Chapter I

Spain/New world
- Columbus’ success prompts Spain to put more resources into maritime exploration. They
begin working to surpass Portugal as the largest navel force.
- Spanish explorer, Vasco de Balboa becomes the first European explorer to view the
pacific ocean, after crossing Panama.
- A Portuguese explorer employed by Spain, Ferdinand Magellan discovered a strait
allowing passage to the Pacific Ocean. During his journey he died fighting natives, but
his crew carried on, becoming the first to circumnavigate the globe.
- Spain claimed the entire new world, barring one piece of land that was granted to
Portugal by the Papacy.
- Spanish explorer, Hernan Cortes leads an expedition to defeat the Aztecs and take hold
of Mexico following an unsuccessful stint as a government official.
- During this military campaign, the Spainiards unknowingly unleashed Smallpox on the
Aztec people, giving Cortes an opportunity to capitalize on the devastation.
- Throught the Age of Exploration, Catholic missionaries accompanied most expeditions to
spread their religion to natives of the new world.
- The Spanish fort in St. Augustine was the first European settlement in what would
become the US.
- 30 years later, Don Juan de Onate traveled from Mexico with 500 men to colonize what
is now New Mexico.
- native Pueblos resented the Spanish colonizers, but relations improved as time passed.
However, the Pueblos eventually revolted due to the harsh treatment from Onate. The
Spaniards would return 12 years later to take back their land. After retaking the territory,
there was a greater effort to assimilate the natives and they were given more rights
which ensured future stability.
- By the end of the 1600s, Spain had managed to become one of the largest empires in
human history. It included large portions of North and South America, along with the
Carribean.
- One key difference between British and Spanish colonies in the New World was
authority. The Spanish crown was much more efficienct when exercising its power,
allowing it to maintain control, efficiently harvest resources, and profit for a longer period
of time. In some ways, Spanish Royalty hurt itself by imposing so many restrictions it cut
profit and development of colonies
- The decision made by the Spainish government to have a small ruling class of a culture
foreign to the colonies created a sense of resentment which led to decreased stability. In
contrast, Britain attempted to create a new European society within the colonies which in
theory would promote unity. Both philosophies ultimately proved unsuccessful as both
mother countries dealt with revolts.
- After the discovery of the vast untapped riches of the New World, many cultural and
material exchanges took place between European and natives cultures. One of the most
impactful being the exchange of disease between Natives and Europeans. This lead to
some entire native populations being wiped out entirely. Despite this, a staggering
portion of native deaths came as a result of the ruthless policies implemented by
 conquistadors meant to kill entire groups of natives. Another exchange was the new
crops and agricultural techniques brought to Europe by Columbus.
- A racial heirarchy was used to determined the statuse of individuals within Spain’s vast
colonies. This system had loopholes and inconsistencies did not take into account the
many complexities associated with the topic. Eventually, an abundance of wealth and
influence allowed people to define their own place within the racial hierarchy reguardless
of their own ethnic background. People at the bottom of this heirarchy were subject to
the grueling slave labor system that had become popular in the Americas. While the
demand for slave labor only grew, the population of natives decreased at a rapid rate.
- This unmet demand led to increased interest in slaves from Africa. A large number of
slaves were taken from the sub saharan region known as Guinea. Three famous sub
saharan civilizations of the time were Benin, the Congo, and Songhay.
- In Native American and African cultures, heredity was traced through mothers rather
than fathers, opposed to the patrilinial European society.
- As demand for sugarcane increased in the sixteenth century, the slave trade started
become a popular and lucrative industry. African kingdoms begin waging war with one
another to sell prisoners of the losing side to Europeans.
- In 1497, Genova native John Cabot ventured into the northeastern region of North
America on an expedition funded by King Henry VII. This was the first British expedition
to the New World, and there wasn’t any substantial colonial progress for another
hundred years.
English/Dutch history; Northeast
- French theologian, John Calvin was one of the figures leading the reformation alongside
Luther. He believed in the idea that select people were granted salvation before birth,
and that human institutions had nothing to do with one’s placement after death. This was
known as the Doctrine of Predestination.
- The English Reformation, not to be confused with the protestant reformation, was a
political dispute between the King of England and the pope. The dispute started when
the Pope refused to allow King Henry VIII to divorce his wife, prompting Henry to create
various religious doctrine that contradicted the Catholic Church.
- The newly established Church of England gave British Royalty more power, and allowing
them to persue poltical objectives freely without interference from the Catholic Church.
These new arbitrary policies upset many British Catholics, as they were clearly created
due to a desire for more power.
- The protestants that opposed these changes in favor of traditional policies became know
as puratins due to their desire to purify the Church of Britain. In response, Britain
outlawed unauthorized religious congregations and made it required to attend state
sponsored churches as well as financially support them which made many radical
Puritains speak out against the government. At this time, James I was crowned, and he
quickly implemented the idea of divine rights. He believed that he was ordained by god
to rule, and he felt that he had no obligation to compromise with enemies.
- Prior to Britians colonization of the Americas, the Kingdom had claimed Ireland, and had
done nothing to enforce their claim until the sixteenth century. In response to the influx of
English colonists taking land for their settlements, the Gaelic people put up a vicious
 fight. The natives of Ireland were criticised by the English for living barbaric lifestyles and
acting like savages. Their only similarity was their loyalty to the Catholic Church.
- Sir Humphrey Gilbert served as a governor of one such settlement for a time. He put
down many rebellions throughout his time as governor with the use of various ruthless
methods.
- Gilbert, Sir Richard Greenville, and Sir Walter Raleigh were just a few of the figures who
would use the lessons learned dealing with Irish natives on Native Americans.
- Over time, the British would begin transplanting their culture into Ireland. This was
known as The Plantation Model.
