CHAPTER 6

Practical Drives

i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i !i
iiii!i!ii!ii!i!ii!iiiii 1 G EN ERA L 141

iiiiii!iiiiii!iii 2 D.C. DRIVES 145

..!i.............. 3 A.C. DRIVES 151

i i !i i i i!!ii ~!~i~!i!~i~i~i i i~
i i i i i!i!i!i i i i i i i i i i i SOFT-START A.C. M O T O R C O N T R O L 169

i i i i i i!i i i i i i i i i i i l
A P P L I C A T I O N BOARDS A N D S O F T W A R E 172

1 GENERAL

Thus far this book has dealt largely with the theory of Before considering the detail of specific drive products, it is
variable-speed drives. The capability of commercially worth considering a few aspects of commercial drives which
available drives deviates from the theory, both in regard to may be considered common. When considering the theory of
practical limitations of performance at the motor shaft and drives it is convenient to limit the control aspects to torque,
also in regard to issues like control input performance. It is speed and possibly position loops. In reality a large number
important to also recognise the importance and value of of other features are built in to modem digital drives
additional features that are incorporated in modem com- as standard. As highlighted in the Preface, the purpose of
mercial products. This chapter deals with some of these this book is not to endorse or promote the products
practical aspects by describing commercial products, taking from this manufacturer. Equally the publisher does not
as examples variable-speed drives manufactured by Control endorse products from Control Techniques or any other
Techniques. manufacturer.
142 GENERAL

Typically, the following functionality is incorporated in the It can be seen from the Figure that an offset to the demanded
software structure: speed can be input using parameter 1.04. This can be set to a
fixed value or can be programmed within the drive on an
• selection between different types of speed and torque option card to be a complex variable based upon any para-
reference meters input by the customer or a derived value within the
• programming of analogue and digital inputs/outputs drive itself.
• selection of different ramp functions
• setting up of the drive speed and current loops Consideration of the control diagram will start to provide an
• monitoring of drive status parameters, trip log insight into some of the control capabilities of a commercial
• programming of special application features such as drive.
different types of torque control mode, digital lock These capabilities can often be enhanced by the addition of
function etc. option boards. These may provide additional connectivity in
• programming of additional logic blocks and PID func- the form of a fieldbus interface, or additional control cap-
tions which are available for user application set up ability in the form of a second processor. These options are
discussed in sections 6.3 and 6.5.
Figure 6.1 provides an overview of the typical software
structure of a modem, digital drive. Although this specific Although modem drives can be operated directly from the
diagram is for the Control Techniques' Mentor D.C. drive, product-mounted keypad, it is more common to integrate
the basic structure remains broadly the same for D.C. and drives into larger automation systems. In such systems
A.C. drives. the interface to the drive may be through a digital serial

speed
TB1-3 offset

I,.,71
1.04 I
post offset
I I "10 I I,.,31inch ref 12.o21
reverse
/ 1"-"3 i bip°lar
I,,~ se'ect select select

/
ramp 2.02
enabl~
Lix., i J
post ramp I 1.05 ] maximum speed
forward
ref refon I 1"06 I
2.04 inch ref .,,. /--
2.05 ..d

2.06 i
!
2.07 preramp
1.11 I - /
ref maximum 11-09 I
speed PID speed final current speed
error I output demand reverse firing angle
I~ ( ' ~ ~ - <
._.. o91 4.04
3 oo > - - 3.~0 4.05
I
I

4.06

current t
i " ~ ' ' ~ / " "".,. feedback limits current
- V """ ~losed loop only actual current

Figure 6.1 Typical control structure of a modern digital drive

< user drive > destination

40 0V [ 8.,61 an read rite

'bit' parameter

J 26 .•• invert
8.26 I
I 0
0

Figure 6.2 Programmable digital input

 C h a p t e r 6.1 143

link, or hard-wired digital and analogue inputs and DIGITAL OUTPUT

outputs.
Such inputs and outputs are typically of the following form. Programmability
An example of a digital output function would be an at-speed
signal. The output state changes when the actual value
DIGITAL INPUT reaches the demand signal. A typical programming flow is
shown in Figure 6.3.
Programmability
Typical Specification
With reference to Figure 6.2 it can be seen that by setting the
contents of parameter 8.16 it is possible to direct the input Digital outputs are usually referenced to the drive control
command at terminal 26 to any read/write bit parameter zero volts line (0V). There is often integral overcurrent
in the drive. The logic of the input can be reversed via protection to ensure that damage is avoided if the output is
parameter 8.26. inadvertently short circuited. The output is invariably taken
from a supply rail ~24 V:
Typical Specification output voltage + ve control rail less voltage drop across
transistor switch and current sense resistor
Digital inputs are usually referenced to the drive control zero
(IEC 1131-2)
volts line (0 V). There is protection afforded by a series
current capacity typically of the order of 100 mA
resistor, clamp diodes and a filter capacitor:
Again the response time of digital inputs is very dependent
input threshold 10 V + 5 V
upon the way in which the software is implemented.
hysteresis 0.3-0.8 V(IEC 1131-2)
mode positive logic (IEC 1131-2) or negative logic
ANALOGUE INPUT
The response time of digital inputs is very dependent
upon the way in which the software is implemented. The Programmability
inputs are scanned by the control software and it is this scan
time that is important to the response time. As it is a scan, With reference to Figure 6.4 it can be seen that the analogue
the time quoted is invariably the time between scans and is speed reference can be input via terminal 3, via a voltage
therefore the worst case. It is common to have a number a reference selector (parameter 7.26) and scaling (parameter
fast inputs ( < 345 gs) for use in time-critical applications 7.20) to the speed demand parameter in the speed loop
such as limit switch monitoring; others may be relatively (parameter 1.17) by means of the speed reference destination
slow (~7 ms). parameter (7.15).

< user drive >

33 +24 V
sou rce

19 91i
i
read only invert

17
ST3
t
Figure 6.3 Programmable digital output

< user drive > volt 0-10 V

current speed 4-20 mA
TB1 20-4 mA
0-20 destination:
1 +10V current- / 20-0 any read/write
loop mode / parameter
0V
default = 1.17
-10V read only scale
17.281

analogue
speed
reference
I
[i 1

i
1 ~
@ o

I I
Figure 6.4 Programmable analogue input
144 GENERAL" Analogue Input

Typical Specification It is usual to incorporate some filtering, equivalent to

approximately 30 ps to ensure a reasonably smooth output
The specification for analogue inputs does vary considerably signal.
with the type of drive being considered and reference to the
specific drive specification is important. As a guide only we It can be seen that the features of a modem electronic
can consider precision analogue inputs which would be variable-speed drive embrace far more than the control of
associated with high-performance drives, and general ana- torque, speed or even position. Although it is not possible to
logue inputs which may be associated with products for less discuss all features of a modem drive, in this section we hope
demanding applications or as auxiliary analogue inputs on to reveal some of the less obvious features of commercial
a high performance drive: drives. The utilisation of some of these features is high-
lighted in Chapter 12 where applications are discussed.
(i) Precision analogue inputs - usually these inputs accept
differential input voltages: Typical environmental conditions for standard commercial
input voltage +IOV drives are"
gain accuracy 1% Ambient temperature: 0°C to 40°C (32-104°F). At ambient
linearity O. 1% of actual input temperatures above 40°C (104°F) derate 1.5 per cent per °C
resolution delta of 150 gV will give a change up to 55°C (131°F).
full-scale asymmetry 0.1%
zero crossing error
Storage temperature: - 4 0 ° C to 55°C ( - 4 0 ° F to 131°F).
< 300 gV
input impedance > 10 kf~ (differential) Maximum storage time" 12 months.
> 1 Mf~ (common mode)
Rated altitude: sea level to 1000m (3300ft). At heights
(ii) General analogue inputs - usually these inputs are above 1000 m reduce the full load current by 1.0 per cent for
referenced to the control zero volts: each additional 100 m (320 ft).
input -+- 10 V, 0-20 mA and 50 f~-5 kf~
Relative humidity: noncondensing to 85 per cent at 40°C.
gain accuracy 3%
resolution 10 bit (A of 10 mV will give a change) Degree of ingress protection" IP 00 (unit for building into an
input impedance 100 kf~ (voltage mode) electrical enclosure).
< 200 f~ at 20 mA (current mode) Starts~hour (A.C. drives): unlimited by electronic control;
_<20 by interrupting the A.C. supply.
ANALOGUE OUTPUT Speed reference: - 10 to + 10 V or 0 to 10 V; 4 to 20 mA; 20
to 4 mA; 0 to 20 mA; 20 to 0 mA; digital speed input.
Programmability
Serial communications interface: RS-485 serial port, opti-
In the example shown in Figure 6.5 the analogue output is cally isolated.
programmed to provide a meter signal. It could equally well
be used to provide a speed reference, or other process vari- Materials: flammability rating of main enclosure - UL94-
able, to another drive or process equipment. 5VB; glands - UL94-V0.
Vibration (random)" packaged and unpackaged- tested to
Typical Specification 0.01 gZ/Hz (equivalent to 1.2 g r.m.s.) from 5 to 150 Hz for
one hour in each of three axes as in IEC68-2-34 and IEC68-
Analogue outputs are usually referenced to the drive control 2-36.
zero volts rail:
Bump~shock: packaged - tested to 40 g, 6 ms, 1000 times/
modes voltage and current
direction for all six directions as in IEC68-2-29. Unpack-
range + 10 V and 0-20 mA
aged - tested to 25 g, 6 ms, 1000 times/direction for all six
gain accuracy 3%
directions as in IEC68-2-29.
resolution 10 bit
EMC immunity: EN50082-2. Following specifications from
The update rate of the output may be better than 100 gs on
IEC61000-4:
high-performance drives, and is determined by the imple-
mentation of the control software. The analogue output is Part 2 - electrostatic discharge, level 3
not usually considered critical in this respect. Part 3 - radiofrequency field, level 3

< user drive >

source

20
OV
1 .o81
+lOV scale

12 o
o

Figure 6.5 Programmable analogue ouput

 C h a p t e r 6.2 145

Part 4 - transient burst, Part 6 - conducted radiofrequency, level 3

• level 4 at the control terminals
• level 3 at the power terminals EMC emissions - EN50081-2.

