill
- Effectiveness of training methods and materials
- Interpersonal relationship among trainees
- The performance of trainers
- The extent to which people involved in and the training activity are in agreement with
its intent.
- Adequacy of the resources, the physical facilities, staff and the time schedule.

Both formal and informal methods are commonly used in process evaluation. formal method
include knowledge, attitude or skill tests (exam) and instruments that may require trainees,
instructors, administrative staff, and service personnel, to give their opinions on various aspects
of the training activity. Informal methods such as round table discussions and individual
interviews can also be used. There are no hard and fast rules on selection of methods.

Remember that process evaluation is conducted so as to have some idea of the progress and to
identify potential problems before the end of the training activity. If done early, there will be
time to make adjustments and corrections.

III. Evaluation after training

The primary objective of terminal evaluation is to determine the degree to which the intended
training objectives and goals have been met and to relate these findings to evaluation
information collected earlier in the training process. It is conducted at the end of the training
activity.

The major focus of a terminal evaluation is learner performance. Learner performance can be
assessed in various ways. One way is by comparing pre-training measurements with post-
training measurements. In this method, the trainer will present results as learning gains. Another
way is by comparing the objectives of the training activity with what has actually been learnt.
Trainers who resort to the latter procedure tend to concentrate on full competency. The first
method is closely related to norm-referenced evaluation while the second is known as criterion-
referenced evaluation.

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Terminal evaluation focuses on many of the same areas as process evaluation, including
organization, facilities and resources. Terminal evaluation, however, tends to concentrated more
on trainees overall impression of the training activity.

By far the most common method used in terminal evaluation is to test knowledge, attitudes and
skills. Test results are then compared either with pre-determined standards (as specified in
objectives) or with entry level knowledge (as measured by a pretest).

As in process evaluation, training activity evaluation forms completed by trainees can also
provide valuable information on such organizational factors as length, focus, facilities and
resources.

This means that two general methods are used in terminal evaluation:
- Actual measurement of change in trainee knowledge, attitude or skill competence,
- Measurement of trainee perceptions about the training activity.

Many training activities use trainee perceptions as the base for this evaluation. This kind of
evaluation information can reveal a great deal about a training activity. Trainee perceptions can
be very valuable in pinpointing reasons for training activity success or failure.

Potential problem areas about which trainees should be asked include:

- Training activity organization and management
- Physical resources and facilities
- Appropriateness of objectives
- Training content
- Trainers
- Training methods and materials

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 CHAPTER SIX: UNDERSTANDING FARMERS’ LOCAL CONDITIONS

Dissatisfaction with the normal processes of questionnaire survey and its results, which is a
headache to administer, tedious to process and write up leading to late reports. This
dissatisfaction led to a move from extractive survey questionnaires and towards new approaches
and methods for appraisal and analysis in which more of the activities previously appropriated
by outsiders are instead carried out with the involvement of local rural people. In these changes,
a part has been played by two closely related families of approaches and of methods (rapid
assessment procedures), often referred to as rapid rural appraisal (RRA) which began to emerge
in the late 1970s and spread especially in the 1980s and its further evolution into participatory
rural appraisal (PRA) which has developed in 1980s and spread fast in the 1990s. RRA and PRA
are methods which are quicker and more cost-effective methods to identify agricultural research
priorities than questionnaire surveys. They were used by the growing recognition by
development professionals of the fact that rural people themselves are knowledgeable on many
subjects which touched their lives.

Here below, RRA and PRA (which are more useful to understand farmers’ local conditions) are
discussed in detail.

6.1 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) Techniques

In reaction to the shortcomings of structured surveys, at the end of the 1970s and in the
beginning of the 1980s a series of methodologies were developed to help outsiders understand
rural life better in a short time: rapid reconnaissance, exploratory surveys, informal methods,
informal agricultural survey, etc. Their basic feature is ‘organized common sense’. Finally,
Rapid Rural Appraisal emerged as the most widely used methodology for outsiders to learn
about rural life.

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) is more commonly described as a systematic but semi-structured
activity out in the field by a multidisciplinary team and is designed to obtain new information
and to formulate new hypotheses about rural life. A central characteristic of RRA is that its
research teams are multidisciplinary. RRA emerged in the 1970s as a more efficient and cost
effective way of learning by outsiders, particularly about agricultural systems, than was possible
by large-scale social surveys or brief rural visits by urban professionals.

