MLM

12

PHYSICS
Special Guide . . .

NEW EDITION

FULL SYLLABUS GUIDE

BOOK BACK - 1 MARK Q & A

IMPORTANT SUMS WITH SOLUTIONS

 CONTENTS

UNIT TITLE PAGE

1 ELECTROSTATICS 4

2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 20

3 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT 36

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING

4 50
CURRENT

5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 68

6 RAY OPTICS 76

7 WAVE OPTICS 89

8 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER 102

9 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS 114

10 ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 128

11 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICS 149

M – MARCH , MAY PUBLIC EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

J – JUNE , JULY , AUGUST PUBLIC EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
 1. ELECTROSTATICS
1 MARK QUESTIONS :
1. Two identical point charges of magnitude –q are fixed as
shown in the figure below. A third charge +q is placed
midway between the two charges at the point P. Suppose
this charge +q is displaced a small distance from the point P in the directions indicated by the
arrows, in which direction(s) will +q be stable with respect to the displacement?
(a) A1 and A2 (b) B1 and B2 (c) both directions (d) No stable
2. Which charge configuration produces a uniform electric field?
(a) point charge (b) uniformly charged infinite line
(c) uniformly charged infinite plane (d) uniformly charged spherical shell

𝑞
3. What is the ratio of the charges |𝑞1|for the following electric field line
2

pattern?
1 25 𝟏𝟏
(a) 15 (b) 11 (c) 5 (d) 𝟐𝟓

4. An electric dipole is placed at an alignment angle of 30 o with an electric field of 2×105 NC-1. It
experiences a torque equal to 8 N m. The charge on the dipole if the dipole length is 1 cm is
(a) 4 mC (b) 8 mC (c) 5 mC (d) 7 mc
5. Four Gaussian surfaces are given below with charges inside each Gaussian surface. Rank the
electric flux through each Gaussian surface in increasing order.

(a) D < C < B < A (b) A < B = C < D

(c) C < A = B < D (d) D > C > B > A

6. The total electric flux for the following closed surface which is kept inside water

80 𝑞 𝒒 𝑞 𝑞
( a) (b) (c) (d)
𝜖0 𝟒𝟎𝝐𝟎 80𝜖0 160𝜖0

7. Two identical conducting balls having positive charges q1and q2are separated by a center to
center distance r. If they are made to touch each other and then separated to the same
distance, the force between them will be
(a) less than before (b) same as before (c) more than before (d) zero

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8. Rank the electrostatic potential energies for the given system of charges in increasing order.
(a) 1 = 4 < 2 < 3 (b) 2 = 4 < 3 < 1
(c) 2 = 3 < 1 < 4 (d) 3 < 1 < 2 < 4

9. An electric field 𝐸⃗ = 10𝑥 𝑖̂ exists in a certain region of space.Then the potential difference
V = Vo – VA, where Vo is the potential at the origin and VA is the potential at x = 2 m is:
(a) 10 V (b) –20 V (c) +20V (d) –10 V
10. A thin conducting spherical shell of radius R has a charge Q which is uniformly distributed on its
surface. The correct plot for electrostatic potential due to this spherical shell is

11. Two points A and B are maintained at a potential of 7 V and -4V respectively. The work done in
moving 50 electrons from A to B is
(a) 𝟖. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟕 𝑱 (b) − 8.8 × 10−17 𝐽
(c) 4.40 × 10−17 𝐽 (d) 5.80 × 10−17 𝐽

12. If voltage applied on a capacitor is increased from V to 2V, choose the correct conclusion.
(a) Q remains the same, C is doubled (b) Q is doubled, C doubled
(c) C remains same, Q doubled (d) Both Q and C remain same

13. A Parallel plate capacitor stores a charge Q at a voltage V. Suppose the area of the parallel plate
capacitor and the distance between the plates are each doubled then which is the quantity that
will change?
(a) capacitance (b) charge (c) voltage (d) energy density

14. Three capacitors are connected in triangle as shown in the figure. The
equivalent capacitance between the points A and C is
( a) 1μF (b) 2 μF (c) 3 μF (d) 14 μF

15. Two metallic spheres of radii 1 cm and 3 cm are given charges of –1 × 10–2 C and 5 × 10–2 C
respectively. If these are connected by a conducting wire, the final charge on the bigger sphere
is
( a) 3 x 10-2 C (b) 4 x 10-2 C
(c) 1 x 10-2 C (d) 2 x 10-2 C

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2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. What is meant by quantisation of charges?

• The charge in an object q = ne.
• Here n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4….. and e is charge of an electron.
2. Write down Coulomb’s law in vector form and mention what each term represents.
𝑞1 𝑞2
• Coulomb’s law in vector form 𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑟̂
𝑟2

• Here, 𝐹 - the force between point charges

𝑞1, 𝑞2 - magnitude of point charges
r - distance between the two charges
𝑟̂ - the unit vector pointing along the line joining 𝑞1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞2
3. State coulomb’s law in electrostatics. ( Mar - 23)
The electrostatic force is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two point charges and
𝑞1 𝑞2
is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. (i.e) 𝐹 𝛼
𝑟2
4. Write short notes on superposition principle
• The total force acting on a given charge is equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the
other charges.
• 𝐹1𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 + 𝐹14 + ⋯ … . . +𝐹1𝑛
5. Define electric field. Give its unit. ( Mar -23)
• The electric field at a point is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that
𝐹
point. (𝑖. 𝑒) 𝐸 = 𝑞0
• Its unit is N𝑪 −𝟏 (or) V m -1.
6. What is meant by ‘electric field lines’.
• A set of continuous lines which are the visual representation of the electric field in some region of
space is called electric field lines.
7. The electric field lines never intersect. Justify.
• If two lines cross at a point, then there will be two different electric field vectors at that point.
• If a charge is placed in the intersection point, then it has to move in two different directions at the same
time, which is physically impossible. Hence, electric field lines do not intersect.
8. What is an electric dipole? Give few examples.
• Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance constitute an electric dipole.
• Examples : Water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), HCl and CO
9. Give the expression for the magnitude of electric dipole moment and its direction.
• |𝒑
⃗ | = 𝒒 𝟐𝒂. (i.e) The magnitude of the electric dipole moment is equal to the product of the magnitude
of one of the charges and the distance between them.
• It lies along the line joining two charges and directed from − 𝑞 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑞.Its unit :coulomb meter (Cm)

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10. Write the general definition of electric dipole moment for a collection of point charge.
• The electric dipole moment for a collection of ‘n’ point charge is , 𝑝 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑞𝑖 𝑟𝑖
• 𝑟𝑖 − is the position vector of charge 𝑞𝑖 from the origin.
11. Define “Electrostatic potential”. Give its unit. ( J - 21 , M -24 )
• The electrostatic potential at a point is equal to the work done by an external force to bring a unit
positive charge with constant velocity from infinity to that point in the region of the external electric
field.
• Its unit is volt (V).
12. What is an Equipotential Surface?
• An equipotential surface is a surface on which all the points are at the same electric potential.
13. What are the properties of an equipotential surface?
• The work done to move a charge between any two points on the equipotential surface is zero.
• The electric field must always be normal to an equipotential surface.
14. Give the relation between electric field and electric potential.
𝒅𝑽
• Electric field is the negative gradient of the electric potential. (i. e ) 𝑬 = − 𝒅𝒙.

15. Define Electrostatic potential energy .

• Electrostatic potential energy for system of charges is equal to the work done to arrange the
charges in the given configuration.
16. Define Electric flux.
• The number of electric field lines crossing a given area kept normal to the electric field lines is called
electric flux.
17. State Gauss law in electrostatics. ( J – 22 )
𝑄
• The total electric flux through a closed surface 𝜙𝐸 = 𝜀 .
0

• Here Q is the net charge enclosed by the surface .

18. Write a note on electrostatic shielding .
• The electric field inside the charged spherical shell is zero.
• A sensitive electrical instrument which is to be protected from external electrical disturbance is kept
inside the cavity of a charged conductor . This is called electrostatic shielding. (e.g) Faraday cage .
19. Define (electric) polarisation?
• (Electric) Polarisation is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric.
20. What is dielectric strength?
• The maximum electric field ,the dielectric can withstand before it breaksdowns is called dielectric strength.
• E.g. dielectric field strength of air is 3×106 V m-1.
21. Define capacitance of a capacitor. Give its unit. ( J - 23 )
• The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of charge on either of the
conductor plates to the potential difference existing between them . (i.e) 𝐶=𝑄/𝑉
• Its unit is farad ( F ) or C V -1.

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22. Define electrostatic energy density.
• The energy stored per unit volume of space between the plates of capacitor is defined as energy density.
23. What is corona discharge (or) action at points ? ( M – 20 . M – 22 )
• Leakage of electric charges from the sharp edge of the charged conductor is called corona discharge
or action at points.