Part 5 - surge at the A.C. supply terminals (as specified by Aspects specific to the alternative types of commonly-used
EN50082-2 informative annex) drive system are detailed in the rest of Chapter 6.
• level 4 line to ground
• level 3 line to line

2 D.C. DRIVES

THE TECHNOLOGY Operating parameters are selected and changed either at the
drive keypad, through the serial communications interface,
D.C. drives are widely used in applications which require or through MentorSoft, a WindowsrM-based configuration
regeneration, precise speed control, dynamic performance software tool.
and constant torque over wide speed ranges. The technology
Mentor has many embedded configurable functions which
is mature and extremely reliable. Applications that tradi-
are easily adapted for virtually any application. These con-
tionally favour D.C. drives include web handling, winders,
figurable functions include items such as assignable I/O,
extruders, paper production, cranes, hoists, plastic produc-
autotune, feedback selection, ratio control etc.
tion and wire drawing.
Control Techniques Mentor II is a family of D.C. variable-
speed industrial drives. All sizes (7.5 to 750kW) share DRIVE SELECTION
common control, monitoring, protection and serial com-
munications features. Units are available in either single- The rating of a Mentor drive is based on the maximum
quadrant or four-quadrant configurations. Both types offer continuous current that it is designed to deliver. An overload
comprehensive control of motor speed and/or torque. capacity of 150 per cent of the rated current for 30 seconds is

Figure 6.6 Control Techniques Mentor D.C. drive family

146 D.C. DRIVES"Drive Selection

Figure 6.7 EMC data and wiring recommendations

 Chapter 6.2 147

alternative l~ation ~:

i ~i~i~i!~i~i~i~!ii!~~i~i!i ~~ii i i ~i!i i i i i ~i i i i i i i i !i~i i i i i

ililii
i RFI filter
=:.:::=::.=:.........................................................
:: :=::...........
i::ii i i i ::.i:.i:.i:i:i i:.i::i::ii i i i::i::ii i i:~i:.:iLi i i:.ii !iiliiil i=/:iiiii::iii:.iii:!i::::i~:iiii:::~i:.::i::~i

:~'~~ii i:':~:::~R~!
i iii~fii!~:~ i i~~;~'~~:~':iiii~!i~:~:~:~:;~:~:~"~:'~~:~':~i ~:~':~~:i~:~'?:::~~i~~::~;i~~':~.;~i:i~~'i~:~i:i;~~::i~;;~ii~'~':i!'~;i~i':i

~ii~j~i~!iiiii!~~iiiiiii~iiiii~iii!iiiiiiiiiiii!~i!i~ii~iiii~ii~iiiiiii~iii~i~!~ii!
i!~ i
~i~ii~III¸

! i~~~i~~i~i~
Jl-' I
i.!.....
I
~i~i!!~ii~i~i"~i~!~i~i~!!~i~i~i~i~i~i~~,

III III [1
~ i i ~ i i ~ i ~ ~ ~ i ~iii~ i ~ ELI LU I.J
"~~~~'. ~) :~~ ~~~i'~ ~:~:~d i~(~:
:~ ~ ';~,~h~:~:;i
~;:~;i~':~;i'~:~ / /

.....
i ~:i:.:::~i::i: : i i: : ~::ii;i:iiiiii
.i:iiii:.ii!ili::i::iiii!
!i!!i!i!ilili::;iiii:.
i~:i::ii!!:.
:: i!iil:::.

Drive
/ /

.............: ...............................................................................................
-< 100 mm ii~iiii~iiii~!~ii:~ii i i !i i?iiii iii!iii:ii:iiiiiiii!
(4 in) iiii~dliii~||iiiiii~6~iiiii~6i~iiiii::iii i:~iiii~iiiiil

ii~i~i~X~l~i
~~iii~ii~iii~i~ii~ii~!i~ii~ii~iii~iiii~iiii~i~ii~i~ii~ii~iii~i~i~i~i~ii~i~i~ J
E1 E2 E3FI+ F2- <-100 mm (4 in)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~i. .i.i.i.l.il.ili.!.i. . . . . . . . . . . #::!iiiiiiiiii:

:ii!

,~ -,,m ,- B i=m B m
m •
n

.
|
| ~
| ii~i~i~i~i~ii~ii~i~i~i~!i~ii~iii~ii~i~i!~!i!i~ii!i!i~iiii~i~i~ii~i~i~iiiii~i~i~
back plate

alternative safety ground

connections for the motor

Figure 6. 7
148 D.C. DRIVES: Drive Selection

permitted, which may be utilised, for example, during Autotune

acceleration. If higher maximum currents are required, a
drive with a higher continuous current rating should be used, If optimum response is required from the drive, the current
so as not to exceed the maximum current limit setting of the loop, which is the inner control loop of the drive, must be set
selected unit. Additionally, in applications involving cyclic up to enable the outer speed control loop to function opti-
duty, the r.m.s, current over the whole cycle must not exceed mally. The dynamics of the current loop are principally a
the continuous current rating of the drive. function of the electrical characteristics of the motor as
discussed in Chapters 1 and 4.
The Mentor has a built in self-tuning procedure for its cur-
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS AND rent loop, providing an easy route to full performance.
RATINGS
PC-Based Commissioning
A. C. supply requirements
Tools- MentorSoft
mains supply 208-480 V A.C. + 10% three phase
voltage: (optional 208-525/660 V A.C. + 10%) MentorSofl is a WindowsTM-based software tool. The func-
input frequency 48-62 Hz autosensing tions mentioned above are very similar throughout Control
phase rotation nonsensitive Techniques' complete range of A.C. and D.C. drives.
Although the parameters that are used to control and adjust
D. C. armature output voltage
the various features can be manipulated via the drive's
Six-pulse full wave. Table 6.1 shows maximum armature
onboard keypad, there is a set of software packages available
voltage for common mains supply voltages.
which make this manipulation easier, quicker and far more
visual/intuitive.
T a b l e 6.1 M a x i m u m recommended D.C.
armature voltage (1Q or 4Q) PERFORMANCE
Mains supply Maximum D.C.
voltage (V) armature voltage (V) The current-loop performance of a D.C. drive is limited by
the switching times of the drive as well as the control-loop
380 440 performance. The following traces were obtained on a Leroy
400 450 Somer D.C. motor type LSK 1122 S04; 9.5kW, 400V,
415 460 28.5 A with tachogenerator feedback.
440 500
460 510
480 530 Speed and Current-loop Response
Figure 6.8 shows the current-loop performance during the
Supply phase sequence
request for a speed reversal using default speed-loop gains.
Loss of one or more phases of input automatically detected;
The armature current rises from zero to maximum in
the drive will run irrespective of input phase rotation
approximately 30 ms.
Speed feedback Figure 6.9 shows the optimised performance.
motor armature voltage, or
tachogenerator, or Figure 6.10 shows the speed change due to the application of
encoder (pulse generator) a 100% step load change using product default speed loop
full PID speed loop algorithm
Current feedback .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i .... i ' "
resolution 0.1%
current loop linearity 2%

Control speed
All analogue and most digital inputs configurable by the user
for specific applications; provision for encoder inputs for
position control applications; on-board provision for tacho-
2> :v.;, x_:_;-.7..~.....; ..... ; .... : ..... ; ..... ; .... : ....
generator calibration; in-built field-weakening controller,
with digital programmable control; drive software includes
current-loop self-tuning algorithm; user-defined menu for
quick access to most used parameters. current

DRIVE SET UP AND COMMISSIONING

All adjustment and application set up is via a menu-
driven parameter set controlled from a five-button keypad. Figure 6.8 Current response to a speed demand change
This provides a simple intuitive commissioning interface. (default loop gains), timebase - 50 ms/div
 Chapter 6.2 149

.... ,. .... ~ .... : ......... ,. ......... : .... ,. ........

..... :, ....
i
~ ................ :. .......... :. .... i .......... LOW-POWER ANALOGUE D.C. DRIVES
• : i
Very simple low-power analogue D.C. drives, for use on a
single-phase supply, are widely available. They tend to be
2> simply constructed with a very much reduced feature set
speed
compared with the larger digital system drives.

The 4Q2 D.C. Drive

The 4Q2 is a 7.5 kW four-quadrant regenerative thyristor
D.C. controller for operation on a single-phase mains supply.
current
The D.C. motor speed controller is designed to provide full
four-quadrant control of conventional shunt-wound and
U
1 :ref~2{/50ms i i i...i
permanent-magnet motors, using either armature voltage or
iiii..ii',iiii',....',iii tachogenerator feedback.

Figure 6.9 Current response to a speed demand change

(optimised loop gains), timebase - 50 ms/div FEATURES

• switch-selectable features (easy to configure)

gains. Speed is seen to transiently fall by 10% before the
• speed/torque control
speed loop returns it to the original set value.
• tacho/armature voltage speed feedback modes
• status/fault or low-speed/zero reference
• full-wave bridge, full control
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
• 20:1 constant torque speed range
• 2per cent regulation for 100 per cent load change
Mentor D.C. drives can be configured for use in a wide
with armature voltage feedback (0.5 per cent with tacho
variety of applications, some examples of which are"
feedback)
• mechanical handling • overload protection 150 per cent FLC for 15 s with trip
• pick and place handling systems, complex transfer sta- indication
tions and automatic warehousing • ambient - 10°C to + 4 0 ° C
• plastic extrusion
• drives for single-screw extruders, involving the forcing Cheetah- P u m a - Lynx
of molten plastic through a die to form a continuous
product of film, sheet or pipe The Cheetah, Puma, Lynx range of D.C. motor controllers is
• paper-making machines designed for the efficient speed control of both wound-field
• steel processing - many applications including rolling and permanent-magnet D.C. motors from 0.18 to 7.5kW.
mills, metal forming and wire drawing All are single-quadrant controllers.

_I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

speed . . . . . . .x.. .~.~. ..~-...v,r~-.

