CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Overview of Literature Review

This chapter presents a structured review of existing literature on smart transportation and

navigation technologies, with a specific emphasis on their relevance and application within

university campuses. As student populations grow and campus layouts become more complex,

there is a growing need for systems that improve mobility, reduce delays, and support

wayfinding—especially for new or unfamiliar users (Adebola et al., 2019; Adedokun et al.,

2022).

The review begins with an overview of smart transportation systems and intelligent mobility

concepts, establishing the role of digital tools and real-time data in enhancing movement and

access. It then narrows in on campus-focused implementations, such as shuttle tracking systems,

interactive campus maps, and indoor navigation aids like QR codes and BLE beacons (Nordin et

al., 2021).

Further sections highlight the core technologies that power these systems, including GPS,

OpenStreetMap, and mobile/web applications, alongside user-focused features like responsive

design, accessibility, and localization. Case studies from both international and Nigerian

universities are examined to identify successful strategies and persistent limitations.

Finally, the chapter outlines key gaps in current solutions, particularly the lack of integrated

platforms tailored to the realities of Nigerian campuses such as OOU. These findings provide the
foundation and justification for the proposed smart transport and navigation guide designed for

Olabisi Onabanjo University.

2.1 Smart Transportation and Intelligent Mobility Systems

“Smart transportation” or Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) refers to the integration of

advanced information, communication, and sensing technologies into transportation networks to

improve safety, efficiency, and sustainability. ITS is commonly defined as “the application of

advanced sensor, computer, electronics, and communication technologies, and management

strategies in an integrated manner to improve the safety and efficiency of the surface

transportation system” (Wikipedia, 2022). These systems leverage IoT and ICT to collect real-

time data (from vehicles, traffic signals, and mobile devices) and apply analytics or AI to

optimize traffic flow, reduce delays, and inform users. For example, global ITS research

encompasses vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) communications,

cloud/fog computing for rapid data processing, and integrated mobile apps for travelers (Ahmed

et al., 2023).

A key goal is to enable “smarter” use of transport networks: services that let users be better

informed, make coordinated decisions, and switch modes seamlessly (Persia et al., 2020). For

instance, interconnected systems (real-time bus/rail schedules, on-demand car- or bike-sharing,

dynamic tolling) exemplify smart mobility, promoting multimodal, low-emission travel (Persia et

al., 2020). In summary, smart mobility unites diverse modes and data sources (GPS, sensors,

apps) so that citizens move in a more sustainable, safe, and efficient way (Ahmed et al., 2023).

Advanced technologies play central roles. Modern ITS often include:

 i. Sensors and IoT devices (camera, radar, Bluetooth, GPS) to detect vehicles and

pedestrians in real time.

ii. Communication networks (cellular, dedicated short-range communication) for data

exchange between vehicles and infrastructure.

iii. Data analytics and cloud services to predict traffic patterns and optimize controls.

iv. Mobile/web applications that deliver routing, schedule, or parking information directly to

users.

Together, these enable intelligent control (adaptive traffic lights, digital signage) and user-facing

guidance (maps, alerts). As one survey notes, ITS applications coordinate “a sizeable amount of

data gathered from different sources” to encourage efficient use of existing infrastructure and

mitigate congestion (Ahmed et al., 2023). In practice, major smart cities deploy such systems:

Arizona State University and University of Michigan, for example, use IoT for shuttle tracking,

real-time transit schedules, and smart parking to improve campus mobility and reduce search

times (Capitol Tech University, 2022).

2.2 Campus Mobility and Navigation Systems

Within large campuses, mobility needs resemble a microcosm of a smart city. Universities often

operate shuttle bus networks, bike-share or scooter services, and complex pedestrian flows

between departments and residences. Without guidance, students may face long waits or get lost

on the way to classes. Campus ITS focus on two related goals: public transit enhancement

(buses/shuttles) and wayfinding/navigation (helping people find buildings and classrooms).

2.2.1 Public Transit Enhancement

Many universities now provide GPS-based shuttle tracking. These systems equip shuttle buses

with GPS transmitters and offer mobile/web interfaces for passengers. For instance, Augusta

University’s “JagExpress” shuttles are GPS-enabled so that you can track routes and locations in

real-time through the [smartphone] PassioGO app (Augusta University, 2023). This real-time

tracking dramatically reduces uncertainty: students can plan arrival times and avoid waiting for a

full bus. Kumar and Patel (2022) confirmed the benefit—a Campus Shuttle Tracker system was

designed to give students precise bus locations and ETAs, which minimized uncertainty and

enhanced time management for users (Kumar and Patel, 2022). Such tools typically also push

notifications or live updates, further reducing missed connections and overcrowding.

Beyond buses, “smart campus mobility” projects integrate multiple modes. For example, Puppala

et al. (2021) describe a Smart Campus Mobility System (SCMS) combining management

information systems, predictive analytics, and various transit modes (shuttles, bike-sharing, e-

scooters) to form a dynamic and responsive transportation network tailored to university needs

(Puppala et al., 2021). The SCMS dynamically customizes shuttle schedules based on individual

student timetables and campus traffic data, ensuring buses arrive precisely when needed. It also

offers alternative vehicles (electric scooters, bicycles) for shorter trips, aligning with

sustainability goals. GIS mapping in such a system provides spatial visualization of routes and

real-time data, enabling adaptive routing during disruptions. This indicates that intelligent

campus systems leverage many of the same ideas as smart cities, just on a smaller, university

scale.