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RRA was developed in response to the disadvantages of more traditional research methods,
including: the time taken to produce results, the high cost of formal surveys and the low levels
of data reliability due to non-sampling errors. It emphasized the importance and relevance of
situational local knowledge, and the importance of getting the big things broadly right rather
than achieving spurious statistical accuracy.

A core concept of RRA is that research should be carried out not by individuals, but by a team
comprised of members drawn from a variety of appropriate disciplines. Such teams are intended
to be comprised of some members with relevant technical backgrounds and others with social
science skills, including marketing research skills. In this way, it is thought that the varying
perspectives of RRA research team members will provide a more balanced picture. Chambers
describes the orientation of RRA as a "fairly-quick and-fairly-clean" appraisal, and as opposed
to the fast and careless studies (he calls them "quick-and-dirty" studies) and the slow and
excessively accurate approaches ("long-and-dirty").

RRA is also an approach for conducting action-oriented research in developing countries. To

date RRA has mainly been used in the field of rural development as a short cut method to be
employed at the feasibility stage of project planning.

The central idea is that a group of outsiders spends some time in a village and has informal and
open dialogues with the people on (all) aspects of their daily life. The group works with
(interdisciplinary) teams of 2-3 people who exchange their experience every evening and
identify gaps in their understanding. Profiles are made of the respondents (e.g. old/ young/ male/
female /rich /poor /etc.) in order to be better able to understand their ideas. The following day,
the composition of the teams is changed and the dialogue with the target groups is continued. A
series of tools have been developed to facilitate the interaction between the team and the people.
Most commonly used are:
• semi-structured interviews: an informal dialogue with farmers, loosely structured by a
check list of issues the team wants to address;
• dialogues with key persons or local experts: the importance of the first is based on
their (formal) position and of the latter on their expertise/skills;
• transect walks: walking with a (small) group of villagers along a transect, e.g. from the
top of the hills to the center of the village in the valley;
• group interviews.

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6.1.1 Types of RRA

Exploratory RRA is when outsiders gain qualitative insight into the daily life of different
groups in rural areas. Exploratory RRAs are mostly done during the identification stage of a
project when the broad lines of a project have to be defined.

Topical RRAs are used to answer a specific research question; for example, what is the position
of women in the community, or how do people cooperate in the community? Topical RRAs can
be used during the initial stages of the implementation of a project. It is possible to use RRAs
for monitoring purposes or in the evaluation phase of a project, but this is not common.

6.1.2 The principles of rapid rural appraisals

1. Optimizing the information: In the context of cost-effectiveness, alertness, observation
and imagination
2. Offsetting biases: through introspection, it is necessary to identify cognitive biases and
deliberately balance those biases.
3. Triangulating: using more than one technique/source of information to cross-check
answers. It also involves having team - multidisciplinary - members with the ability to approach
the same piece of information or the same question from different perspectives.
4. Learning from and with the rural people: this means learning directly, on-site, and
face-to-face, gaining from indigenous physical, technical, and social knowledge.
5. Learning rapidly and progressively: this means the process of learning with conscious
exploration, flexible use of methods, opportunism, creativeness, restatement, and crosschecking,
not following a blueprint programme but adapting through the learning process. A fundamental
principle is the making of contact with the rural population in a learning process. This aspect
must be one of the focal points.

It was usually conducted by a multi-disciplinary team, and its chief techniques included:
• Review of secondary sources, including aerial photos, even brief aerial observation
• Direct observation, foot transects, familiarization, participation in activities
• Interviews with key informants, group interviews, workshops
• Mapping, diagramming
• Biographies, local histories, case studies
• Ranking and scoring
• Time lines: obtaining quantitative data in a short time frame
• Short simple questionnaires, towards end of process
• Rapid report writing in the field.

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6.2 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Techniques

In recent years, an increasing number of analyses of projects have shown that participation by
local people is one of the critical components of success in irrigation, livestock, water, and
agriculture sectors. The terms "people's participation" and "popular participation" have now
become part of the normal language of many development agencies. This has brought new
dangers. The term "participation" has been used to justify the extension of state control and to
build local capacity and self-reliance; it has been used for data collection and for interactive
analysis.

Participation has often centered on encouraging local people to sell their labor in return for food,
cash, or materials. Yet these material incentives distort perceptions, create dependencies, and
give the misleading impression that local people are supportive of externally driven initiatives.
This means that "more often than not, people are asked or dragged into participating in
operations of no interest to them, in the very name of participation"

Many interpretations of the term participation can be arranged into seven clear types. These
ranges from passive participation, where people are involved merely by being told what is to
happen, to self-mobilization, where people take initiatives independent of external institutions.
It is clear from this typology that the term participation should not be accepted without the term
participation should not be accepted without appropriate qualification. If the objective of
development is to achieve sustainable development, then nothing less than functional
participation should suffice.