_~.~.~..,
. r.,,~..,,
.~ .~.__I
.~.~.
i. .
:':= .= .v:~'.'.~r~.q
. . . . . . .

armature
current

mm -
-

-1 refA2V50ms i -
-2J ref B lV 50 ms I I I I I I Ii I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I -
I-

Figure 6.10 Speed change due to the application of 100 per cent step load change (using default speed loop gains),
timebase - 200 msldiv
150 D.C. DRIVES:Low-Power Analogue D.C. Drives

Figure 6.11 4Q2 D.C. drive controller

Figure 6.12 Lynx D.C. drive controller

FEATURES • selectable status/fault or low-speed/zero reference relay

operation
• speed/torque control operational modes • full-wave bridge, fully controlled
• tacho/armature voltage speed feedback modes • 20:1 constant speed range
 Chapter 6.3 151

3 A.C. DRIVES

FEATURES C O M M O N TO ALL A.C. DRIVES Control Terminal Layout

Power Terminal Layout Typical control connections to an inverter are shown in

Figure 6.14.
Typical power connections to an A.C. drive are shown in
Figure 6.13.
Typically, the control terminals to an inverter provide the
Typically, the power terminal layout allows the following following functionality:
flexibility:
• a number of programmable digital inputs and outputs
• ability to power up the drive from an A.C. or a D.C. • a number of programmable analogue inputs and outputs
source • connections for a motor thermistor, to protect the motor
• paralleling of the D.C. links of multiple drives, where against overheating
required in specific applications • one or more programmable relays
• most Control Techniques drives have a built-in braking • connections for serial communications with the drive
transistor circuit, to which an external braking resistor
can be connected for dynamic braking

I + IDB"I - " I '2 I '3 I P-I u I v I w I~1

...... I i I
braking optional RFI I
resistor filter
I I I I motor
optional earth
thermal
protection i line reactor
device I I
sto0 [] [] [] fl~tses

start/
reset iil ,

motor
optional ' L1 L2 L3 - - -
mains supply
supply earth

Figure 6.13 Typical power connections to an A.C. drive

0 V common
10 kD
(2 k.Q min) local voltage speed reference input (A1)
+10 V reference output
0 V common quickey module
0-10 V socket
remote current speed reference input (A2)

4 - 20 mA
analogue output (motor speed) I:'" "1
+24 V +24 V output RJ45 ! ,i

' connector for t

0 v_i-~-- digital output (zero speed) serial c o m m s m
| i

drive enable reset

run forward . i I.
run reverse
local (A1) remote (A2) speed reference
jog select
+24 V output

15 --- ~1 faul.~~
ok
16

Figure 6.14 Typical control connections to an inverter

 152 A.C. DRIVES: F e a t u r e s C o m m o n t o All A.C. Drives

key to symbols
lllllllllllll single powercable
~ ,,(
m in m i D ii

I"..... ~ ..... I
i N

three-core powercable or ;P:~ii:al r:::;nra' i | ................... ' ~ - i |

IIIIIIIIIIIII three single power cables
........... -- ------ - - , I ) : _-.'...........
ground cable
connection to cable armour or
shield
maximumlength:50 mm(2in)
" drive
m m m m m m alternative safety ground
connection
armoured or shielded cable
(3-phase + ground)

no sensitive circuits permitted • ///// ::i:LI: ~ L3~I~ .J--:i: VI: + _

in this zone
~ t l - '- , ~• • ~-~
- a" u =
" w "" •
,~t,L _ L L ~ w --'_LLL
I /
control cables
to the drives , I/
output 3
output 2
output 1
LI" L2" L3" E"
0V LOAD
ground RFI filter
host
controller ........: LINE
L1 L2 L3 E

A.C. I l' I

H!MI .......... IIIIIII1~"

"'"'"""'"'"'"'""'"' IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
ground plate

power-ground
bus-bar
_
::
i: :: i I1:
: : i: : :i ii~
!!!!!!!
re

,, i m-,,m

IN
" ~ l i b ....... ~ , v , } (,~
v
Q ._
----,- - l l m l • l U l l • l l l l • I l m l l • i n

General features
1 single-power ground busbar or low-impedance ground terminal
2 incoming supply ground connected to power ground busbar
3 connect grounds of any other circuits to power ground busbar
4 site ground if required
5 metal back plate, safety bonded to power ground busbar
6 system isolator, circuit contactors and fuses/MCB
7 alternative position for drive fuses/MCB
8 optional braking resistor mounted externally, protected and shielded by a metal grille
9 thermal overload device to protect braking resistor
10 alternative safety ground for motor
11 motor frame ground connection, if required
Special features for E M C
12 the A.C. supply cable must be shielded (screened) or steel wire armoured-the shield or armour should then be
bonded to the enclosure wall using standard cable gland fixings
13 back plate should be electrically bonded to the enclosure wall using a short low-inductive connection. Two flat braided
cables of nominal size 12 × 2.3 mm are suitable, or a single braided cable of equivalent dimensions
14 drive heatsink should be directly grounded to the back plate using the metal mounting brackets. It should be ensured
that the screws make direct electrical connection to the back plate by using screw threads tapped in the back plate
15 RFI filter should be mounted 150 mm (6 in) from the drive. The RFI filter casing is directly grounded to the back plate
by the fixing screws. The length of cables between the drive and RFI filter should be minimised
16 a shielded (screened) or steel wire armoured cable must be used to connect the drive to motor. The shield must be
bonded to the back plate using a noninsulated metal cable clamp. The clamp must be positioned no
further than 150 mm (6 in) from the drive
17 the shield of the motor cable should be connected to the ground terminal of the motor frame using a link that is as short as
possible and not exceeding 50 mm (2 in) in length. A full 360 ° termination of the shield to the motor terminal housing
(usually metal) is beneficial
18 the a.c. supply and ground cables should be at least 100 mm (4 in) from the drive and motor cable
19 sensitive signal circuits in a zone extending 0.3 m (12 in) all around the drive should be avoided
20 unshielded wiring to optional braking resistor(s) may be used, provided the resistor is either in the same
enclosure as the drive or the wiring does not run external to the enclosure. A minimum spacing of 0.3 m
(12 in) from signal wiring and the supply-side wiring of the RFI filters should be ensured
21 if the control circuit 0 V is to be grounded, this should be done at the host controller (e.g. PLC) and not at the drive
to avoid injecting noise currents into the 0 V circuit

Figure 6.15 Precautions f o r p r e v e n t i n g EMC p r o b l e m s

 Chapter 6.3 153

Wiring Precautions to Prevent EMC: EN50082-2 and EN61800-3 for im-

munity EN50081-2 and EN61800-3
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Issues
for emissions using the optional EMC
Because modem inverter drives run at significant switching filter where required
frequencies, precautions need to be taken to prevent inter-
ference between the drives and other equipment connected
UNIDRIVEVTC
to the same power supply. Figure 6.15 shows the precautions
that should be taken to prevent electromagnetic compat- Unidrive VTC is an open-loop inverter designed specifically
ibility problems. for the fan/pump applications market, with a tailored quad-
ratic (square-law) volts to frequency curve. Its general
OPEN-LOOP INVERTERS appearance and mode of operation are very similar to those
of the Commander GP.
An open-loop inverter is characterised by the lack of any Unidrive VTC covers the range 0.75 up to l l 0 k W (1 to
form of actual/measured velocity feedback. Without feed- 125 HP). At higher powers up to 1 MW, standard Unidrive
back, precise speed control on an induction motor is difficult can be applied.
due to the inherent slip of the motor.

Most commercially available open-loop inverters use a

Features and Options
common design strategy in respect of the power conversion The Commander SE and the Unidrive VTC incorporate the
circuit, but there are many variants of control strategy. following features:
Control Techniques' open-loop drives use an open-loop
vector control strategy, which maintains almost constant • fully compliant with EU EMC regulations
flux in the motor by dynamically adjusting the motor voltage • optional external EMC filter
according to the load on the motor. • plug-in control signal connectors
• full digital control
Control Techniques' open-loop inverter range includes the • programmable preset speeds
Commander SE, and the Unidrive VTC. These products • automatic resynchronisation to a spinning motor
provide a cohesive range from 0.25 kW, 220 V up to 1 MW, • coast to stop, deceleration ramp and D.C. injection
480 V. braking stopping modes
• dynamic braking
Specifications and Ratings • control terminal, keypad or serial communications control
• voltage or current speed reference signals
COMMANDERSE • selectable PWM switching frequencies
Commander SE has been designed as an easy to use (indeed, • option module for easy upload/download of parameters
• WindowsTM-based commissioning software package
SE stands for simple and easy), ultra-reliable, rugged open-
loop A.C. inverter. It covers the range 0.25 to 15 kW (0.35 to The drives also contain a more advanced set of features
20 HP). which can be used by the system designer or the more
experienced user. These include:
The design philosophy incorporates a three-level software
parameter set. The first level contains only ten parameters • speed control
which allow quick drive-to-motor set up and access to the • adjustable precision speed reference
next level. In simple applications this may be all that is • adjustable skip frequencies with three adjustable skip
required. Level two contains a further 37 parameters which bands
allow the user to configure the drive for the majority of • adjustable preset speeds
open-loop applications. Level three can only be accessed • ramps
by using the drive's serial communications port, and • preset acceleration ramps
contains a multitude of parameters which allow the drive • preset deceleration ramps
to be configured for almost any conceivable open loop • separate acceleration and deceleration ramps for each
application. preset speed
• separate acceleration and deceleration ramps for
Specification jogging
frequency accuracy: 0.01% • adjustable S ramp
resolution: 0.1 Hz • torque control
starts per hour: by using the electronic control • stopping
terminals, unlimited; by switching • adjustable D.C. injection braking current level and time
of the supply, 20 starts per hour • programming I/O
maximum (three minute intervals • fully programmable analogue and digital I/O for alter-
between starts) native functions
power-up delay: one second maximum (allow at least • motor protection
one second before monitoring the • current limiting (short-term overload)
state of the status relay contacts etc.) • motor thermistor protection (long-term overload)
switching • protection trips with trip log
frequencies: 3, 6, and 12 kHz are available • monitoring
154 A.C. DRIVES:Open-Loop Inverters

Figure 6.16 Commander SE family

Figure 6.17 Unidrive VTC family

• programmable drive status logic • auto reset

• status and diagnostic information • PID controller
• k w h meter • undedicated programmable logic
• run time log • undedicated programmable threshold comparitor
• adjustable speed sensing levels • motorised potentiometer
• running costs • second motor selection with second motor map
• auxiliary functions parameters
 Chapter 6.3 155