- Despite having less colonists than Spain and Britain, France had amassed great
influence due to their strong relations with the natives. One of the driving forces of the
French colonial economy were coureurs de bois, traders who were not afraid to venture
far into the wilderness for exotic goods. This industry also improved relations between
the French and natives as it promoted partnerships between the two groups.
- Henry Hudson was a famous explorer employed by the British, who went on an
expedition up the river that would later bear his name. Following his expedition, the
Dutch establish New Amsterdam, a colony on the island of Manhattan.
- As the British government grew bolder, they began challenging Spainish navel
dominance. Sir Francis drake became widely known for disrupting the Spanish economy
by destroying their merchant ships in the Atlanic, greatly Angering Spanish royalty. Such
acts prompted King Phillip II to assemble one of the greatest navel forces in history to
cross the English Channel and invade Britain. This plan fell to peices when the vastly
inferior British fleet destroyed the entire Spanish navy, giving them full control over the
Atlantic.
- Sir Walter Raleigh made multiple attempts to create a successful colony at Roanoke,
but due to his ruthless demeaner, it is believed that the entire colony was murdered by
natives while community leaders were on a trip to Britain for supplies.
Chapter 2

Anne Hutchinson: Hutchinson was a wealthy Boston woman who claimed to have the power to
tell which clergy members were worthy of holding authority over religious congregations. She
developed a large following of women, devout religious followers, and opponents of the
government. She was banished for ousting government members from their positions and
influencing elections.
Antinomianism: Based on the Greek word meaning “hostile to the law”, the name was given to
Hutchinson’s teachings by her critics due to its aggressive nature towards the government.
Antinominalism would heavily impact religious and government assemblies until Hutchinson was
banished.
Bacon’s Rebellion: Nathanial Bacon acquired land and a seat on the Governor’s council. He
was excluded from the Governor’s inner circle, and a trade deal was created with the natives.
After the government failed to protect the settlements from raids carried out by the natives,
Bacon created a militia to defeat the natives and remove Governor Berkeley from power. This
was the first armed rebellion in what would become the United States.
De La Warr: Thomas West, De La War, was the First governor of Jamestown. He became
infamous for his very bad governance and was succeeded by Thomas Dale and Thomas Gates.
Dale discovered that without personal incentives to be productive, people would resent the
government and evade work despite the consequences which drives him to give more rights to
productive individuals. This concept quickly caught on in the governance of the colonies.
Dominion of New England: The Dominion of New England was a government made by James
II to decrease the autonomy of northeastern colonies. Assemblies within the Dominion were
outlawed and Edmund Andros was named the governor of the Dominion. The Dominion
collapsed after the fall of James II. No effort was made to stop the rebellion.
George and Cecilius Calvert: George Calvert was a highly successful businessman who
converted to catholicism. He was named the first Lord Baltimore after creating Maryland.
George had a vision to make Maryland a haven for Catholics, with a variety of lucrative
business opportunities. His son, Cecilius received a charter in 1632 providing claim to an
exceptional amount of authority and land. The story of the Calvert land is important to consider
because they introduced religious toleration as Catholics quickly became the minority religion.
Headright: The Headright System was a grant system used by the Virginia Co. to encourage
growth in Jamestown. The land was given in increments of 50 acres to people who moved to
the colony, paid for other people who couldn’t afford to travel to the colony, or brought family
over. This sparked a wave of immigration, as colonists could now easily start businesses to
support their families.
John Smith: John Smith was a British world traveler who brought order and stability to
Jamestown, and was able to establish relations with and learn from the natives. Without his
help, it is unlikely that Jamestown would have survived.
Middle Ground: North America was a middle ground for many cultures and ideas. Europeans
exchanged many ideas and inventions with the natives, but European cultures such as British,
French, Spanish, and Dutch collided as well. This is likely part of the reason why the US is
known as a diverse melting pot today.
Powhatan: Powhatan was the most powerful native chief in coastal Virginia. The alliance
between the major tribes in the area was named the Powhatan Confederacy in his honor. The
tribes were the Algonquins, Sioux, and Iroquois. After Powhatan started to resent Europeans,
Dale led multiple assaults on native towns and kidnapped his daughter, Pocahontas. Her
ransom was not paid, forcing her to assimilate into the foreign culture. This heavily increased
tensions between the Europeans and natives, serving as a sign of what was to come.
William Berkeley: He was appointed governor of the Virginia colony in 1642 by Charles II.
Berkeley was widely regarded as a good leader, as he was responsible for organizing
expeditions to explore Virginia, as well as suppressing native uprisings. As requirements to vote
became greater, and elections became rare, Berkeley became an autocratic ruler. William
Berkeley narrowly escaped Bacon’s rebellion, but he would eventually become known for
advocating for economic diversification.
Virginia House of Burgesses: The Virginia House of Burgesses was an assembly of delegates
from each community in the colony. This was the first elected legislature in what would become
the US.
Mayflower Compact: The Mayflower Compact was created by the Pilgrims on the Mayflower
ship in 1620. The document outlined how their new government would be structured, and how
society would be run in their new colony. It was one of the first examples of self-rule and paved
the way for democracy in America.
Navigation Acts: The Navigation Acts were a group of English laws created from 1651 on.
They were created to regulate commerce in the colonies, and they required specific colonial
goods to be exclusively transported to England on English ships. These laws created so much
tension and resentment that it’s partially responsible for the American Revolution.
Massachusetts Bay Company: The Massachusetts Bay Company was a company chartered
by the royal family in 1629. It was made with the intention the establish a Puritan colony in the
Americas. One key figure within the organization, John Winthrop obtained the charter with the
vision of a community grounded in religion and morals. This company is significant due to the
immigration it prompted.