6.2.1 What is Participatory rural appraisal (PRA)?

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) is an approach used by governmental, NGOs and other
agencies involved in international development. PRA refer to “a family approaches”). It shares
the basic principles of RRA (quick, multidisciplinary, observations, etc.), yet now it is the local
people who are encouraged to analyze their own situation and plan activities to improve it.

The approach aims to incorporate the knowledge and opinions of rural people in the planning
and management of development projects and programs. This was followed by a rapid growth

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in the development of methods that involved rural people in examining their own problems,
setting their own goals, and monitoring their own achievements.

To ensure that people are not excluded from participation, these techniques avoid writing
wherever possible, relying instead on the tools of oral communication like pictures, symbols,
physical objects and group memory.

It encourages empowerment and decentralization. Empowerment means that people, especially

poorer people, are enabled to take more control over their lives, and secure a better livelihood
with ownership and control of productive assets as one key element. Decentralization and
empowerment enable local people to exploit the diverse complexities of their own conditions,
and to adapt to rapid change.

The three basic pillars of PRA (and the basic differences from RRA) are:
1. The behaviour and attitude of outsiders, who facilitate rather than dominate;
2. The methods, which are open, group-oriented, visual and comparative;
3. Sharing of information, food, experiences, etc. between insiders and outsiders.

For the tools used, two issues stand out:

1. ‘Handing over the stick’: instead of outsiders trying to understand the knowledge of the
local people, PRA tries to facilitate local people to develop their capabilities. They collect and
analyse the data and propose actions to be undertaken.
2. Visualisation and sharing: local people convey their ideas and knowledge in a visual
way. In verbal communication, outsiders dominate the dialogue more easily (via eye contact,
cross-checking, etc.) than in communication via visual aids. When a map is drawn by a stick in
the soil all can contribute, and local people feel more confident than when outsiders try to draw
a map on a piece of paper with a pen - a typical tool of powerful outsiders. Sharing also explicitly
involves the food and shelter during the PRA.

6.2.2 The most commonly used tools are:

1. Participatory mapping: a group of villagers makes a map of the community. The way
they do this and what they find important provide good entry points for discussions about crucial
aspects of village life;
2. Village transects: together with a (small) group of villagers the team walks through the
village (or another relevant area) and discusses the things observed;

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3. Ranking: people are asked to compare units (e.g. families /trees /crops) and to group
them according to their own criteria. For example, via pair-wise comparing the importance of
certain trees, people find out which criteria they use to assess the usefulness of these. Ranking
is also used to stratify the local population, e.g. via wealth ranking. Both the results of the
ranking and the criteria used provide entry points for further discussions.
4. Historical recalls: the life story of families are recalled and the main events are used as
reference points in the analysis of the present situation;
5. Calendars: people indicate how things change over time, e.g. in which months they have
to borrow money, when their children get malaria, when the rains are normally expected, etc.

Combining information obtained from all the tools provides the villagers with an explicit picture
of their daily life. This not only helps them to start a discussion on their main problems and how
to tackle them, it also boosts their self-esteem because they are able to make this analysis
themselves.

Strong Points
1. PRA presents a major step forward from RRA. Local people do the analysis and plan for
the future. Their own values, needs and priorities are the point of departure. They themselves
develop criteria to classify aspects of their life. This not only leads to a better understanding of
the situation (for both the in- and the outsiders) and therefore increases the chance for realistic
plans, it also generates a much higher commitment of the people to the planned activities.
2. The many different perspectives on daily reality and the visualization offer good
opportunities to go beyond the most obvious and dominant points of view in the community.
The only warning here should be that too much attention to group discussions/ -activities might
enable some groups to dominate the discussion.
3. To ensure that people are not excluded from participation, these techniques avoid writing
wherever possible, relying instead on the tools of oral communication like pictures, symbols,
physical objects and group memory.
4. It encourages empowerment and decentralization.
5. Empowerment means that people, especially poorer people, are enabled to take more
control over their lives, and secure a better livelihood with ownership and control of productive
assets as one key element.
6. Decentralization and empowerment enable local people to exploit the diverse
complexities of their own conditions, and to adapt to rapid change.