Access to the advanced parameters is via easy access serial (iii) Serial communications converter- the EIA RS-232
communications: hardware interface cannot be used with a two-wire
EIA RS-485 interface. Therefore, a suitable adapter
The Commander SE has an easy access serial communica-
for connection to a computer RS-232 interface port is
tions port which enables one or more drives to be used in
essential. A purpose-designed 485 to 232 converter is
systems controlled by a host unit such as a PLC (program-
available as an option that simply has a D-type
mable logic controller) or computer. The communications
connector on one end for connection to the host PC
link for the drive uses the EIA RS-485 standard for the
and an RJ45 plug on the other for quick connection to
hardware interface.
the drive. The converter is built into the lead for
The drive has a standard two-wire RS-485 half-duplex simplicity.
interface that enables all drive set up, operation and mon- (iv) SE S o f t - SE Soft is a software package designed to
itoring to be accomplished if required. Therefore, it is pos- aid set up and commissioning of Commander SE
sible to control the drive entirely by the RS-485 interface drives. It connects to the drive via the drive's two-
without the need for other control cabling. wire RS-485 link.
(v) Bipolar reference option - this is a bipolar analogue
The host controller can operate up to thirty-two EIA RS-
input card, which offers the user the possibility
485 devices with the use of one line buffer. Further buf-
of inputting a + 10 to - 10 V speed reference signal
fers will increase this number if necessary. Each transmitter/
into the drive. The option is mechanically mounted
receiver within a drive (with the internal termination and
under the drive's terminal cover and is then directly
external pull-up and pull-down resistors disconnected)
connected to the drive's control terminals.
loads the RS-485 lines by one unit load. This means that up
(vi) Profibus DP option c a r d - allows communication
to 15 drives can be connected in a single group to one line
with the Profibus DP high-speed fieldbus system.
buffer. However, with the serial addresses available,
(vii) DeviceNet option card- allows communication with
it is convenient to only have up to nine drives in a single
the DeviceNet high-speed fieldbus system.
group.
(viii) CANopen option c a r d - allows communication with
When additional line buffers are used, up to 81 drives can the CANopen high-speed fieldbus system.
be operated by the host controller. In this case the drives (ix) Interbus S option card- allows communication with
are organised in a maximum of nine groups of nine drives the Interbus S high-speed fieldbus system.
each. A particular drive or group of drives can be given (x) Cable screening- a set of cable screening brackets
commands without affecting other drives or groups of and screening clamps is available for the drive to
drives, respectively. provide a convenient way of connecting supply,
motor and control cable screens to ground.
The serial communications port of the drive is situated at the
(xi) A C input reactors - a specifically designed set of
RJ45 connector. The EIA RS-485 two-wire port is isolated
input line reactors is available allowing the drive to
from the power stage but not isolated from the other control
operate on problematic industrial supplies containing
terminals. The EIA RS-422 hardware interface is also
large amounts of disturbance, such as voltage spikes,
supported.
notching etc.
As can be seen, the flexibility contained within a modern (xii) Braking resistors - a purpose designed set of exter-
commercial drive is considerable. In addition a compre- nally mounted braking resistors is available with a
hensive range of options is available to provide more flex-
ibility to application or ease of use.

COMMANDERSE DRIVEOPTIONS

(i) QUICKEY- this is a small, plug-in, key-like device that

allows the user to extract a parameter set from one SE
drive and implant the same parameters very quickly and
efficiently into one or more SE drives. The key plugs
into a small header located under the drives terminal
cover.
(ii) Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) f i l t e r - there are
three EMC filter options available for Commander SE,
these are:

• a footprint filter that mounts under the drive and will

only increase the depth dimension of the drive and
not require additional panel space in an enclosure;
this filter can be mounted by the side of the drive if
required
• a filter as above but with low earth leakage
• a low-cost panel-mounted filter suitable for limited Figure 6.18 Commander SE together with a variety of
inverter-motor cable lengths options
156 A.C. DRIVES: O p e n - L o o p Inverters

tailor-made mounting kit, making optimum use of motor rating plate:

the drive's overall space envelope. rated motor current in amps
Unidrive VTC has a similar set of options available, where rated motor speed in min- 1
required, tailored to its specific application requirements. rated motor voltage in volts
motor power factor
Methods of Control The drive has the ability to perform a current-loop autotune,
which is parameter selectable.
The drive can be controlled by any of the following
methods: There are two levels of autotune:
1 The first level carries out tests without spinning the
• terminal mode, applying signals from electrical contacts,
motor. Stator resistance and voltage offset measurements
a controller, or PLC, to digital inputs on the drive
• keypad mode; manual operation of the keypad on the of the motor are taken.
front panel of the drive; apart from an overriding safety 2 The second level carries out the static tests and a test
switch to be connected to the control terminals, no where the motor is rotated. In addition to the above test,
external signal connections are made to the drive the total leakage inductance and the rated magnetising
• serial communications current are measured.
• using a system controller or PLC connected to the
Once these parameters have been set up the performance
drive by a two-wire RS-485 serial communications link
of the Commander SE, as can be seen in Figure 6.19, is
(can be used in conjunction with terminal or keypad
mode) extremely good.
(i) Low-speed t o r q u e - Figures 6.19 and 6.20 show a
typical torque/speed curve for a Commander SE drive
Performance of the Commander when used with a standard off-the-shelf induction
SE Open-loop Drive machine. The drive motor used was rated 2.2kW
(3 HP). As can be seen, 150 per cent motor-rated torque
The Commander SE drive uses an open-loop vector was available down at just less than 2 Hz operation.
control strategy, which maintains almost constant flux in the (ii) S t a r t i n g t o r q u e - starting torque is defined as the
motor by dynamically adjusting the motor voltage according amount of torque that can be applied to the motor shaft
to the load on the motor. This strategy does require the under test, with the drive still able to perform a motor
user to match the drive to the particular motor or type of start. The starting torque of Commander SE with a
motor being used if high performance is required. The standard induction motor equates to approximately
parameters that need setting are all available from the 170 per cent of the rated motor torque.

25
150% torque
20
zEla
~10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
speed, Hz

Figure 6.19 Commander SE low-speed torque performance (150 % full load, 2.2 kW, 3 p.h.)

16
14 100% load
12
zElo
~8
~ 6
~ 4

2
0
o i ~ 9 10
speed, Hz

Figure 6.20 Commander SE low-speed torque performance (100 % full load, 2.2 kW, 3 p.h.)
 C h a p t e r 6.3 157

(iii) Full torque speed range - the speed range is defined THE UNIVERSAL A.C. DRIVE
as the controllable speed range over which 100 per
cent motor-rated torque can be achieved. The speed The Concept of a Universal Drive
range of Commander SE is approximately 1 to 55. In
tests, a 50 Hz machine achieved speed control with As A.C. drives have developed over the past decade, there
100 per cent rated torque from 0.9 to 50 Hz. It should have been parallel advances in power-stage design and in the
be noted that the above definition of controllable control methodologies used.
speed range is not universally accepted within the Essentially, the power stage (including all the power devi-
industry so care needs to be taken when making ces, current and voltage feedback systems etc.) remains very
comparisons. similar in all A.C. drives - whether used for the open-loop
(iv) S p e e d a c c u r a c y - speed accuracy is defined as the vector control, closed-loop vector control or for the control
percentage speed error between the displayed speed of brushless A.C. servomotors. The advances in A.C. drive
and actual measured speed when controlling a machine control strategies as described in Chapter 4 have also led to
at base speed and 100 per cent load. Speed accuracy of a uniform approach which makes the implementation of
the Commander SE is + 0.6 per cent. a universal drive intuitively logical.
(v) S p e e d r e s p o n s e - the speed response is defined as
Operation of a standard drive as a regenerative converter
the ability of the drive to follow a small signal sine
is not such an obvious extension to this development.
wave applied as a speed reference. The speed response
However, reference to the control strategy described in
of Commander SE is 10 Hz, as shown in Figure 6.21.
Chapter 4 shows that this can be readily incorporated. The
The tests were performed on a 3000min -1 4 k W
Control Techniques Unidrive is therefore able to operate in
machine coupled to a two to one inertia. Above
the following modes:
10Hz the speed feedback waveform reduced in
amplitude below the - 3 dB point. (Speed feedback 1 Open-loop V/F for the control of parallel induction
was provided on the test rig by a 60V/1000min --1 motors (or other loads).
tachogenerator.) 2 Open-loop vector for the control of single induction
motors.
Typical Applications 3 Closed-loop vector for the control of single induction
motors.
• fans and pumps 4 Closed-loop servo for the control of brushless PM
• conveyors motors.
• cranes and hoists (hoisting and traverse control)
5 Regenerative operation to provide a sinusoidal A.C.
• simple winders
supply front end to an inverter system and also to
• mixers and agitators
allow power flow, both to and from the A.C. supply.
• grinders
• spinning machinery (textile industry)
• circular saws
• cutting and slicing (meat industry)
• flow control valves
• spindle control (lathes)
• simple engine test rigs

tek run" 5ks/s sample 0000 VAC

. . . . !
.... , . . . .
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, , ? . . . . ! . . . .

. . . . . .

• • ,
• .
RB freq
10.02 Hz
low signal
. . . . .
amplitude
. . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .

• . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

. . . . . .
. .

. . . . , . . . . J . . . . i . . . . i . . . . t . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i . . . . t . . . .

- 50 ms chl ," 2.24 V

1 V 50 ms

Figure 6.21 Low-speed torque capability~frequency char-

acteristic is 1.9 Hz at 150 per cent rated motor
torque and 0.9 Hz at 100 per cent rated motor
torque Figure 6.22 The Unidrive family (0.75 kW to 1MW)
158 A.C. DRIVES:The Universal A.C. Drive

Having a single product to meet the requirements of all A.C.

motor control applications offers key advantages to users in
respect of ease of use, common interfaces and programming,
single product training etc. for operating personnel, simpli-
fied/rationalised spares requirements. Considerable flex-
ibility is inherent in a product which meets such a diverse
number of requirements. Such flexibility and universality
does imply and involve some compromises. These can be
summarised as follows:
• A common product footprint where servo products tend
to a slim book form and open-loop drives tend to a shoe
box form.
• Simple general-purpose drives do not require the accu-
racy of, for example, current measurement needed for
high-performance drives. Further, the necessary flex-
ibility of a systems product does result in additional
components. These issues have some cost impact which
is significant at lower powers.
• Great efforts have been made to ensure that flexibility
and performance does not mean complexity and diffi-
culty in use. However, compared with the ten parameters
found in menu 1 of Commander SE, Unidrive is
feature rich!

Unidrive Option Modules

The operation of the drive can be easily upgraded and Figure 6.23 Unidrive small option module
adapted to different applications with the use of a number of
option modules. When an option module is plugged into the
drive, it is automatically recognised and the relevant param-
eter sets become visible.
The option modules are of two different types.