ADDITONAL QUESTIONS :
1. State conservation of electric charges.
• The total electric charge in the universe is constant and charge can neither be created nor be destroyed
• In any physical process, the net change in charge will be zero.
2. What is an electrostatic induction?
•
The phenomenon of charging a conductor without actual contact of charged body is called electrostatic
induction.
3. What is dielectric (or) insulator?
• A dielectric is a non-conducting material and has no free electrons.
• The electrons in a dielectric are bound within the atoms. Examples: Ebonite, glass and mica.
4. What are non polar molecules ? Give examples.
• A non polar molecule is one in which the centers of the positive and negative charges coincide.
• It has no permanent dipole moment. Examples : O2, H2, CO2.
5. What are polar molecules ? Give examples.
• A polar molecule is one in which the centers of the positive and the negative charges are separated
even in the absence of an electric field.
• They have a permanent dipole moment. Examples : N2O, H2O, HCl, NH3.
6.
⃗⃗
𝑷
• Electric susceptibility is defined as polarization per unit external electric field. (i.e) 𝝌𝒆 = ⃗ 𝒆𝒙𝒕
𝑬
• Its unit is 𝑪2 𝑵 -1 𝒎 -2.
7. What is dielectric breakdown.?
• When the external electric field applied to a dielectric is very large, it tears the atoms apart so that the
bound charges become free charges.
• Then the dielectric starts to conduct electricity. This is called dielectric breakdown.
8. Define potential difference. Give its unit.
• The electric potential difference is defined as the work done by an external force to bring unit positive
charge from one point to another point against the electric field.
• Its unit is volt (V)
9. Why is it safer to be inside a car than standing under a tree during lightning?
• The metal body of the car provides electrostatic shielding.
• The electric field inside the car is zero.
• During lightning the electric discharge passes through the body of the car.

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3 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Distinguish between Coulomb force and Gravitational force. ( M – 23 , J – 24 , M – 2 5 )

S.N Coulomb force Gravitational force

1 It acts between two charges. It acts between two masses .
2 It can be attractive or repulsive . It is always attractive .
3 It is always greater in magnitude . It is always lesser in magnitude.
4 It depends on the nature of the medium . It is independent of the medium.

2. List the properties of electric field lines.

i) They start from positive charge and end at negative charge.
ii) The electric field vector at a point in space is tangential to the electric field line at that point.
iii) The electric field lines are denser in a region where the electric field has larger magnitude and less
dense in region where the electric field is of smaller magnitude.
iv) No two electric field lines intersect each other.
v) The number of electric field line is directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
3. Give the applications and disadvantage of capacitors
Applications of capacitor:
i) Flash capacitors are used in digital camera .
ii) It is used in heart defibrillator to retrieve the normal heart function during cardiac arrest .
iii) Capacitors are used in the ignition system of automobile engines to eliminate sparking.
iv) Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations in power supplies.
v) Capacitors are used to increase the efficiency of power transmission.
Disadvantage:
• Even after the battery or power supply is removed, the capacitor stores charges and energy for some
time. It causes unwanted electric shock.
4. Derive an expression for torque experienced by an electric dipole placed in the uniform electric field.
➢ Consider an electric dipole AB placed in an uniform
electric field at an angle .
➢ The force on ‘+q’ = q 𝐸⃗ ; The force on ‘-q’ = − q𝐸⃗ .
➢ Then the total force acting on the dipole is zero.
➢ Due to these two forces the dipole experiences a torque
which tends to rotate the dipole.
➢ The magnitude of the torque
 = magnitude of one of the force x perpendicular distance between forces
 = 𝑞𝐸 × 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛
 = 𝑝𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛. ( ∵ 𝑝 = 𝑞 × 2𝑎 )
➢ In vector notation, 𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸⃗

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5. Obtain an expression for electric potential at a point due to a point charge. ( M - 23 )
➢ Consider a point charge +𝒒 at origin. ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from origin.
𝑟
➢ Electric potential at ‘P’ , 𝑉 = − ∫∞ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑟
⃗
1 𝑞
➢ By definition, the electric field at ‘P’ , 𝐸⃗ = 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑟 1 𝑞
➢ 𝑉 = − ∫∞ 4𝜋𝜀 2
𝑟̂ 𝑑𝑟
⃗
0𝑟
𝒒
➢ 𝑽=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

6. Derive an expression for energy stored in capacitor . ( J - 21 , J - 22 )

➢ The work done to transfer charge from one plate to other plate is stored as electrostatic energy in the
capacitor.
𝑄 𝑄
➢ The work done to transfer ′𝑑𝑄′ amount of charge , 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑄 (∵ 𝑉 = )
𝐶 𝐶

➢ The total work done to charge a capacitor,

𝑄𝑄 𝑄2
➢ 𝑊 = ∫0 𝑑𝑄 =
𝐶 2𝐶

➢ This work done is stored as electrostatic energy of the capacitor,

𝑸𝟐 𝟏
𝑼= ( or ) 𝑼 = 𝑪 𝑽𝟐
𝟐𝑪 𝟐

7. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.

➢ Consider a capacitor consisting of two parallel plates each of area ‘A’ separated by a distance ‘d’.
𝑄
➢ Let ‘𝝈′ be the surface charge density of the plates. (i.e) 𝜎 = 𝐴
𝜎 𝑄
➢ The uniform electric field between the plates 𝐸 = 𝜀 = 𝐴𝜀
0 0

𝑄
➢ The potential difference between the plates 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝑑
𝐴𝜀0

𝑄 𝑄
➢ The capacitance of the capacitor 𝐶 = = 𝑄𝑑
𝑉
𝐴𝜀0
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑪= .
𝒅

8. Obtain Gauss’s law from Coulomb’s law. ( M - 20 , J - 20, M - 24 )

• Consider a positive point charge ‘+q’ is surround by an imaginary sphere of radius ‘r’ .

• Total electric flux through the closed surface of the sphere Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸⃗ ∮ 𝑑𝐴 − − − (1)
1 𝑞
• ⃗ =
Electric field at C, 𝐸 𝑟̂ − − − (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

1 𝑞
• Substituting (2) in (1) , Φ𝐸 = 𝑟̂ ∮ 𝑑𝐴 − − − (3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

• Put 𝑟̂ = 1 and ∮ 𝑑𝐴 = 4 𝜋𝑟 2 in (3)

1 𝑞
• Φ𝐸 = × 4 𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑞
• Φ𝐸 = . This is Gauss’s law.
𝜀0

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5 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS :

1. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its axial line. ( J – 21 , M – 24 )

➢ Consider an electric dipole AB along X - axis. Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid point
‘O’ on its axial line.
1 𝑞
➢ Electric field at C due to +q, 𝐸⃗+ = 4𝜋𝜀 2
𝑝̂
0 (𝑟−𝑎)

1 𝑞
➢ Electric field at C due to −𝒒, 𝐸⃗− = − 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟+𝑎) 2 𝑝̂
0

➢ The total electric field at ‘C’ due to dipole is

𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐸⃗+ + 𝐸⃗−
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
= 4𝜋𝜀 𝑝̂ - 𝑝̂
0 (𝑟−𝑎)2 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟+𝑎)2
𝑞 1 1
= [ − (𝑟+𝑎 )2] 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟−𝑎 )2

𝑞 (𝑟+𝑎 )2 −(𝑟−𝑎 )2
= [ ] 𝑝̂
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
𝑞 4𝑟𝑎
= 4𝜋𝜀 [(𝑟 2−𝑎2)2] 𝑝̂
0

➢ If r >> a, (𝑟 2 −𝑎 2 )2
≈𝑟 4
then
2𝑝
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 3 ( 𝑝 = 2𝑎𝑞𝑝̂ )
0

➢ The direction of ⃗⃗𝐸 is in the direction of 𝑝.

2. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its equatorial line.
➢ Consider an electric dipole AB along X - axis. Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid point
‘O’ on its equatorial plane.
1 𝑞
➢ The magnitude of electric field at C due to +𝒒, |𝐸⃗+ | = 2 2 - - - - - -(1) 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 +𝑎 )
1 𝑞
➢ The magnitude of electric field at C due to -𝒒 , |𝐸⃗− | = 4𝜋𝜀 - - - - - -(2)
0 (𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )
➢ Moreover,
i) |𝐸⃗+ | = |𝐸⃗− |
ii) The perpendicular components (|𝐸⃗+ | sin 𝜃 , |𝐸⃗− | sin 𝜃) are equal and oppositely directed .So they
cancel each other.
iii) The parallel components (|𝐸⃗+ | cos 𝜃 , |𝐸⃗− | cos 𝜃) are equal and same in direction .So they are added
together.
➢ 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 2 |𝐸⃗+ | cos 𝜃 𝑝̂ - - - - - -(3)
𝑎
Here, cos 𝜃 = - - - - - -(4)
(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )1/2
Substitute equation (1) ,(4) in (3)
1 𝑞 𝑎
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 2 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 2+𝑎2 ) (𝑟 2+ 𝑎2)1/2 𝑝̂
0
2𝑞 𝑎
= − 4𝜋𝜀 ̂𝑝
0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2

➢ If r >> a , (𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 )3/2
≈ 𝑟 3 then
𝑝
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − (𝑝 = 2𝑞𝑎𝑝̂ ). The direction of 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 is opposite to the direction of 𝑝.
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

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3. Derive an expression for electrostatic potential due to electric dipole. ( M – 22 , J – 24 )
➢ Consider an electric dipole AB along X - axis. Let ‘P’ be the point at
a distance ‘r’ from its midpoint ‘O’ .
1 𝑞
➢ Electric potential at P due to +q , 𝑉1 = - - - - - -(1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1
−1 𝑞
➢ Electric potential at P due to −q , 𝑉2 = - - - - - (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
1 𝑞 1 𝑞
➢ Electric potential at ‘P’ due to dipole is 𝑉 = −
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
q 1 1
𝑉= ( − r ) - - - - - -(3)
4πε0 r1 2

1 1 𝑎 cos 𝜃 1 1 𝑎 cos 𝜃
➢ = (1+ ) and = (1− )- - - - - -(4)
𝑟1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟

Substitute equation (4) in (3)

q 1 𝑎 cos 𝜃 1 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑉= [ (1+ )− (1− )]
4πε0 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
q 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑉= 4πε0 𝑟2

P cosθ 𝟏 ⃗⃗ .𝒓̂
𝑷
𝑉= ( P = 2qa ) (or) 𝑽=
4πε0 r2 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐

P
 =00 𝑉=
4πε0 r 2
Point P lies on the axial line of electric dipole, near +q
− P
 =1800 𝑉=
4πε0 r 2
Point P lies on the axial line of electric dipole, near - q
 =900 𝑉=0 Point P lies on the equatorial line of electric dipole.

4. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance, when capacitors are connected in series and in parallel.

Capacitors in series ( M - 22 ) Capacitors in parallel ( M - 20 )

Consider three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2 and Consider three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2 and C3
C3 connected in series .CS - the equivalent capacitance connected in parallel .CP - the equivalent capacitance
of capacitor in series connection . of capacitor in parallel connection

Each capacitor has same amount of charge (Q). Each capacitor has same potential difference (V).
But potential difference V = V1 + V2 +V3 But charge Q = Q1 + Q2 +Q3

𝑸 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 Q = CPV
𝑉 = 𝑪 ; 𝑉1 = 𝐶 , 𝑉2 = 𝐶 , 𝑉3 = 𝐶
𝑺 1 2 3
Q1=C1V ; Q2 = C2V; Q3 = C3V
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + + CPV = C1V +C2V + C3V
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
1 1 1 1
= + + CP = C1 +C2 + C3
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

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5. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an infinitely long charged wire. ( M – 20 , M – 25 )
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
i) Consider an infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge density . (𝑖. 𝑒)𝜆 = 𝐿

So, total charge enclosed by the closed surface 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝜆𝐿 − − − −(1)

ii) Electric field : Let ‘E’ be the electric field at the point ‘P’ which is at a distance ‘r’ from the wire
iii) Gaussian surface :A cylinder of length ‘L’ and radius ‘r’.
iv) The electric flux for the curved surface: 𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴
Curved Top surface Bottom
surface surface

v) In top and bottom surfaces , 𝐸⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐴. 𝑠𝑜 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝐴 = 0

vi) Then the total electric flux 𝜙𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = E(2rL) − − − −(2)

Curved surface

𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
vii) According to Gauss law, 𝜙𝐸 = − − − −(3)
∈0

Substitute equation (1) and (2) in (3)

𝜆𝐿
𝐸( 2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = ∈0
𝜆 1 𝜆
E = (OR) 𝐸⃗ = 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟̂
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 0 𝑟

➢ If 𝜆 > 0 , then the direction of 𝐸 is perpendicular to wire and pointing outward.

➢ If 𝜆 < 0 , then the direction of 𝐸 is perpendicular to wire and pointing inward.

6. Explain in detail the construction and working of Van de Graff generator. ( J - 22 , J - 23 )

Principle : Electrostatic induction and Action at points
Construction :
i) ‘A’ is a hollow spherical conductor fixed on the insulating stand.
ii) ‘B’and ‘C’ are pulleys and they are connected by a belt made up of silk .
iii) ‘D’and ‘E’ are metallic comb shaped conductors fixed near the pulleys.
iv) The comb ‘D’ is maintained at a positive potential of 104𝑉 by a power supply.
v) The upper comb ‘E’ is connected to the inner side of the hollow metal sphere.
Working of comb ‘D’:
i) Due to the high electric field near comb ‘D’, air gets ionized.
ii) The positive charges are pushed towards the belt and negative charges are attracted towards
the comb ‘D’ .
iii) The positive charges stick to the belt and reach comb ‘E’.
Working of comb ‘E’:
i) Due to electrostatic induction ,the comb ‘E’ get negative charges and the sphere gets positive charges
ii) Due to action at points at ‘E’ ,descending belt has no charge.

MLM  - 95855 10467 13

 Charge leakage:
i) Beyond the maximum potential difference of 107𝑉 of the sphere, the charges start leaking to the
surroundings due to ionization of air.
ii) It is prevented by enclosing the machine in a gas filled steel chamber at very high pressure.
Application:
➢ The high voltage (107𝑉) produced in the Van de Graff generator is used to accelerate positive ions
(protons and deuterons) for nuclear disintegrations.
7. Explain in detail the effect of introducing a dielectric medium between the plates of a parallel
plate capacitor, when the capacitor is disconnected from the battery. ( J - 20 )
➢ A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery of voltage ‘Vo’.
Qo - is the charge stored in the plates.
Eo - is the electric field between the plates.
𝑄0
➢ Capacitance of the capacitor without dielectric medium, 𝐶𝑜 = .
𝑉0

➢ The battery is then disconnected from the capacitor and the dielectric is inserted between the plates.
Qo - is the charge stored in the plates.
E - is the electric field between the plates.
V - is the potential difference between the plates.
εr − dielectric constant of the dielectric medium.
➢ Effect of dielectric medium between the plates
Quantity Value Effect of dielectric When εr > 1
E0
Electric field 𝐸= 𝐸 < 𝐸0 Decreases
εr
V0
Potential difference 𝑉 = 𝑉 < 𝑉0 Decreases
εr
Capacitance 𝐶 = εr 𝐶0 𝐶 > 𝐶0 Increases
U0
Energy 𝑈= 𝑈 < 𝑈0 Decreases
εr

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS :
1. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an charged infinite plane sheet.
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
➢ Consider an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface charge density ‘𝜎 ’ (𝑖. 𝑒)  = 𝐴

So, total charge enclosed by the plane sheet 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝜎𝐴 - - - (1)

➢ Electric field : Let ‘E’ be the electric field at ‘P’ which is at a distance ‘r’ from the sheet.
➢ Gaussian surface : a cylindrical of length ‘2r’ and area of cross section ‘A’
➢ The electric flux through the curved surface, 𝜙1 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 0 [∵ 𝜃 = 90]
Curved surface
➢ The electric flux through end surface P and P ’
𝜙2 = ∫𝑝 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 + ∫𝑝′ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 [∵ 𝜃 = 0]
𝜙2 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴
𝜙2 = 2𝐸𝐴
MLM  - 95855 10467 14
 ➢ Total electric flux 𝜙𝐸 = 0 + 2𝐸𝐴 = 2𝐸𝐴 − − − (2)
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
➢ According to Gauss law, 𝜙𝐸 = - - - - -(3)
∈0

Substitute equation (1) and (2) in (3)

𝜎𝐴
2EA =
∈0
𝜎
E =
2𝜀0

2. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an uniformly charged spherical shell.
At a point on the surface of
At a point outside the shell At a point inside the shell
the shell
Gaussian surface : Gaussian surface : Gaussian surface :
Sphere with radius r Sphere with radius r Sphere with radius r
R -radius of spherical shell R -radius of spherical shell R-radius of spherical shell

Here r > R Here r = R Here r < R

Substitute r =R
According to Gauss’s law, According to Gauss’s law,
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 = ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 =
∈0 ∈0
Substitute Substitute
∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 ∮ 𝐸𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 𝑄 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 0
𝑄 0
𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = 𝑄 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
∈0 𝐸= ∈0
𝑄 4𝜋 ∈0 𝑅 2
𝐸= 𝐸=0
4𝜋∈0 𝑟 2

3. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a parallel plate capacitor when the battery remains
connected to the capacitor.
➢ A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery of voltage ‘Vo’.
Qo - is the charge stored in the plates.
Eo - is the electric field between the plates without dielectric
medium.
𝑄0
➢ Capacitance of the capacitor without dielectric medium, 𝐶𝑜 = .
𝑉0

➢ The battery remains connected with the capacitor and the dielectric is inserted between the plates.