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7. The methodology is open to modification; everybody can develop new tools and new
ways of organizing things. This makes PRA applicable in a very wide range of situations.
Indeed, it has been used in both rural and urban areas, both in developing countries and industrial
countries, in agriculture, in health care and in social programs.
8. PRA can also be used to collect data; local people are able to generate and/or collect
reliable data which they themselves analyse and use for planning.

Semi-structured interviews (SSI). This is guided interviewing and listening in which only
some of the questions and topics are predetermined; other questions arise during the interview.
The interviews appear informal and conversational, but are actually carefully controlled and
structured. Using a guide or checklist, the multidisciplinary team poses open-ended questions
and probes topics as they arise. New avenues of questioning are pursued as the interview
develops. SSIs are a central part of all participatory methods.

Types, sequencing, and chains of interviews. Many types of interviews may be combined in
sequences and chains. These include key informant interviews, by asking who the experts are
and then putting together a series of interviews (e.g., men on ploughing, women on transplanting
and weeding, shopkeepers for credit and inputs); and group interviews, which may be groups
convened to discuss a particular topic (focused or specialist groups), groups comprising a mix
of people whose different perceptions illuminate an issue (structured groups), casual groups,
and community groups. The fourth element is the emphasis on diagramming and visual
construction. In formal surveys, information is taken by interviewers, who transform what
people say into their own language. By contrast, diagramming by local people gives them a
share in the creation and analysis of knowledge, providing a focus for dialogue which can be
sequentially modified and extended. Local categories, criteria, and symbols are used during
diagramming. Rather than answering questions which are directed by the values of the outside
professional, local people can explore creatively their own versions of their worlds.
Visualizations therefore help to balance dialogue and increase the depth and intensity of
discussion.

Participatory mapping and modeling: This involves constructing, on the ground or on paper,
maps or models, using materials such as sticks, stones, grasses, wood, cigarette packets, tree
leaves, coloured sands and soils, rangoli powders, coloured chalk, pens, and paper. Great play
is made of the issue of who holds the stick or pen. The person who holds the stick talks about

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what is most important to him or her. As maps take shape, more people become involved, and
so want to contribute and make sequential changes. There are many types of maps: resource
maps of catchments, villages, forests, fields, farms, home gardens; social maps of residential
areas of a village; wealth rankings and household assets surveys on social maps; health maps,
where the health status of each family member is shown on each house, using coloured stickers
or other markers (categories might include cases of malnutrition, ear infection, jaundice, and the
like); topical maps such as aquifer maps drawn by the water diviner or soils maps by soils
experts; impact monitoring maps, where villagers record or map pest incidence, input usage,
weed distribution, soil quality, and so forth. Some of the most illuminating maps combine
historical views with those of the present.

Seasonal calendars and activity profiles: Seasonal constraints and opportunities can be
diagrammed month by month throughout the year. Ceremonies can be used as a cross-check so
that names of months are agreed upon. People use pieces of stick, draw histograms in the dust
or with chalk, or make piles of stones, seeds, or powders to represent relative quantities and
patterns of rainfall, soil moisture, crops, labour, food consumption, illnesses, prices, animal
fodder, fuel, migration, pests, income, expenditure, debt, children's games, and so on. Seasonal
calendars can be drawn in linear fashion with twelve months to show a typical year or eighteen
months to illustrate changes between years, or they can be drawn in a circle. Daily pat terns of
activity can be similarly explored by charting typical activities for each hour of the day, amount
of effort, time taken, and location of work. These can be compared for men, women, the old, the
young, and others.

Time lines and local histories: Historical analyses have been found to be a good icebreaker for
field exercises and include detailed accounts of the past. How things have changed, particularly
focusing on relationships and trends. These include technology histories and review, crop
histories and biographies, livestock breed histories, labor availability, trees and forest histories,
education change, and population change. Legends and songs are valuable resources for
exploring history.

Venn and network diagrams: Venn diagrams involve the use of circles of paper or card to
represent people, groups, and institutions. These are arranged to represent real linkages and
distance between individuals and institutions. Overlap indicates flows of information, and
distance on the diagram represents lack of contact.

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Matrix scoring and pair wise ranking.

These methods are for learning about local people's categories, criteria, choices, and priorities.
For pair wise ranking, items of interest are compared pair by pair; informants are asked which
of the two they prefer, and why? Matrix scoring takes criteria for the rows in a matrix and items
for columns, and people complete the boxes row by row. The items may be ordered for each of
the criteria (e.g., for six trees, indicate from best to worst for fuel wood, fodder, erosion control,
and fruit supply); or Participants may put stones, seeds, or berries into piles for relative scoring.

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