SMALL OPTION MODULES

A number of option modules are available in a small format

as follows:
• additional inputs and outputs
• a second encoder input for use for example in a digital
lock application
• alternative speed/position feedback inputs: resolver and
sine/cosine encoder
• cloning module for selecting/storing/transferring/copy-
ing up to eight full drive parameter sets

LARGEOPTION MODULES

A number of option modules are available in large format as

follows:

• standard serial communications (RS-232/RS-485)

• applications module - this provides a very powerful
parallel processing capacity, which can be programmed
in an IEC 61131-3 language; this can be considered as a
PLC within the drive and when supplemented with
directly connecting remote I/O modules provides a very
powerful tool for system designers
• fieldbus interfaces: Profibus DP, Interbus-S, DeviceNet, Figure 6.24 Unidrive large option module
CAN open, Modbus P l u s . . .
• CT Net module - CT Net is a communications module UNISOFT
for Control Techniques' own fieldbus system and allows
the drive to function as a master or a slave on the bus The Unidrive has its own, Windows T M PC-based, commis-
system. sioning and set-up software called Unisoft. The use and
 C h a p t e r 6.3 159

application of this type of software package has already been signal

described in a previous section. connector
status relay
drive healthy
MACROS
analoque
frequency/speed
The Unidrive has a set of eight built-in user set ups which are reference 1
targeted at specific applications. These allow a very fast and (remote) 0-10 V
simple method of setting up the drive for these applications.
The available macros are:
0 V common
motor thermistor
macro 1 easy mode
macro 2 motorised potentiometer (frequency/speed con-
trol by up and down contacts)
macro 3 four preset speeds (selected by digital control 0 V common
signals)
speed
macro 4 torque control
macro 5 PID (set point) control
torque
macro 6 axis limit control
macro 7 brake control up
macro 8 digital lock reset and
MOT. POT. reset
Setting up the drive in any particular macro mode not
only sets the terminals to the appropriate configuration but down
also customises the easy access menu 0 to contain the
run forward
parameters specific to this mode of operation in one
simple step. run reverse

MOT. POT. enable analogue RP

For example, on the Unidrive if the drive is required to be set
up in the motorised potentiometer mode (where two, user- •
MOT. POT.
fitted, push buttons can be used to increase or decrease the OL> external trip
CL> drive enable
speed), enabling macro 2 will automatically reconfigure the 0 v common
terminal set up to be suitable for such a use. This is shown in
Figure 6.25. Figure 6.25 Terminal configuration of drive when macro 2
(motorised potentiometer function) is enabled
As can be seen, the digital inputs are automatically config-
ured to be appropriate for taking inputs from the user-fitted
push buttons.

Open-loop Operation C~sed-loop Operation

Closed-loop control of induction motors is now sufficiently
The operation and performance of the Unidrive in open-loop
advanced so as to become increasingly used in applications
mode remains essentially similar to that of the Commander
where in the past D.C. drive + motor combinations would
SE described earlier in section 6.3. The parameter set of the
have been the natural choice. It is often said that closed-loop
Commander SE has also been harmonised with that of the
induction motor drives match the performance of a D.C.
Unidrive to a large extent minimising confusion/conflict
drive. This is not true, the A.C. drive is far superior.
within the overall family.
With the addition of a feedback device to the motor, the
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS performance of the drive + motor combination significantly
increases as compared with the open-loop drive:
The Unidrive in open loop would be preferred over the
Commander SE in applications where: • the drive can generate full torque from standstill up to the
base speed of the motor
• there is a requirement to have a common product for • the speed can be very precisely regulated due to the
different parts (open loop, closed loop and/or servo) of feedback now available
the same application • the dynamic performance is greatly improved
• the application is complex enough to require the parallel • the magnetising and torque-producing components of
processing capability available via the UD70 second the current are now more precisely controlled - accurate
processor option module torque control operation is now possible
• additional I/O capability is required • applications which require accurate positioning, now
• high-power ratings are required become possible

PERFORMANCE FEATURES OF CLOSED-LOOP OPERATION

The performance of the Unidrive in open-loop mode is The closed-loop mode of operation has various advanced
similar to that of the Commander SE. features.
160 A.C. DRIVES: The Universal A.C. Drive

(i) Autotuning PERFORMANCE

Once the motor name-plate data has been entered into the The following examples give an indication of the level of
drive, the user can enable an autotune function which mea- performance that can be obtained using Unidrive in closed-
sures some of the other key parameters of the motor, such as: loop vector mode. If the drive is set up correctly it should be
• power factor (the real value rather than the name-plate possible to obtain at least 175 per cent rated torque at
figure) standstill (assuming that the drive and motor are matched).
• machine inductance
Figure 6.26 shows the drive operating under speed control,
• the magnetic saturation characteristic of the machine
with a step of torque to 100 per cent applied and then
In addition, the drive can tune itself accurately to the slip of removed. The rotor position changes linearly (constant
the motor during normal operation. It can thus adapt itself to speed) until the torque is applied when the position changes
changes in slip owing to changes in stator resistance due to to wind up the integral term to obtain the necessary torque.
heating effects in the motor. This function is also of parti- Higher settings of the integral term reduce the step change of
cular advantage owing to the fact that in most cases the slip position. Although there is a step in the position (which
stated on the motor name plate is a batch or a design value occurs with any PI-type speed controller) the speed on and
and not one derived for that particular machine. off load is the same.

(ii) Alternative types of speed/position feedback device In Figure 6.27, the drive is operating in torque control. The
speed of rotation is defined by another motor connected to
The Unidrive can operate with a number of different types of the test motor shaft. The Unidrive is enabled, applies 100 per
feedback device in closed-loop vector mode: cent torque and then is disabled. The transient change of
position is due to the limited speed holding ability of the
• standard encoders with A, A\, B, B\ quadrature channels
drive controlling the other motor.
and Z, Z\ marker pulse (optional) outputs
• resolvers Typical applications include:
• sincos encoders of up to 1024 sine and cosine waves per
• cranes and hoists
revolution - the drive can then interpolate to 2048 parts
• lifts
of each sine wave and hence have a total resolution of up
• winders and unwinders
to 1024 × 2048 = 2 097 152 counts per revolution
• wire drawing
(iii) Application features • extruders
• plastic production
The drive has built-in capabilities for application set ups • paper-making machines
such as: • rolling mills
• metal forming
• digital lock to another motor/a master encoder
• mechanical cam replacement applications
• orientation on stop e.g. for tool changes on a machine-
• applications requiring digital slaving
tool application the motor shaft must stop in a specific
• CNC machine spindle drives
orientation
• cable laying from ships
• torque - control modes specifically suited to winder,
unwinder applications
• torque control with dancer feedback, using the built-in, Servo Operation
standalone PID control loop
The basic control algorithm used for the closed-loop vector
More advanced applications can be easily performed using operation is very similar to that used for the servo mode of
the large applications module. operation. The main differences are that the magnetising

i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , i l l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 i , i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~
i

rotor position

itorq

torque
. / / / /-

i r " r
! -_

• C H 2 14 A
CH440Nn CHPMTB500s
, , , , i , , , , | , , | , i , i | , I , , , , , i | , , , , , , , , , , , , ,"

Figure 6.26 Application and removal of 100 per cent load at 5 m i n - 1 (speed-controlled mode)
 Chapter 6.3 161

i n , | t n i n u , , , , , , | , , | , i u n n , , | | n ] | u n n , , , ,

rotor p o s i t i o n .
• i

Itorq . .I"

torque \
\
/
:
:
,
/.,
"
.'r
V
,
j .
/l/
,~, ~
•
L .

. : ~ , w , , ~ - ~ ' ~ . , ~ . ~ ~,~,~-0- "~"~. .

~ . .

- ..., J ........................ -.
- .

* .
- .

" 5 . ~ '
- C H 2 14 A
- C H 4 ~.0 N rl ~C H P M T B 5 30 s Z
!'. | | | , | , . | , , , , , , | , | n n | n | , | , , , n , | , | , , , n , , , ~

Figure 6.27 Application and removal of 100 per cent load at 5 min- 1 (torque-controlled mode)

current of a servomotor is controlled at a value of 0 and it, rotor when the drive powers up. Suitable devices are:
of course, has no slip. However, this should not affect the
bandwidth of operation. If the drive is set up correctly for • encoders with A, A\, B, B\ quadrature channels and Z, Z\
closed-loop operation i.e. it has the correct value of slip, marker pulse (optional) outputs. In addition, U, U\, V, V\
power factor and all the other motor parameters, then there and W, W\ commutation signals are also required to
should be no essential difference in performance from the indicate the segment position of the rotor magnets at
drive point of view. power up
• resolvers
The key differences between closed-loop vector and servo • sin-cos encoders of up to 1024 sine and cosine
modes of operation are: waves per revolution - the drive can then interpolate to
2048 parts of each sine wave and hence have a total
• Motor shaft performance - the most significant differ-
resolution of up to 1024 × 2048 = 2 097 152 counts per
ence occurs in this area. Servomotors are often specifi-
cally designed with low rotor inertia to facilitate very revolution
good dynamic performance.
• P o w e r d e n s i t y - for a given power rating, the physical APPLICATION FEATURES
size of an induction motor would be larger than that of a
Application set ups similar to those for the closed-loop
servomotor.
vector mode are also possible in the servo mode of opera-
• H i g h e r p o w e r r a t i n g s - for applications that need more
tion. For example:
than relatively low power ratings (a few kWs), servo-
motors are not commonly available and tend to be • digital lock to another motor/a master encoder
expensive. • orientate on stop e.g. for tool changes on a machine tool
• C o s t - for a given power rating, a servomotor would
application
tend to be more expensive than an induction machine. • torque control modes specifically suited to winder,
Note, however, for closed-loop operation an induction unwinder applications
motor would need to have a feedback device fitted and • torque control with dancer feedback, using the built-in,
this must be considered in any cost comparison. standalone PID loop
• M o t o r d e g r e e o f p r o t e c t i o n ( I P r a t i n g ) - servomotors are
generally available as standard to IP65. Induction motors
tend to be available as standard to IP54. PERFORMANCE
• O v e r l o a d r a t i n g s - servomotors are generally designed
for very short overloads. Induction motors can, in gen- The performance of a servo controller is commonly descri-
eral, handle overloads above their nominal currents, for bed in terms of bandwidth. The bandwidth of a servo speed
longer time periods. controller is important because it defines the dynamic per-
• Operation above base speed- an induction motor can formance of the controller. If it is assumed that a 10:1 band-
be operated with ease in the field-weakening region width ratio is required in a position controller with inner
i.e. up to several times above base speed. In theory, speed controller, then the speed-loop bandwidth limits the
PM servomotors can also be operated in the field- maximum bandwidth of the position controller. A very
weakening range, however it is difficult to protect good position controller has a gain of 50 and a position
against high overvoltages should control be lost above loop bandwidth of 50rads-1 (8 Hz). Therefore the speed
base speed and consequently such operation is rarely controller needs to be able to achieve a bandwidth of
considered. 500 rad s- 1 (80 Hz).