MLM  - 95855 10467 15

 ➢ V0 - is the potential difference between the plates. ( constant )
Q - is the charge stored in the plates.
E - is the electric field between the plates with dielectric
medium. ( constant )
εr − dielectric constant of the dielectric medium.
➢ Effect of dielectric medium between the plates with the battery remains connected with the capacitor
Quantity Value Effect of dielectric When εr > 1
Electric field 𝐸 = V0 d 𝐸 = 𝐸0 Constant
Charge 𝑄 = 𝜀𝑟 𝑄0 𝑄 > 𝑄0 Increases
Capacitance 𝐶 = εr 𝐶0 𝐶 > 𝐶0 Increases
Energy 𝑈 = εr U0 𝑈 > 𝑈0 Increases

4. Obtain an expression for electrostatic potential energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field.
• ⃗ is placed in a uniform electric field ⃗𝑬 .Here the dipole experience a
Let a dipole of moment 𝒑
torque, which rotate the dipole along the field.
• To rotate the dipole from 𝜃’ to 𝜃 against this torque, work has to be done by an external torque (𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡)
and is given by
 
• 𝑊 = ∫𝜃 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝜃 = ∫𝜃 𝑝 𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑝𝐸 (−𝑐𝑜𝑠)𝜃𝜃′ = − 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 + 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 ′

• Let the initial angle be 𝜃’ = 900 , then 𝑊 = − 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃

• This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy ( U ) of
the dipole. (𝑖. 𝑒) 𝑈 = − 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 = 𝑝. 𝐸⃗
• Special cases :
i) If 𝜃 = 1800 , then potential energy is maximum .
ii) If 𝜃 = 00, then potential energy is minimum .
5. Obtain an expression for the Electric Field due to two parallel charged infinite sheets.
• Consider two infinitely large charged plane sheets with charge densities +σ and – σ.
𝜎
• The magnitude of the electric field due to an infinite charged plane sheet is 𝐸 = 𝜖0

• If 𝜎 > 0 , the direction of electric field is perpendicularly outward .

• If 𝜎 < 0 , the direction of electric field is perpendicularly in ward .
• At the points P2 and P3, the electric field due to both plates are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction. As a result, electric field at a point outside the
𝜎 𝜎
plates is zero. (𝑖. 𝑒) 𝐸 = − 2𝜖 = 0
2𝜖0 0

• But, inside the plate, electric fields are in same direction.

i.e., towards the right .The total electric field at a point
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
P1, is (𝑖. 𝑒) 𝐸 = 2𝜖0
+ 2𝜖 = 𝜖0
0

• The electric field is uniform everywhere inside the plate and is directed from positively charged plate
to negatively charged plate.

MLM  - 95855 10467 16

 PROBLEMS
2 - MARK PROBLEMS :
1. Calculate the number of electrons in one coulomb of negative charge.
Given Data : 𝑞 = 1𝐶
𝑞
Formula : 𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒 (or) 𝑛 = Here e = 1.6 × 10−19
𝑒
𝑞 1
Solution : The number of electrons 𝑛 = = = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖
𝑒 1.6 × 10−19

The number of electrons in one coulomb is 6.25 × 1018 electrons

2. A sample of HCl gas is placed in a uniform electric field of magnitude3 × 104 N C–1. The dipole
moment of each HCl molecule is 3.4 × 10–30 Cm. Calculate the maximum torque experienced by
each HCl molecule. ( J – 24 )
Given Data : 𝐸 = 3 × 104 𝑁𝐶 −1 ; 𝑝 = 3.4 × 10−30 𝐶𝑚 ; For maximum torque 𝜃 = 900
Formula: 𝜏 = 𝑝 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛90𝑜 = 3.4 × 10−30 × 3 × 104 × 1 = 10.2 × 10−26 𝑵𝒎

3. Calculate the electric flux through the rectangle of sides 5 cm and 10 cm kept at angle of 60o in
the region of a uniform electric field 100 NC–1. ( J – 23 )
Given Data : 𝐸 = 100 𝑁𝐶 −1 ; Are𝑎 𝐴 = 5 × 10−2 × 10 × 10−2 = 50 × 10−4 𝑚
𝜃 = 60𝑜 → cos 600 = 1⁄2

Formula: Φ𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃
1
Φ𝐸 = 100 × 50 × 10−4 × = 0.25 𝐍𝐦𝟐 𝐂 −𝟏
2
4. Dielectric strength of air is 3 × 106 V m–1.Suppose the radius of a hollow sphere in the Van de
Graff generator is R = 0.5 m, Calculate the maximum potential difference created by this Van de
Graff generator. ( J – 21 )
Given Data : 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3 × 106 𝑉 𝑚−1 ; 𝑅 = 0.5 𝑚
Formula : The maximum potential difference created is given by 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3 × 106 × 0.5 = 1.5 × 106 𝑽
5. Potential in a given region is given as a function of distance x, 𝑽 = ( 𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓𝒙) volt . Find the
electric field when x = 1 cm. ( J – 20 )
𝒅𝑽 𝒅( 𝟓𝒙𝟐 +𝟓𝒙)
Formula : 𝑬 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝒙 + 𝟓
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

when x = 1 cm , 𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟓 𝑽 𝒄𝒎−𝟏 .
3 - MARK PROBLEMS:
6. Calculate the electrostatic force and gravitational force between the proton and the electron in a
hydrogen atom. They are separated by a distance of 5.3 × 10–11 m. The magnitude of charges on
the electron and proton are 1.6 × 10–19 C. Mass of the electron is me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg and mass of
proton is mp= 1.6 × 10–27 kg.

MLM  - 95855 10467 17

 Solution :
𝑘𝑒 2
Electrostatic force𝐹𝑒 = 𝑟2
2
9 × 109 × (1.6 × 10−19 ) 9 ×2.56
𝐹𝑒 = (5.3 × 10−11 )2
= × 10−7 = 8.2 × 10−8 𝑵
28.09

𝐺𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑝
Gravitational force 𝐹𝐺 = 𝑟2

6.67 × 10−11 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.6 × 10−27 97.11

𝐹𝐺 = −11 2
= × 10−47 = 3.4 × 10−47 𝑵
(5.3 × 10 ) 28.09
The ratio of the two forces
𝐹𝑒 8.2 × 10−8
= = 2.41 × 1039
𝐹𝐺 3.4 × 10−47
7. Consider a point charge +q placed at the origin and another point charge -2q placed at a distance
of 9 m from the charge +q. Determine the point between the two charges at which electric
potential is zero.
Solution :
Since the total electric potential at P is zero,
1 𝑞 2𝑞
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡 = [ − ] = 0 (or)
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑥 (9−𝑥)

𝑞 2𝑞
=
𝑥 (9 − 𝑥)
1 2
= ⟶ 2𝑥 = 9 − 𝑥 ⟶ 3𝑥 = 9
𝑥 (9−𝑥)

𝑥 = 3𝒎
Answer : When the point charge +𝑞 is at a distance of 3 𝑚, the electric potential is zero.
8. A parallel plate capacitor has square plates of side 5 cm and separated by a distance of 1 mm.
(a) Calculate the capacitance of this capacitor. ( M – 25 )
(b) If a 10 V battery is connected to the capacitor, what is the charge stored in any one of the
plates?
(𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10−12 𝑁 −1 𝑚−2 𝐶 2 )
Given Data : Side 𝑎 = 5 𝑐𝑚 = 5 × 10−2 𝑚 ⟶Area 𝐴 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 25 × 10−4 𝑚2
Distance 𝑑 = 1 𝑚𝑚 = 1 × 10−3 𝑚 ; Potential 𝑉 = 10 𝑉
𝜀0 𝐴
(a) Capacitance of this capacitor 𝐶 = 𝑑

8.85 × 10−12 × 25 × 10−4

𝐶= = 221.2 × 10−13 = 22.12 × 10−12 𝐅
1 × 10−3
(b) The charge stored in any one of the plates is 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑄 = 22.12 × 10−12 × 10 = 221.2 × 10−12 𝐂

MLM  - 95855 10467 18

9. A parallel plate capacitor filled with mica having εr = 5 is connected to a 10 V battery. The area of
each parallel plate is 6 cm2 and separation distance is 6 mm. Find the (a) capacitance , (b) stored
charge and (c) stored energy
Given Data : 𝜀𝑟 = 5 ; 𝑉 = 10 𝑉 ; 𝐴 = 6 𝑐𝑚2 = 6 × 104 𝑚 ; Distance𝑑 = 6 𝑚𝑚 = 6 × 10−3 𝑚
𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐴
(a) The capacitance of the capacitor in the presence of dielectric 𝐶 = =
𝑑

5 ×8.85 × 10−12 ×6 × 10−4

= 44.25 × 10−13 𝐹 = 4.425 × 10−12 𝐅
6 × 10−3

(b) The stored charge is 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉

𝑄 = 4.425 × 10−12 × 10 = 44.25 × 10−12 𝐂
1
(c)The stored energy is 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2

1
𝑈= × 4.425 × 10−12 × 10 = 2.21 × 10−10 𝑱
2
10. When two objects are rubbed with each other, approximately a charge of50 nC can be produced in
each object. Calculate the number of electrons that must be transferred to produce this charge.
Given Data : Charge 𝑞 = 50 𝑛𝐶 = 50 × 10−9 𝐶
𝑞
Solution : The number of electrons 𝑛 = ( Here 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 )
𝑒

50 × 10−9
𝑛= = 31.25 × 1010
1.6 × 10−19
The number of electrons that must be transferred is 31.25 × 1010
11. For the given capacitor configuration, find the total capacitance of the capacitor.
To find Total capacitance
(i) capacitors b and c are in parallel connection.
∴ 𝐶𝑃 = 6𝜇𝐹 + 2 𝜇𝐹 = 8 𝝁𝑭
(ii) capacitors a, CP and d are in series connection.
1 1 1 1 3
∴𝐶 = + + =
𝑆 8 8 8 8

8 8
∴ Total capacitance 𝐶𝑠 = 𝛍𝐅 (𝑖. 𝑒) 𝐶𝑠 = × 10−6 𝐅
3 3

MLM  - 95855 10467 19

 2. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:
1. The following graph shows current versus voltage values of some
unknown conductor. What is the resistance of this conductor?
(a) 2 Ω (b) 4 Ω (c) 8 Ω (d) 1 Ω
2. A wire of resistance 2 ohms per meter is bent to form a circle of radius
1m. The equivalent resistance between its two diametrically opposite
points, A and B as shown in the figure is
𝜋 𝜋
(a) π Ω (b) Ω (c) 2π Ω (d) Ω
2 4

3. A toaster operating at 240 V has a resistance of 120 Ω. Its power is

(a) 400 W (b) 2 W (c) 480 W (d) 240 W
4. A carbon resistor of (47 ± 4.7 ) k Ω to be marked with rings of different colours for its
identification. The colour code sequence will be
(a) Yellow – Green – Violet – Gold (b) Yellow – Violet – Orange – Silver
(c) Violet – Yellow – Orange – Silver (d) Green – Orange – Violet - Gold
5. What is the value of resistance of the following resistor? (Brown, Black, Yellow)
(a) 100 kΩ (b) 10 kΩ
(c) 1 kΩ (d) 1000 kΩ
6. Two wires of A and B with circular cross section are made up of the same material with
equal lengths. Suppose RA= 3 RB, then what is the ratio of radius of wire A to that of B?
𝟏 1
(a) 3 (b) √3 (c) (d)
√𝟑 3

7. A wire connected to a power supply of 230 V has power dissipation P1. Suppose the wire is
cut into two equal pieces and connected parallel to the same power supply. In this case power
𝑷𝟐
dissipation is P2. The ratio is
𝑷𝟏

(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4

8. In India electricity is supplied for domestic use at 220 V. It is supplied at 110 V in USA. If
the resistance of a 60W bulb for use in India is R, the resistance of a 60W bulb for use in
USA will be
𝑹 𝑅
(a) R (b) 2R (c) (d)
𝟒 2

9. In a large building, there are 15 bulbs of 40 W, 5 bulbs of 100 W, 5 fans of 80 W and 1 heater
of 1k W are connected. The voltage of electric mains is 220 V. The maximum capacity of the
main fuse of the building will be
(a) 14A (b) 8A (c) 10𝐴 (d) 12𝐴

20
10. There is a current of 1.0 A in the circuit shown below. What is
the resistance of P ?
(a) 1.5 Ω (b) 2.5 Ω
(c) 3.5 Ω (d) 4.5 Ω

11. What is the current drawn out from the battery?

(a) 1 A (b) 2 A
(c) 3 A (d) 4 A
12. The temperature coefficient of resistance of a wire is 0.00125 per °C. At 20°C, its resistance
is 1 Ω. The resistance of the wire will be 2 Ω at
(a) 8000 C (b) 7000 C (c) 8500 C (d) 8200 C
13. The internal resistance of a 2.1 V cell which gives a current of 0.2 A through a resistance of
10 Ω is
(a) 0.2 Ω (b) 0.5 Ω (c) 0.8 Ω (d) 1.0 Ω
14. A piece of copper and another of germanium are cooled from room temperature to 80 K.
The resistance of
(a) each of them increases
(b) each of them decreases
(c) copper increases and germanium decreases
(d) copper decreases and germanium increases
15. In Joule’s heating law, when R and t are constant, if the H is taken along the y axis and
I2along the x axis, the graph is
(a) straight line (b) parabola (c) circle (d) ellipse

2 MARK - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. Electric current is a scalar quantity why?
•
• ⃗𝐽 𝐴⃗ .
(i.e) 𝐼 = 𝐽⃗. 𝐴⃗
2.

The magnitude of the drift velocity acquired

by the free electrons per unit electric field is
called mobility.

Its unit is 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏 . Its unit is 𝒎𝟐 𝒗−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏 .

21
3. Define current density and give its unit.
•
𝐼
• Its unit is A 𝒎−𝟐. (𝑖. 𝑒) 𝐽 =
𝐴
4. State microscopic form of ohm’s law.
• ⃗⃗J = 𝝈 ⃗𝑬⃗

J⃗⃗ − 𝜎− 𝐸⃗⃗ −

• 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹.

• When the temperature remains constant, the potential difference across a given conductor is directly
proportional to the current passing through it.
6. Define electrical resistivity and give its unit. ( M - 22 )
•
𝑹𝑨
( 𝑖. 𝑒) 𝝆 =
𝒍

•
7. Define temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
•
8. What is known as superconductivity?
•

•
9. State Kirchhoff’s first rule (current rule or junction rule). ( J - 20, J - 21 , M - 23 ,M – 24, M – 25 )
• It states that the algebraic sum of the currents at any junction of a circuit is zero.( ∑ 𝐼 = 0 )
10. State Kirchhoff’s second rule (voltage rule or loop rule). ( J - 20, J - 21 , M - 23, M- 24, M – 25 )
• It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance of each
part of the circuit is equal to the total emf included in the circuit. ∑ 𝐼𝑅 = ∑ 𝜀
11. Define internal resistance of a battery .
• The resistance offered by the electrodes and electrolyte to the flow of charges within the battery is
called internal resistance (r).
12. State Joule’s heating law.
• Heat liberated by Joule’s heating effect, H=𝑰𝟐 R t
• The heat developed in an electrical circuit due to the flow of current varies directly to
i) The square of the current (𝐻 𝛼 𝐼 2 )
22
 ii) The resistance of the circuit (𝐻 𝛼 R)
iii) The time of flow of current (𝐻 𝛼 t)
13. What is Seeback effect? ( J - 22 )
• In a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the junctions are maintained at different
temperatures an emf is developed. This phenomenon is called Seeback effect.
14. What is Thomson effect?
• If two points in a conductor are at different temperatures, the density of electrons at these points will
differ and as a result the potential difference is created between these two points.
• Hence heat is evolved or absorbed throughout the conductor . This is called Thomson effect.
15. What is Peltier effect? ( J - 21 )
• When an electric current is passed through a circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one junction
and absorbed at the other junction. This is known as Peltier effect.
16.Define electric current and give its unit.
• The electric current in a conductor is defined as the rate of flow of charges through a given cross
𝑄
sectional area. (𝑖. 𝑒 ) 𝐼 = 𝑡

• The unit of current is ampere (A).

17. Why nichrome is used as heating element in electric heaters?
• It has a high specific resistance and melting point.
• It can be heated to very high temperature without Oxidation.

3 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. What is electric energy and electric power ?
Electric energy
• Work has to be done by a cell to move the charge from one end to the other end of the conductor
and this work done is called electric energy.
• Its SI unit is joule (J). Its practical unit is kilowatt hour (kWh). Moreover 1 kWh=3.6× 106 J.
Electric power
• Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is delivered.
• It SI unit is watt(W). Its practical unit is horse power (H.P). Moreover 1 H.P = 746W.
2. What are ohmic and non-ohmic devices ?