The servo mode of operation requires feedback devices The speed-loop bandwidth can be measured by using a sine
which can provide indication of the absolute position of the wave excitation signal as the input to the servo controller
162 A.C. DRIVES: The Universal A.C. Drive

and monitoring the actual response to this demand. If this TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
test is done using a benchmarked set of gains in the servo
controller, standardised Bode gain and phase plots for the • robotics
servo controller can then be plotted. As described in Chapter • dynamic pick and place applications
4.1 and 4.4, the phase plot is more critical and represents the • axes drives in all types of CNC machine
impact of the delay created by the speed controller which has • woodworking machines
the effect of: • embroidery machines
• cut to length lines
limiting the possible bandwidth of an outer controller, or
producing a delay between the required speed at any
point and the actual speed at any point; a system with a Regeneration Mode
position controller with speed feed forward will follow
the profile transiently due to the speed feedforward term PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
and any lag in the speed controller results in transient
position errors (i.e. following error) The input stage of a nonregenerative A.C. drive is usually an
uncontrolled diode rectifier, therefore power cannot be fed
The speed-loop Bode plots for Unidrive, Figures 6.28 and back into the A.C. mains supply. In the case of a Unidrive
6.29, show that the bandwidth, i.e. the point at which the operating in regenerative mode, the IGBT bridge can be used
phase lag is 60 °, is approximately 100 Hz. as a sinusoidal rectifier, which converts the A.C. supply to a

5o

o
oo
-5o

-lOO
L__

"0 -150
.=_-
t-
-200
o~
~-
Q . -250

-300

-350

-400
frequency, Hz

Figure 6.28 Bode phase plot

15.00000

10.00000

5.0O000
rn
-o

~ 0.00000 O0

ooooo
I--I-T
_,o,ooooo

- 15.00000

frequency, Hz

Figure 6.29 Bode gain plot

- 0 - 20% overshoot
 Chapter 6.3 163

controlled D.C. voltage. This D.C. voltage can then supply base speed in one direction to base speed in the other
one or more Unidrives, which control the motor/s. direction without speed ramps. Results show that the control
system is fast enough to limit the change in D.C. link voltage
An explanation of the theory behind this mode of operation
to approximately 25 V (0.03 p.u.) with very rapid changes
is given in Chapter 4.2.
(less than 5 ms) in power flow of over 60 kW. Should load
Some additional, external components are required to build changes exceed the tracking capability of the controller, or
up a Unidrive regeneration system. These are: the D.C. link power exceed the maximum A.C. power, then
• main regeneration inductors the PWM rectifier will be forced into current limit.
• start-up circuit (for a controlled charge up of the D.C. Figure 6.33 shows transient overload operation where the
bus of the regenerative system) PWM rectifier goes into current limit but the system remains
• switching frequency filter stable and line synchronisation is maintained. During the
overload the D.C. link voltage deviates by approximately
A regenerative system using the Unidrive, is typically
80 V from the set point and does not recover until the D.C.
connected as shown in Figure 6.30.
terminal power decreases. If the D.C. link power exceeds the
The main advantages for an A.C. regenerative system are: PWM rectifier capability and these conditions are sustained
then depending on the direction of power flow the D.C. link
• energy saving
voltage will either rise until an overvoltage trip occurs or the
• the input current waveform is a sinusoid
voltage collapses to the point where the antiparallel diodes in
• the input current has a near unity power factor
the PWM converter act as a simple uncontrolled diode rec-
• the output voltage for the motor can be higher than the
tifier. Loss of one supply phase or all three is detected by
available A.C. mains voltage
monitoring the D.C. link voltage, input terminal voltage and
• the regenerative unit will synchronise to any frequency
x-axis current. In the event of phase failure the converter is
between 30 and 100Hz, provided that the supply
inhibited before allowing the D.C. bus voltage to stabilise
voltage is between 380 V - lOper cent and 480 V + 10
and attempting resynchronisation.
per cent
• under conditions of A.C. mains instability, a Unidrive Synchronisation and running has been proved to be satis-
regenerative system can continue to function down to factory even with the high levels of supply distortion and
approximately 270 V A.C. supply voltage without any notching found in some industrial applications as demon-
effect on the D.C. bus voltage and hence on the operation strated in Figure 6.34. The supply notches were produced by
of the motor drives a D.C. motor drive connected directly to the PWM rectifier
the regenerative and motor drives are identical supply without line chokes or filter capacitors. Note that
although the supply voltage notching is almost 100 per cent,
PERFORMANCE and the rectifier line current slightly distorted, line syn-
chronisation is maintained.
Many sine wave regenerative drive systems have been
supplied with ratings from a few kilowatts to several
hundred kilowatts. System complexity varies from single HIGH-PERFORMANCE SERVODRIVES
motor drives to systems with many motor drives connected
to a common D.C. link and PWM rectifier. The performance of high-end servodrives is restricted by
the physical limits imposed by high-resolution position
Waveforms in Figure 6.32 show the system response to a acquisition. These limits are currently set by the use of
transient when using a 37 kW drive as a PWM rectifier to analogue (sin-cos) position feedback signals and the
supply another 37kW drive supplying an induction motor resulting feedback signal degradation resulting from typical
operated under vector control. The motor was reversed from system applications where varying cable lengths between

power flow during regenerative

operation

"neh
Y -t
•
R filter
- ~
switching ~ s t a r t - u
frequency t----~- '-t---" . . . .
U
V
unidrive
operating
unidrive
operating
in
D.C. bus open-loop ;hin
| ana I I filter I I circuitl .... in
W
regen vector
J
or servo
4 i
supply contactor
control signals drive enable
control signal

power flow during motoring

operation

Figure 6.30 A regenerative system configuration

164 A.C. DRIVES: High-Performance Servodrives

the controller and the position feedback device are a prac- and position/velocity control, local to the position feedback
tical reality. device i.e. within the motor housing. Control Techniques
has utilised this approach and combined the latest tech-
Significant advances for overcoming this limitation have nology in high-resolution position acquisition (sin-cos
been achieved by the integration of position acquisition encoders) and DSP technology to achieve a very substantial,

Figure 6.31 450 kW sine wave regenerative drive system for engine test rig

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

OA d

OV

OA
- .......................... V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "''" ....................................................... /y
I i i i i i I I I I I I I I I a i I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I i i i i i i i |

Figure 6.32 Input converter currents during high-speed motor reversal; D.C. link voltage VD.C. 180 V/div, input currents Ix
85 Aldiv, ly 85 A/div, time 200 ms/div
 Chapter 6.3 165

l i l t

=
..................,
ii i 1 ..........
0A q ~ vT','v Ivy

700 V Vo.c.

OA r ' V lV V I r .| Ivl ' v

l l I I I I l l l l I l I I l l l l

Figure 6.33 Input converter currents and D.C. link voltage during transient overload; phase current l OOA/div, D.C. link
voltage VD.C. 100 V/div, input current Ix 85 A/div, time 20 ms/div

f, r

OV, OA

I , I
"~",

Figure 6.34 Effect of supply voltage disturbances on input converter line current

application-invariant increase in position feedback resolu- performance servo which is easier to use and carries no cost
tion and the capability for active torque compensation. This penalty. The combination of high-resolution feedback
new concept in servo system design eliminates the need to techniques and new drive topology provides a quantum
transport noise-sensitive analogue feedback signals by pro- improvement in servo performance.
viding a dedicated high-speed two-wire data link, thereby
Typical position/speed feedback devices used in today's
drastically reducing the number of signals. It should be noted
servodrives tend to use either resolver or digital incremental
that digital encoder signals are subject to edge degradation,
encoder technology. The former of these has limited
and noise pick up when transmitted via cable in an industrial
accuracy and linearity due to distortion introduced by the
environment. Indeed, encoder cable hygiene, made the more
magnetic elements used in resolvers. The signal-processing
problematic by the existence of typically 10 to 14 wires per
mechanisms which typically comprise a resolver-to-digital
encoder, is the primary cause of site problems with con-
converter also set a limit on resolution and dynamic accu-
ventional servodrives. The reduction of the wires per enco-
racy leading to an overall system performance which,
der to four (data link plus power supply) is in itself a very
although satisfactory for many applications, falls short
significant practical benefit of the system.
of that required in many others. On the other hand, there is
The simplified structure reduces the maintenance and com- a practical limit on the number of lines per turn for
missioning cost drastically. In other words, it is a higher incrementa encoders, a limit which does not allow the
166 A.C. DRIVES: High-Performance Servodrives

Figure 6.35 M'Ax Servodrive family

a M'Ax, standalone servodrive and Unimotor SL
b MultiAx, three drives in one package for direct SLM interface to motion controllers

resolutions required by today's high-end servos to be • internal, basic, programmable logic controller
achieved. Interpolation techniques can be used to improve • 24 V auxiliary back-up supply
the effective resolution, but under dynamic operating con-
ditions interpolation is another source of distortion.
Performance
The sin-cos encoder provides high-resolution analogue
position information which has a greatly reduced level of Servodrives fall into two main categories of application,
linearity distortion. The availability of small outline signal- each with somewhat different requirements. First, point-to-
processing components provides the opportunity to process point positioning where what is important is the speed of
the information at source, i.e. directly behind the motor- getting from point A to point B. In such cases it is the
mounted encoder. This eliminates the opportunity for noise accuracy of positioning and the dynamic performance that is
injection. key. In the second category where the precision of the
trajectory of the motion is important, there is an additional
This philosophy of the speed loop motor or SLM Techno-
requirement for smooth and controlled motion between
logyT M of servo control has been incorporated into Control
points. For example, the quality of typical machining,
Techniques' M'Ax drives which include:
robotics and high-performance process applications depends
• M'Ax - a standalone single-axis drive which offers the largely on the smooth running of the motor and on a stable,
high performance and ease of use and commissioning dynamic response during system disturbances.
offered by the SLM Technology in a very compact In the following subsections we put some typical figures on
package. these subjective statements.
• MultiAx - a drive which has three power stages built in,
which in conjunction with an SLM-equipped controller
POSITIONING ACCURACY
forms a very compact and cost competitive three axes
servo system. The positioning accuracy, and as important the repeatability
of positioning, is affected by a number of issues, but
The M'Ax drive is described in detail in the following
primarily the mechanics of the machine and the position
sections.
feedback device. Figure 6.36 shows a M'Ax servo-
The following features are key in considering the M'Ax drive performing speed reversals between - 6 0 0 0 and
product: + 6000 min-1. During the period of steady speed the error
between demanded position and actual was measured. To
• 200 per cent overload rating give a practical feel to the data, it is convenient to consider
• internal braking resistor such measures when reflected into a linear movement with
• high-precision synchronisation of axis position within typically one revolution being equivalent to 10 mm of travel.
50ns On that basis, the measured position error at 6000 min- 1 was
• high-precision synchronisation of speed loop within < 1 ~tm. During the deceleration/acceleration the maximum
50ns position error was <2 mm which is impressive when the
• eight million counts per revolution position resolution time base of the oscillogram reveals that the 12 000min-1
• high-speed drive status line responding within 1 las speed change is achieved in 120ms. It is even more
• automatic recognition of the motor (motor data is held in impressive when it is revealed that the load inertia was
the encoder EEPROM and read by the M'Ax at power up) seventy-eight times the motor inertia.
 Chapter 6.3 167

speed

nk __j J i
MSPEE0 ...."............. I

iz l
.,ONE j ..........................................
!
~i~i~:~:ii~:~;~i;i~s~:iis~iii)~i~:ii;i~i~;F#;ii~:~i~F;::iis:::
ii~s:~s;;:i;;;~ili::sii:;ii::si@:;i::::iii::s
@:~i::il!::iii::ii
!~
.......... Nsi
I::: i

NiON~ ~i"ii. "

iii
- +.~r~..---f: ..........................................

...............

......... i . ~, 'i
:~. . . . . . 1 . I ..................

i i

Figure 6.36 Rapid speed reversal (+6000 min- 1 in 120 ms) with M'Ax; second trace is following error

FOLLOWING ERROR figure shows that at a feed rate of 1 m min- 1 the maximum
deviation from the ideal is within 8.1 pm. Tests at feed rates
The following error in a control system is in effect the lag in of 3 m min- 1 and 5 m min- 1 gave a maximum deviation
the system, the ability of a drive system to follow a demand from the ideal within 9.3 lam and 10.4 pm, respectively. It is
signal without delay/lag. The key to minimising following also interesting to note that for the out-of-box performance,
error is to have the ability to operate with the highest pos- i.e. when the user has not made any adjustments to the drive
sible gains in the control loops while retaining stability. The parameters, the maximum deviation from the ideal was
SLM system provides the opportunity to operate with gains within 11.6 pm at 3 m m i n - 1.
up to five times higher than conventional technology, pri-
marily as a result of the high-quality position information
DYNAMIC RESPONSE
upon which its control is based. The above data is for
position accuracy during the rapid deceleration/acceleration What is important to the user is the ability of a drive to
(~ 175 rad s-2).
withstand and recover from an external disturbance, or
change in demand - how big the deviation from the ideal
SMOOTH RUNNING
trajectory is, how quickly it recovers back onto the trajectory
Here we are talking about the speed variation during a and the area described by these actions. This is often referred
revolution of the motor. In a positioning servodrive system to as the stiffness of the system.
this is not critical but in an application requiring contouring Unfortunately drives engineers, or more specifically control
or smooth motion a variation of <<0.1% is required. engineers, complicate life by talking about the bandwidth of
In machine tool applications, the smoothness of a drive the drive. The bandwidth is the ability of the drive to respond
system is measured by performing a ballbar test. This type of in a controlled/stable manner to a small signal reference or
test is undertaken by feeding two axis drives with a sine demand signal. Often the torque bandwidth is discussed and
wave and cosine wave position reference, respectively. often engineers can end up 'comparing apples with oranges'.
When the two drives are controlling the linear quadrature As discussed in Chapter 4, what is critical in a digital system
axes of an X - Y table then the resulting motion should be a is the closed-loop phase delay of the torque/current con-
perfect circle. The ballbar test measures the deviation from troller rather than the closed-loop gain ( - 3 dB point) which
the ideal. The deviation is not purely attributable to may be used in classical stability theory. There can be a
drive performance as mechanical and motion controller factor of more than 2:1 between these measures because of
imperfections impact also, however it is a good basis for the digital nature of the control loops (note that even an
comparison. analogue drive with a digital PWM generator should be
measured in this way). A servodrive with a torque bandwidth
Figure 6.37 shows the results of a ballbar test carried out on of 1000 a z is more than adequate for most applications. It
a machining centre equipped with M'Ax servodrives. The is interesting to note that the resonant frequency for
168 A.C. DRIVES: H i g h - P e r f o r m a n c e Servodrives

high-quality encoder mounting systems is of the order of compensation data are stored in the motor. Once the
1.5... 2 kHz and this needs to be well away from the torque motor is connected to the drive the drive default set up is
loop bandwidth of the drive if interesting performance is to automatically updated, and for up to 80 per cent of
be avoided. In terms of the speed loop bandwidth this is a applications no further tuning is necessary.
factor of ten below the torque loop and the position loop b Minimum connections/cabling.
bandwidth is typically a factor of four below that of the c SLM performance - positioning accuracy, smooth rota-
speed loop. tion, dynamic performance.
d Matched motor range.
Summary of Practical Advantages of e SLM flexibility - ability to down load parameter chan-
SLM Technology ges or complete control-loop structure changes.
f Lower installation costs.
Ease of set-up - M'Ax offers easy start technology g Higher system reliability.
where the motor parameters and encoder accuracy error h Direct connection to industrial 380-480 V supply.

Figure 6.37 Ballbar test results for machining centre equipped with M'Ax servodrives

21 -Jun-00 HARDCOPY
15:52:55
i-output to m
~?M1 . . . . . . ~rinter
20 ms
2.00 V |GPIB
|RS232
I Centronics
Page feed--
ffl
2r protocol -"1
"|HP 7470 /
220 ms |HP 7550 |
2.00 V ITIFF /

/ BMP /
....... p ...... .,. ...... ,, . . . . . . . , ....... , ....... , ....... , . ~ .

without torque
compensation
20 ms BWL T
1 .1 V D.C. X0
100 kS/s
2 .2 V D.C. ,oX _.j-- 1 HFREJ 1.34 V
n STOPPED

Figure 6.38 Position deviation of a M'Ax drive system subject to 100 per cent load impact; effect with and without torque
compensation is shown, vertical scale is 3.2 ° per division position error
 Chapter 6.4 169

an. ref +
mmm power
supply-----'~
power 1 H
I m°t°r 1 I
enable + gnd.~ power lencoder I
~k
motor
4 wires
v

4 wires Drivelink 1 }'1 SLM I

M'Ax
drive
power 2 H
power supply
4 wires Drivelink
encoder

SLM module
multiAx
drive
-~1motor
2I
.A

4 wires lencoerI
Drivelink 2 *1 SLM I
Figure 6.39 Single-axis (analogue reference); total cables:
8 power + 8 control (c. f. traditional 8 power + power 3 [-'[
30 control) ~lm°t°r3 I
i Up to 16-bit analogue reference with very good linearity Drivelink 3 I enc°der ]
and low zero position offset and deadband (< 150 ItV). V"qL
*1 SLM I
j Touch trigger response within 50 Its. 4 wire
~

4 wire
V

k All-pluggable terminals.
l Control terminals standard D type. Figure 6.40 Three-axis (digital SLM reference); total
m Comprehensive cable management system for power and cables: 16 power + 24 control (c.f. traditional
motor cables ensuring good earth bonding. 24 power + 90 control)
n Excellent EMC characteristics, e.g. immunity tested to:
+ 4 kV ESD contact • axes drives in all types of CNC machine
+ 8 kV ESD discharge • woodworking machines
+ 5 kV fast transient burst (5 ns rise time) • embroidery machines
+ 10 V 80 per cent AM RF immunity. • cut-to-length lines
o Very compact size in book format.
p Matched to motion controller, CNC and motor products.

Applications
• robotics
• dynamic pick and place applications

4 SOFT-START A.C. MOTOR CONTROL

CONVENTIONAL STARTING motor are also high and the starting duty needs to be care-
fully controlled and limited.
In terms of energy efficiency, standard A.C. induction
motors are good at full speed and full load, but at standstill Direct-On-Line Starting (DOL)
they offer low impedance to the supply and thus, at full
voltage, draw a high current. Starting current remains sub- Connecting the windings directly to the supply voltage
stantially constant at this high level, falling only slightly, when the motor is at standstill means that the flow of cur-
until the motor is close to full speed. Power consumption rent is only limited by the system impedance. Starting
during starting is therefore high. current is usually of the order of five or six times the rated
full-load current of the motor, Figure 6.41a, and may
The condition is made worse by power factor. At the instant be more for larger machines. Inevitably there is a sudden
of starting, power factor is very low, usually less than 0.2, high and undesirable surge of torque at the instant of
and rises slowly in relation to speed. This can incur a high
switching on.
energy cost, as the low power-factor tariff on industrial
applications is high.
Star-Delta Starting
Another consequence of the excessive current is the sudden
application of torque to the driven load, imposing undesir- To limit the effect of full-line voltage at standstill, the
able stresses on the motor and driven load. The losses in the windings are initially connected to the supply in a star
170 SOFT-START A.C. MOTOR CONTROL: C o n v e n t i o n a l S t a r t i n g

600 configuration; after a delay they are open circuited and

reconnected in a delta configuration. Using this method the
500 starting current is typically limited to twice the full load
current. However, at the moment of reconnection in delta, a
400
current surge occurs which may be as high as twenty times
the motor full-load current, Figure 6.42.
(5 300
_.1
1.1..