S.N Ohmic device ( Resistor ) Non-ohmic device ( Diode )

1 V-I graph is a straight line V-I graph is non-linear
2 obey Ohm’s law Doesn’t obey Ohm’s law
3 They have constant resistance They do not have constant resistance

23
3. Derive the expression for power 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 in electrical circuit.
• The equation for electrical potential energy 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑄
• The rate at which the electrical potential energy is delivered is the electrical power.
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑄
So , P = =V
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
• Since the electric current I = , electrical power 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼.
𝑑𝑡

4. Write down the various forms of expression for power in electrical circuit.
• Electrical power equation is P = VI.
• According to ohm’s law V = IR. So electrical power P = (IR) I = 𝐼 2 R.
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉2
• According to ohms law I = 𝑅 , so electrical power P = V 𝑅 = 𝑅

5. State the applications of seeback effect. ( J - 22 , M - 24 )

i) Seeback effect is used in thermoelectric generators . These generators are used in power plants
to convert waste heat into electricity.
ii) It is used in automobiles as automotive thermoelectric generators for increasing fuel efficiency.
iii) It is used in thermocouples and thermopiles to measure the temperature difference between the two
objects.

5 - MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS:

1. Describe the microscopic model of current and obtain general form of ohm’s law. ( M - 23)
(A) Relation between current and drift velocity : ( M - 22 )
• Number of electrons per unit volume in a conductor = 𝑛
• Cross sectional area of a conductor = 𝐴
• Drift Velocity of an electron = 𝑣𝑑
• Time taken to travel dx distance = 𝑑𝑡.
• The number of electrons available in the volume (A dx) = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
• charge of an electron = 𝑒.
• Total charge in the volume element 𝑑𝑄 = ( 𝑛𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡)𝑒
𝑑𝑄
• current 𝐼 = 𝑑𝑡
(𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 )𝑒
𝐼= 𝑑𝑡

𝑰 = 𝒏𝑨𝒗𝒅 𝒆 − − − − (𝟏)
(B) Microscopic form of Ohm’s Law :
𝑰
• current density 𝑱 = .
𝑨
𝒏𝑨𝑽 𝒆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
From equation (1) , 𝑱⃗ = 𝑨 𝒅 = 𝒏𝒆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅
𝑒𝜏
• Substitute ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑑 = − 𝑚
𝐸⃗⃗

24
 𝒆𝝉
𝑱⃗ = −𝒏𝒆 ( 𝒎 𝑬⃗⃗⃗)

𝒏𝒆 𝝉 𝟐
𝑱⃗ = − ( 𝒎 ) ⃗𝑬⃗ ( or )

𝟐
⃗⃗⃗ . Here 𝝈 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝝉 is conductivity.
⃗𝑱⃗ = − 𝝈𝑬
𝒎

• But conventionally, we take the direction of current density as the direction of electric field.

So, 𝐽⃗ = 𝜎 𝐸.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ This is called microscopic form of ohm’s law.
2. Obtain the macroscopic form of ohm’s law from its microscopic form.
• Microscopic form of ohm’s law 𝑱 = 𝝈 𝑬
𝑰 𝑽
• Substitute current density 𝑱 = and electric field 𝑬 =
𝑨 𝒍
𝑰 𝑽
• = 𝝈 or
𝑨 𝒍

𝑙
𝑉=𝐼 𝜎𝐴

𝑙
• Let is the resistance - R of a conductor then
𝜎𝐴

𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑. This is the macroscopic form of ohm’s law.

3. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and parallel resistor network.

S.no Series circuit ( J – 21, J – 24) Parallel circuit ( M – 20 )

Let R1, R2,R3 be the resistance of Let R1, R2, R3 be resistance of three
2
three resistors connected in series resistors connected in parallel
The current (I) flowing through all The potential difference between all
3
the resistors are equal. the resistors are equal.
But potential difference varies as But current varies as
4
V = 𝑉1 +𝑉2 +𝑉3 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉
V = I𝑅𝑠 𝐼 =𝑅
𝑃
5
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 ; 𝑉=I 𝑅2 ; 𝑉3 =I 𝑅3 𝐼1 =
𝑉
; 𝐼2 =
𝑉
; 𝐼3 =
𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

V V V V
6 I 𝑅𝑆 = I 𝑅1 + I 𝑅2 + I 𝑅3 = + +
RP R1 R 2 R 3
1 1 1 1
7 𝑅𝑆 =𝑅1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 = + +
RP R1 R 2 R 3

25
4. Explain the determination of the internal resistance of a cell using voltmeter. ( M - 22 )
• A high resistance voltmeter is connected across a cell of emf ‘ε’ .Since the voltmeter has high
resistance ,it draws very little current for deflection ( i.e the circuit may be considered as open). Hence
the voltmeter reading is equal to the emf of the cell (𝜀) .
𝑽 = 𝜺 − − − −(𝟏)
• The external resistance R is included in the circuit. Current I is established
in the circuit.
• Potential drop across R is V = I R ( or ) 𝑰 𝑹 = 𝑽 − − − −(𝟐)
• Due to internal resistance ‘r’ of the cell, the voltmeter reads a value ‘v’, which is less than the emf of
cell 𝜺.
𝑽 = 𝜺 − 𝑰𝒓 ( or )
𝑰𝒓 = 𝜺 – 𝑽 − − − −(𝟑)
(3) Ir −V
(2)
→ =
𝐼𝑅 V
𝜺−𝐕
• Internal resistance 𝒓=( ) 𝑹.
𝒗

5. State and explain Kirchoff’s rules

Kirchoff’s first rule
• The algebraic sum of the current at any junction of a circuit is zero. ( ∑ 𝐼 = 0)
• It is a statement of law of conservation of electric charges.
• Current entering the junction is taken as positive and leaving the junction is taken as negative.
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0
Kirchoff’s second rule:
• In a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the products of the current and resistance of each part of the
circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the emf included in the circuit. ∑ 𝐼𝑅 = ∑ 𝜀
• It is a statement of law of conservation of energy for an isolated system.
Sign Convention :
1
when the direction of the current is followed, the
product of current and resistance is taken as
positive .

If the direction of current is opposite to the

2 direction of the loop, then product of current and
resistance is taken as negative.
3 The emf is considered positive when proceeding
from the negative to the positive terminal.

4 The emf is considered negative when proceeding

from the positive to the negative terminal.

26
6. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in wheatstone’s bridge. ( J - 20 , J - 21 , J - 23 )
• The bridge consists of four resistances P,Q, R and S connected as shown in figure.
• A galvanometer ‘G’ is connected between the points B and D.
• The battery is connected between the points A and C.
• The current through the galvanometer is 𝐼𝐺 and its resistance is G.
• Applying Kirchhoff’s current rule to junction B ,
𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼3 = 0 − − − −(1)
• Applying Kirchhoff’s current rule to junction D ,
𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼4 = 0 − − − −(2)
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage rule to loop ABDA,
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − I2 𝑅 = 0 − − − −(3)
• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage rule to loop BCDB.
𝐼3 𝑄 − 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − I4 𝑆 = 0 − − − −(4)
• Substitute 𝐼𝐺 = 0 in equation (1) (2) (3) & (4)
𝐼 1 = 𝐼3 - - - - - - (5)
𝐼2 = I4 - - - - - (6)
𝐼1 𝑃 = I2 𝑅 - - - - - (7)
𝐼3 𝑄 = I4 𝑆 - - - - - (8)
𝐼1 𝑃 I2 𝑅
• ( 7)  (8 ) =
𝐼3 𝑄 I4 𝑆

𝑷 𝑹
• Using equations (5 ) and (6 ) =
𝑸 𝑺

7. Explain the determination of unknown resistance using metre bridge. ( M - 24 )

Construction:
• A uniform wire of manganin AB of one meter length is stretched
along a metre scale on a wooden board between two copper strips.
• In the gap 𝐺1 , unknown resistance ‘P’ and in the gap ‘𝐺2 ’ standard
resistance 𝑄 are connected.
• A jockey is connected to the terminal ‘E’ on the central strip through a galvanometer (G) and a high
resistance (HR).
• A Lechlanche cell and a key (K) are connected between the ends of the bridge wire.
Working:
• The position of the jockey on the wire is adjusted so that at the position ‘J’ the galvanometer shows
zero deflection.
• The resistances corresponding to the length AJ (𝑙1) and JB (𝑙2 ) of the bridge wire form the resistances
‘R’ and ‘S’ of the wheatstone’s bridge.
27
 𝑃 𝑅 𝑟. 𝐴𝐽
= = (𝑟 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
𝑄 𝑆 𝑟. 𝐽𝐵
𝑃 𝐴𝐽 𝑙1
= =
𝑄 𝐽𝐵 𝑙2
𝑙1
• Unknown resistance 𝑃 = 𝑄
𝑙2

• The end resistance due to soldering the bridge wire at the ends of the copper strips can be eliminated,
another set of reading is taken with P and Q interchanged and average value of ‘P’ is found.
𝑃𝜋𝑎2
• Specific resistance of the material of the wire 𝜌 =
𝑙
Here 𝑎 − radius of the wire and 𝑙 − is the length of the wire.
8. Explain the principle of a potentiometer. ( J – 23 )
• Primary circuit : The battery, key and the potentiometer wire are connected in series.
• Secondary circuit: The positive terminal of a primary cell of emf 𝜀 is connected to the point C and
negative terminal is connected to the jockey through a
galvanometer G and a high resistance HR.
• I – The current flowing through the conductor
• r – the resistance per unit length of the wire.
• Explanation :
(a) Move the jockey from C to D
(b) At a particular point ‘J’ on the wire, the current through the galvanometer becomes zero.
(c) The length ‘CJ ‘ is known as the balancing length (𝑙).
• Principle :
• When 𝐼𝑔 = 0 ,
emf of the cell = potential difference across CJ
𝜀 = 𝐼𝑟𝑙
• If I and r constant, 𝜀 𝛼 𝑙
The emf of a cell is directly proportional to the balancing length.

9. How the emf of two cells are compared using potentiometer? (M - 20 , J – 24 , M – 25 )

• Primary circuit: Potentiometer wire (CD) is connected in series
with battery (Bt), key(K) and rheostat (Rh).
• Secondary circuit: The end C of potentiometer wire is connected
to the terminal M of a DPDT switch and the other terminal N is
connected to a jockey through a galvanometer G and high
resistance box HR.
• The cells whose emf 𝜺𝟏 and 𝜺𝟐 to be compared are connected to the terminals 𝑀1 𝑁1 and 𝑀2 𝑁2 of
the DPDT switch.

28
 • I – Steady current passing through the potentiometer wire.
r – Resistance per unit length of the potentiometer wire.
• Procedure 1:
i) Initially the cell of emf 𝜺𝟏 is included in the secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙1 is found by
adjusting jockey for zero deflection.
ii) According to the principle of potentiometer , 𝜺𝟏 = 𝐈𝐫𝒍𝟏 − − − −(𝟏)
• Procedure 2:
i) Similarly the cell of emf 𝜺𝟐 is included in the secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙2 is found.
ii) According to the principle of potentiometer , 𝜺𝟐 = 𝐈𝐫𝒍𝟐 − − − − − (𝟐)
• Calculation :
𝜺𝟏 𝑰 𝒓 𝒍𝟏
(1)  (2) =
𝜺𝟐 𝑰 𝒓 𝒍𝟐
𝜺𝟏 𝒍𝟏
• = − − − −(𝟑)
𝜺𝟐 𝒍𝟐

10. Explain the determination of the internal resistance of a cell using potentiometer.
• Primary circuit: Potentiometer is connected in series with
battery (Bt) and key 𝐾1 .
• Secondary circuit : The battery whose internal resistance is to be
calculated is connected in parallel with resistance box(R) and
Key (𝐾2 ).
• Balancing length 𝑙1 is determined when key 𝐾2 is open.
According to principle of potentiometer,
𝜺 𝜶 𝒍𝟏 − − − −(𝟏)
• When Key 𝐾2 is closed, the balancing length 𝑙2 is determined.
According to principle of potentiometer,
𝜺𝑹
𝜶 𝒍𝟐 − − − −(𝟐)
𝑹+𝒓
Here 𝑟 − is the internal resistance of the cell.
𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐
• (1) ÷(2) 𝑟=[ ] 𝑅 − − − −(3) R
𝒍𝟐

Substituting R, 𝒍𝟏 , 𝒍𝟐 in equation (3) the internal resistance of a cell can be calculated.

29
 PROBLEMS
I. TWO MARK QUESTIONS:
1. Compute the current in the wire if a charge of 120 C is flowing through a copper wire in 1 minute.
• Given : Q = 120 C & t = 1 minute = 60 s
𝑄 120
• Solution : Current 𝐼= = =2𝐴
𝑡 60
2. If an electric field of magnitude 570 N C–1, is applied in the copper wire, find the acceleration
experienced by the electron. ( J – 20 )
• Given: 𝐸 = 570 𝑁𝐶 −1
𝐹 𝑒𝐸
• Solution : 𝑎 = = ( ∵ 𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸)
𝑚 𝑚

• Here 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 and 𝑚 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔

𝑒𝐸 1.6 × 10−19 × 570 912 × 10−19 × 1031
• 𝑎= = = = 1.001 × 1014 𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝑚 9.11 × 10−31 9.11
3. A copper wire of cross-sectional area 0.5 mm2 carries a current of 0.2 A. If the free electron density
of copper is 8.4 × 1028 m–3 then compute the drift velocity of free electrons. ( J – 21 , M – 24 )
• Given : 𝐴 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚2 = 0.5 × 10−6 𝑚 ; 𝐼 = 0.2 𝐴 and 𝑛 = 8.4 × 1028 𝑚−3
𝐼
• Solution : 𝑣𝑑 = 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶.
𝑛𝑒𝐴
𝐼 0.2
• 𝑣𝑑 = = = 0.03 × 10−3 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
𝑛𝑒𝐴 8.4 × 1028 ×1.6 × 10−19 ×0.5 × 10−6
4. Determine the number of electrons flowing per second through a conductor, when a current of
32 A flows through it. ( J – 23 )
• Given : 𝐼 = 32 𝐴 and 𝑡 = 1𝑠 ; number of electrons flowing per second n = ?
𝑞 𝑛𝑒
• Solution : 𝐼 = =
𝑡 𝑡
𝐼𝑡
𝑛= and 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑒
𝐼𝑡 32 ×1
𝑛= = = 20 × 1019 = 2 × 1020 electrons.
𝑒 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
5. A potential difference across 24 Ω resistor is 12 V. What is the current
through the resistor?
• Solution : Here 𝑉 = 12 𝑉; and 𝑅 = 24Ω Current 𝐼 = ?
𝑉 12
• From Ohm’s Law 𝐼 = = = 0.5 𝑨
𝑅 24

6. If the resistance of coil is 3 Ω at 200 C and α = 0.004/0C then determine its resistance at 100 0C.
• Given : 𝑅0 = 3Ω, T = 100𝑜 𝐶 ; 𝑇0 = 20𝑜 𝐶 ; 𝛼 = 0.004/𝑜 𝐶 ; 𝑅𝑇 = ? M – 23

• Solution : 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )) 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 , 𝑇 − 𝑇0 = 100 − 20 = 80

𝑅100 = 3(1 + 0.004 × 80) = 3( 1 + 0.32) = 3 × 1.32 = 3.96 𝛀

30
7. The resistance of a nichrome wire at 200C is 10 Ω. If its temperature coefficient of resistivity of
nichrome is 0.004/0C, find the resistance of the wire at boiling point of water. Comment on the result.
• Given: 𝑅𝑜 = 10 Ω. 𝑇0 = 20𝑜 𝐶 ; 𝛼 = 0.004/𝑜 𝐶> Boiling point of water 𝑇 = 100𝑜 𝐶 M - 20

• Solution: 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 [ 1+ ∝ (𝑇 − 𝑇0 ) ]
• ∴ 𝑅100 = 10 [1 + (0.004 × (100 − 20)] = 10 [1 + 0.32] = 10 × 1.32 = 13.2 Ω
• Resistance of the wire at boiling point of water 𝑅100 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟐 𝛀
• Comment : Resistance increases with increase in temperature.
8. Resistance of a material at 200C and 400C are 45 Ω and 85 Ω respectively. Find its temperature
coefficient of resistivity.
• Given: 𝑇0 = 20𝑜 𝐶 ; 𝑇 = 40𝑜 𝐶 ; 𝑅0 = 45 Ω ; 𝑅 = 85 Ω
1 Δ𝑅
• Solution: 𝛼 = 𝑅𝑜 Δ𝑇

1 85−45 1 40 1
𝛼= (40−20) = 45 (20) = (2) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟒 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝑪
45 45

9. Five resistors are connected in the configuration as shown in the figure. Calculate the equivalent
resistance between the points a and b.
• Solution :
• The points C and D are at the same potential and no current through
5 Ω. It implies that the 5 Ω has no role in determining the
equivalent resistance and it can be removed. So the circuit is
simplified as

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + =2
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 1 1
1
𝑅𝑃 = 2

𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 1 𝛀

10. For the given circuit find the value of I.

• Solution: From Kirchhoff’s I law
• 0.2𝐴 – 0.4𝐴 + 0.6𝐴 – 0.5𝐴 + 0.7𝐴 − 𝐼 = 0
• 1.5 𝐴 – 0.9 𝐴 – 𝐼 = 0
• 0.6𝐴 – 𝐼 = 0
• 𝐼 = 0.6 𝑨