2O0
This peak is due to the residual back e.m.f, of the windings
and its phase relationship to the supply voltage at the instant
100 of reconnection. The duration of the peak is short, but the
l
I amplitude may be very high causing an impact torque in
I
the mechanical system and a transient reduction of supply
20 40 60 80 100 voltage.
n,%

300

Auto-Transformer Starting
200
Starting voltage can be controlled by using an auto-trans-
former and a series of tappings chosen to raise the voltage in
100 stages during the run-up period. However, although starting
current, at standstill, can be limited to the value of full-load
current, the method still suffers from the disadvantage that
r~ the windings are open circuited several times during the run
20 40 60 80 100 up, each time with a potentially high current and torque
n,% peak during reconnection, Figure 6.43.
Figure 6.41 Typical direct-on-line (DOL) starting
characteristics
a current Disadvantages of Conventional Starting
b torque
There are two main disadvantages with the above-mentioned
forms of motor starting; first, the current peaks, particularly
600 .... & up to
those associated with star-delta and auto-transformer start-
"""" "- I 20x FLC ing. When these current peaks occur, the supply system
500 ~"~
should be able to withstand them without any noticeable
decrease in voltage. It is because of this that many electricity
400 supply authorities limit DOL-started motors to a maximum
of around 5.5 kW.
300
I!
In island installations where power is generated on site and
200 there is no connection to a main power supply (a typical
example being an offshore or desert-location oil or gas
100 ~ production installation) voltage regulation may be a serious
I problem. Such sites are extensively equipped with induction
I
0 , ,
motors and starting of the very big motors has to be coor-
a
20 40 60 80 100 dinated with generator availability. This is not usually a
n,% problem, given that procedures are effective and observed.
300 The diverse duty cycles of the many medium-sized and
/
i /
smaller motors may, however, be capable of causing
unpredictable system voltage regulation, all such motors
commonly being DOL started.
200
The second problem is that of mechanical shock due to the
sudden torque stresses, caused by the current surges, which
100 have to be absorbed by gearboxes, belts, drive shafts and
driven equipment. Such stresses inevitably tend to reduce
the serviceable life of these components.

20 40 60 80 100 Difficulties can also be experienced with particular types of

n, % load such as cranes, where load oscillation can be started by
the initial shock. Similarly, shock waves can be transmitted
Figure 6.42 Star-delta starting along hydraulic pipework, weakening joints in pumping
a current systems. In conveyor systems, loads may be displaced or
b torque damaged on start up. What is needed, therefore, is a system
 Chapter 6.4 171

600
" " " " " " ""' ~ "~' ~ ~ ~ % % % %
O ,,.

500
%

400 0
%%
04
d 300
._J
LI- 0
200

A A A A

100

0 I
] I I i v
] control

20 40 60 80 100 Figure 6.44 Electronic soft start

n,%

300 / %
/ %
I \

200 - ~ . . . . ...--~'~
\
04 \
\
© G2 1 O
l
100 ._.r
phase
angle
u i i i v
R
20 40 60 80 100 LI-
n,%

Figure 6.43 Autotransformer starting ,,,'" "[N~

a current
b torque
GC

that increases the voltage smoothly, so eliminating transient

current and torque surges.

ELECTRONIC SOFT START b

A commercial soft start consists of a power circuit con-

taining six thyristors arranged in antiparallel pairs, and a
"11 u
control circuit which sequences the firing of these thyristors,
Figure 6.44. The basic principle of operation is as follows.
When power is applied to the thyristor bridge and a run t s S S ~

command is given to the control circuit, the gate-pulse phase

angle to each of the thyristors is gradually reduced at a rate
set by the ramp time of the control circuit. The gate pulses
allow the thyristors to conduct, and the decreasing phase Figure 6.45 Output voltage control
angle smoothly increases the voltage to the motor windings a 25 per cent
as shown for a single phase in Figure 6.45. Because the b 50 per cent
voltage across the motor windings ramps up smoothly there c 75 per cent
are no current transients or torque surges.

• fans
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS • circular saws
• stamping and cutting presses
• mixers • grinders
• screw and piston compressors • gyrating crushers
• centrifugal and piston pumps • conveyors
172 APPLICATION BOARDS AND SOFTWARE: A p p l i c a t i o n s M o d u l e

5 APPLICATION BOARDS A N D SOFTWARE

APPLICATIONS MODULE performance and cost. It is often possible to undertake entire

machine control using this distributed architecture, elim-
Modern variable-speed drives commonly have the facility inating local PLCs.
for the addition of option boards to bring extra functionality
The Unidrive applications module is centred around an Intel
to the product. Many of these options have been described 960, 32-bit RISC processor. There is 96 kB of flash memory
earlier in association with the particular products. One,
available for user programs, and 8kB of user RAM.
however, deserves specific attention, as it not only has the
The interface with the drive main processor is via dual-
power to transform the functionality of the drive product
port RAM providing bidirectional communications. The
itself, but opens up the possibility of transforming the
applications module can therefore not only read any of the
approach to designing an entire system. Control Techniques
drive's parameters, but can also write to those parameters
pioneered the use of applications boards in the 1980s allowing the set up/dynamics of the drive to be changed
allowing the user to program their own functions within the on the fly.
drive itself and with access to all drive parameters and inputs
and outputs. The power and capability has advanced over the As well as fieldbus interfaces, the unit has a fully config-
years and today users have the opportunity to realise com- urable RS-485 port supporting:
plex algorithms using industry standard programming lan-
• ANSI protocol as a slave or master controller, in two-
guages. Libraries of standard functions and applications are
wire or four-wire mode at data rates from 300 bits/s to
available, and connectivity to other field devices and factory
19 200 bits/s
automation systems has been enhanced by the development
• MODBUS protocol (ASCII and RTU modes) as a slave
of fieldbus systems.
only, at the above data rates
Local intelligence of this form makes possible the realisation • the remote input-output unit high speed protocol at
of powerful and dynamic distributed control architectures. 38 400 bits/s
Fully featured motion controllers, winders, indexers and
There is single character read/write access to the RS-485
many more functions can be realised, although the key
port which allows other protocols to be simply implemented
benefit is that the power may be placed in the hands of
using the easy to use Control Techniques IEC 61131-3
the user. Drives engineers may think that they know the
ladder/function block programming tool. The tool is called
requirements of all applications but this is not true. The
SYPT (system programming tool), Figure 6.46.
OEM or end user is the person who understands the ap-
plication best, and is being provided with the tools to realise The external input-output unit, Figure 6.47, with modular
the optimum control strategy - optimum in terms of control analogue inputs, analogue outputs, digital inputs, digital

.............. ii

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Alarm%

Figure 6.46 SYPTprogramming tool

 Chapter 6.5 173

clutch-brake-based system. Eliminates overfilling to

meet minimum weight requirements.
• Gap control - tail to head spacing, maintaining a con-
stant gap between items on a conveyor regardless of
product length. Photocells trigger monitoring of encoder
input for product position, length and height. The
applications module performs all the calculations
required to deliver the product to the merge conveyor at
the user-defined parameters. R e s u l t - easy configuration
and control of product tail to head or head to head spa-
cing onto a merge conveyor.
• Rotary cut o f f - to cut material to user-specified length
and maintain cut on the registration marks. The appli-
cations module monitors the encoder position and pro-
duct registration sensor to ensure that the product is cut
in the correct position. Any changes to the drive para-
Figure 6.47 Remote input-output module meters can be made on the fly. Result - a synchronised
system providing fast and accurate cut lengths exactly
placed on the registration marks.
• Positioning - proximity switches are placed at the
outputs etc. provides the system builder with a highly
desired position. The drive is configured to stop at an
efficient interface.
exact and consistent deceleration rate. Result - fast and
An RS-232 port is provided for programming and debugging accurate positioning of work piece with system cost
programs using the SYPT programming tool. minimisation.

High-speed, 345 ps or 460 ItS read/write access to the speed More complex systems can be realised. Some further
and torque reference within the drive allows highly dynamic examples are given in Chapter 12.
control algorithms to be realised. Further, an internal single-
axis position controller is included which can be synchro-
nised to the speed or encoder tasks. Full marker pulse SOFTWARE COMMISSIONING TOOLS
and freeze support is implemented. Position control,
speed control, digital lock and CAM profiling are all As more and more capability is embedded into variable-
supported. speed drive products, it becomes necessary to provide soft-
ware tools to allow the power to be utilised by users and not
400 internal signed 32-bit registers are available for use with
the SYPT programme, of which 200 are nonvolatile. only the drives engineers.
Control Techniques has developed a range of software tools
Typical applications realised on an applications module
for each range of digital drive products called Drivesoft.
include:
These software packages are again all very similar, but are
• High-speed label printing (digital lock) - the applications
tailored to each individual drive's needs. Drivesoft is a
module performs a complex CAM-type profile to ensure
collection of WindowsXM-based set-up programs which
the placing arm and product are always at the same
allow the complete control and display of all parameters
speed. The applications module compensates for small
within a Control Techniques drive.
product registration shifts by using a product sensor on
the master axis. R e s u l t - increased accuracy because
placement follows product regardless of conveyor speed. Communications Modes
• Constant web speed unwind control with tension input -
Drivesoft operates in two basic communication modes:
the applications module controls the web speed and
position based upon an encoder signal input. As the online and offiine.
diameter of the take-up roll increases, the drive slows the In online mode the PC is connected via a serial cable to the
speed of the motor. R e s u l t - precise speed regulation serial port of the drive. Data from the drive may then be
and the exact amount of material is wound onto the take displayed, parameters written or read. All read/write para-
up roll. meters are available for alteration.
• Flying cut off, inline - when the correct product length
In offiine mode Drivesoft requires no connection to the
passes, the cut bar is accelerated to match the speed of
drive. Each parameter may be displayed and changed.
the product. When speed is matched, an output is acti-
vated sending the cutter head down. The operator is able
to set the length using a Control Techniques CTIU Drive Set-up Wizard
operator interface. Result - easy data entry with fast and
A drive set-up wizard guides the novice user in entering
accurate cut cycles.
motor and application data.
• Auger filler for dry material - the drive indexes exact
revolutions for specific volume. The operator only needs Help is provided for each step in the set-up wizard and, after
to enter user units into the Control Techniques CTIU the data is downloaded to the drive, a quick motor test can be
operator interface. Result - increased accuracy over a performed.
174 APPLICATION BOARDSAND SOFTWARE:Software Commissioning Tools

Commissioning Screen start, stop, reverse, jog, reset and speed reference. The status
of the inputs and motor parameters is displayed on panel
All operations within the commissioning screen are under- meters for quick reference.
taken in the offline mode. To read the current status of a
drive a read operation is required; to make any changes take Parameter List
effect within the drive a program operation has to be
undertaken. The parameter list allows the displaying of the complete list
of parameters available within the drive.
The commissioning screen enables the simplistic setting of
ramp data, for instance maximum and minimum operational These tools make it possible for the nonspecialist to get the
frequencies, acceleration and deceleration rates together most out of even the most powerful drive. They also provide
with autotuning. software management tools for version control etc.

Monitoring Screen
The monitoring screen allows control of the drive using
computer control via serial communications. Controls are