31
11. In a Wheatstone’s bridge P = 100 Ω, Q = 1000 Ω and R = 40 Ω. If the galvanometer shows zero
deflection, determine the value of S.
𝑃 𝑅
• Solution: =
𝑄 𝑆
𝑄
𝑆= ×𝑅
𝑃
1000
𝑆= × 40 = 400 𝛀
100
12. In a meter bridge experiment, the value of resistance in the resistance box connected in the right
gap is 10 Ω. The balancing length is l1 = 55 cm. Find the value of unknown resistance.
• Given: 𝑄 = 10 Ω ; 𝑙1 = 55 𝑐𝑚 ; 𝑙2 = 100 − 𝑙1 = 100 − 55 = 45 𝑐𝑚
𝑃 𝑙1
• Solution: =
𝑄 𝑙2

𝑙1 10 ×55 550
𝑃=𝑄 × = = = 12.2 𝛀
𝑙2 45 45

13. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35 cm length of the
wire. If the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shifts to 63 cm, what is the emf of
the second cell?
• Given : 𝑙1 = 35𝑐𝑚 ; 𝑙2 = 63 𝑐𝑚 ; 𝜀1 = 1.25𝑉 ; 𝜀2 = ?
𝜀1 𝑙1 𝑙2
• Solution: = → 𝜀2 = 𝐸1 ×
𝜀2 𝑙2 𝑙1
1.25 ×63
 𝜀2 = = 2.25 𝑽
35

14. Find the heat energy produced in a resistance of 10 Ω when 5 A current flows through it for 5
minutes.
• Given: R = 10 Ω, I = 5 A, t = 5 minutes = 5 × 60 s
• Solution: 𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡
• 𝐻 = 52 × 10 × 5 × 60 = 25 × 10 × 300 = 25 × 3000 = 75000 𝑱 (𝒐𝒓)75 𝒌𝑱
15. The resistance of a wire is 20 Ω. What will be new resistance, if it is stretched uniformly 8 times its
original length?
• Given: 𝑅1 = 20 Ω> 𝑅2 = ?

• Solution: 𝑅2 = 𝑛2 × 𝑅1 ( n – times)
𝑅2 = 8 × 8 × 20 = 1280 𝛀

16. Calculate the equivalent resistance for the circuit which is connected to 24 V battery and also find
the potential difference across 𝟒 𝛀 and 𝟔 𝛀 resistors in the circuit. ( J – 22 )
• Solution:

• 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 4 Ω + 6 Ω = 𝟏𝟎 𝛀
𝑉 24
• 𝐼= = = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝑨
𝑅𝑠 10

• 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 = 2.4 𝐴 × 4Ω = 𝟗. 𝟔 𝑽

• 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 = 2.4 𝐴 × 6Ω = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒 𝑽

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17. Calculate the equivalent resistance in the following circuit and also find the values of current I, I1
and I2 in the given circuit.
• Since the resistances are connected in parallel, the equivalent
resistance in the circuit is
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 4 6
1 5 𝟏𝟐
= (or) 𝑅𝑃 = 𝛀
𝑅𝑃 12 𝟓

• The resistors are connected in parallel, the potential difference (voltage) across them is the same.
𝑉 24𝑉 𝑉 24
𝐼1 = = = 𝟔𝑨 and 𝐼2 = = = 𝟒𝑨
𝑅1 4Ω 𝑅2 6
• ; 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 6𝐴 + 4𝐴 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑨 .
𝟓𝟔
18. Two resistors when connected in series and parallel, their equivalent resistances are 15 Ω and 𝟏𝟓 𝛀
respectively. Find the values of the resistances.
• Solution: 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 15 ………. (1)
𝑅1 𝑅2 56
𝑅𝑃 = = ……….. (2)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 15

• From equation (1) substitute (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) in equation (2)

𝑅1 𝑅2 56
• =
15 15

 𝑅1 𝑅2 = 56
56
𝑅2 = 𝑅 ………….. (3)
1

• From equation (3) substitute ( 𝑅2 ) in equation (1)

56
𝑅1 + = 15
𝑅1

𝑅12 + 56
= 15
𝑅1

𝑅12 + 56 = 15 𝑅1
𝑅12 − 15 𝑅1 + 56 = 0
(𝑅1 − 8 ) (𝑅1 − 7 ) = 0
• 𝑅1 = 8 (or) 𝑅1 = 7
• If 𝑅1 = 8 𝛀 then 𝑅2 = 15 − 8 = 7 𝛀. Result 1: 𝑅1 = 8 𝛀, ; 𝑅2 = 7 𝛀
• If 𝑅1 = 7𝛀 then 𝑅2 = 15 − 7 = 8 𝛀> Result 2: 𝑅1 = 7𝛀, ; 𝑅2 = 8 𝛀
Calculate the equivalent resistance between A and B in the given circuit.
• In all the sections, the resistors are connected in parallel.
• Section I
1 1 1 1 1 2
= + = + = =1
𝑅𝑃1 𝑅1 𝑅2 2 2 2

𝑅𝑃1 = 1 𝛀
• Section II
1 1 1 2 1
= + = =
𝑅𝑃2 4 4 4 2
𝑅𝑃2 = 2 𝛀
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 • Section III
1 1 1 2 1
= + = =
𝑅𝑃3 6 6 6 3
𝑅𝑃3 = 3 𝛀
• Equivalent resistance is given by
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑃1 + 𝑅𝑃2 + 𝑅𝑃3
𝑅 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 𝛀.
• Equivalent resistance between A and B is 6 𝛀
20. What is the value of x when the Wheatstone’s network is balanced?
• Given: P = 500 Ω, Q = 800 Ω, R = x + 400, S = 1000 Ω

𝑃 𝑅
• Solution : =
𝑄 𝑆
500 𝑥+400
=
800 1000
5
𝑥 + 400 = × 1000
8

𝑥 + 400 = 625
𝑥 = 625 − 400
𝑥 = 225 𝛀

21. In a meter bridge experiment with a standard resistance of 15 Ω in the right gap, the ratio of
balancing length is 3:2. Find the value of the other resistance.
𝑙1 3
• Given : 𝑄 = 15 Ω, 𝑙1 ∶ 𝑙2 = 3 ∶ 2 → =
𝑙2 2

𝑃 𝑙1
• Solution : =
𝑄 𝑙2
𝑙1 3
𝑃 = 𝑄 = 15 × = 22.5 𝛀
𝑙2 2

22. A copper wire of 10–6 m2 area of cross section, carries a current of 2 A. If the number of free electrons
per cubic meter in the wire is 8 × 1028, calculate the current density and average drift velocity of
electrons. ( J – 24 )
• Given : 𝐴 = 10−6 𝑚2 , 𝐼 = 2𝐴 and 𝑛 = 8 × 1028
𝐼
• Solution : current density 𝐽 =𝐴
2
𝐽= = 2 × 106 𝑨𝒎−𝟐
10−6
I
• Drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 = nAe
2 2 20
• 𝑣𝑑 = = = × 10−3 = 15.6 × 10−5 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
8 × 1028 ×5× 10−6 ×1.6 × 10−19 8 × 103 × 1.6 128

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23. A cell supplies a current of 0.9 A through a 2 Ω resistor and a current of 0.3 A through a 7 Ω resistor.
Calculate the internal resistance of the cell. ( M – 25 )
• Solution: Since the same cell in both cases, emf and internal resistance is same.
(𝑖. 𝑒) 𝜀 = 𝐼1 ( 𝑅1 + 𝑟) and 𝜀 = 𝐼2 ( 𝑅2 + 𝑟)
𝐼1 ( 𝑅1 + 𝑟) = 𝐼2 ( 𝑅2 + 𝑟)
• On simplification
Case Case - I Case - II
𝐼2 𝑅2 − 𝐼1 𝑅1
𝑟= current 𝐼1 = 0.9 𝐴 𝐼2 = 0.3 𝐴
𝐼1 − 𝐼2
(0.3×7 )−( 0.9 ×2)
resistance 𝑅1 = 2Ω 𝑅2 = 7Ω
• 𝑟= 0.9−0.3

2.1 − 1.8 0.3

𝑟= = = 0.5
0.6 0.6
•  Internal resistance = 0.5 𝛀
24. A potentiometer wire has a length of 4 m and resistance of 20 Ω. It is connected in series with
resistance of 2980 Ω and a cell of emf 4 V. Calculate the potential gradient along the wire.
❖ Given: 𝜀 = 4𝑉
Length of potentiometer wire = 4 m
Resistance 𝑅 = 20 Ω
20
Resistance per unit length 𝑟 = =5Ω
4

External resistance 𝑅 ′ = 2980 Ω

Since resistance are in series,
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅 ′ + 𝑅 = 2980 + 20 = 3000 Ω
❖ Solution:
𝜀 4 4
Current ; 𝐼 = 𝑅 = = × 10−3
𝑒𝑓𝑓 3000 3

Potential difference per unit length 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑟

4
𝑉= × 10−3 × 5
3
20
𝑉 = × 10−3 = 6.66 × 10−3 𝑽/𝒎
3

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