2.2.2 Campus Wayfinding

Campus navigation (wayfinding) is another focus area. Digital maps and navigation apps help

users find classrooms, offices, and amenities. In many modern systems, interactive online

campus maps are available via web or mobile; in some cases, these include indoor routing. For

example, Nordin et al. (2021) developed a web-based navigation app augmented with AR

overlays. Students can point their phone cameras at buildings to see directional cues, which

significantly improves finding lecture halls and labs often missing from paper maps (Nordin et

al., 2021). Similarly, Rao et al. (2024) proposed the use of QR codes to bridge indoor areas: one

prototype places QR codes at building entrances so that scanning a code fetches the appropriate

floorplan or path image on the user’s device (Rao et al., 2024). Another project by Mehta and

Sinha (2023) combined QR markers with OpenStreetMap (OSM) data: scanning a QR code

reveals the user’s precise indoor position on an OSM campus map and provides turn-by-turn

directions (Mehta & Sinha, 2023). In all these cases, the goal is to reduce confusion and

congestion on campus by giving users clear, personalized guidance.

Patil and Chaudhari showed that when navigation systems integrate real-time location awareness,

such as via BLE beacons or Wi-Fi triangulation, their effectiveness significantly improves in

complex indoor environments (Patil & Chaudhari, 2023). Interactive digital maps enriched with

these capabilities enable users to adapt their route instantly, especially in multi-floor academic

buildings where signage may be limited or inconsistent (Jain et al., 2023). Moreover, the use of

OSM as a base layer allows for ongoing community-driven map updates, ensuring that as

buildings change function or new structures are added, the system can be maintained with

minimal administrative burden (Jain et al., 2023). This continuous updating process, combined

with user-centered design and low-cost technologies like QR and BLE, makes these navigation

tools highly scalable across institutions of varying size and complexity.

2.3 Technology Integration in Campus Transport Solutions

Effective campus mobility solutions draw on diverse technologies. Key components include:

i. Global Positioning System (GPS/GNSS): Fundamental for outdoor tracking. Campus

buses are often GPS-equipped so students can view live bus locations on a map and

estimate arrival times (Augusta University, 2023). In navigation apps, GPS locates the

user outdoors and maps out walking routes. The integration of GPS into shuttle systems

also enables route optimization based on traffic patterns and historical data, thereby

improving transport efficiency and reducing wait times (Kumar & Patel, 2022).

Additionally, GPS data can be combined with geofencing to trigger location-based

notifications—for instance, alerts when a shuttle is approaching or when a user enters a

high-traffic zone. GPS is also instrumental in collecting anonymized mobility data for

planning purposes, allowing campus administrators to analyze usage trends and identify

areas where navigation or transport support is most needed (Puppala et al., 2021).

ii. Wireless Sensors (BLE beacons, RFID): Indoors, GPS signals falter, so low-energy

Bluetooth beacons or RFID tags can triangulate position. Patil and Chaudhari (2023)

proposed a campus system that installs BLE beacons at fixed landmarks; a smartphone

app detects the nearest beacons to determine the user’s location and guide them

accordingly. BLE beacons have proven advantages for indoor wayfinding: they are low-

cost, easy to deploy, and provide meter-level accuracy (Patil & Chaudhari, 2023). These

sensors function by transmitting unique identifiers at fixed intervals, which are picked up
 by mobile apps to estimate proximity through signal strength. Research by Mehta and

Sinha (2023) also shows that integrating BLE with digital floor maps enhances room-

level accuracy in multistory buildings. Compared to other indoor technologies like Wi-Fi

triangulation, BLE offers lower energy consumption and more predictable positioning,

making it suitable for educational environments where phones and tablets are widely

used. Furthermore, beacon-based navigation systems can be expanded incrementally,

allowing institutions to begin with high-traffic buildings and gradually scale up coverage

as needed.

iii. OpenStreetMap (OSM) and Digital Maps: Open-source platforms like OSM are

commonly used to build campus maps without licensing fees. Developers can download,

edit, and overlay campus data on OSM, or call its API in their apps. Jain et al. (2023)

used OSM’s editable map data to render campus buildings, then aligned user scans to that

data for efficient routing (Jain et al., 2023). This flexibility allows institutions to

customize visual elements—such as building names, departmental zones, or emergency

exits—based on real-world usage. OSM’s compatibility with JavaScript-based libraries

like Leaflet.js or Mapbox also makes it a preferred choice for web development projects

aimed at real-time campus navigation. Moreover, OSM data can be exported in formats

such as GeoJSON and KML, enabling integration with other spatial analysis tools or

mobile apps. Because updates to OSM can be crowdsourced, even student developers and

local volunteers can contribute, fostering a sense of community involvement while

ensuring that maps remain up to date with physical infrastructure changes (Jain et al.,

2023; Mehta & Sinha, 2023).

iv. QR Codes and Imaging: QR codes serve as simple markers linking to digital content.

Rao et al. (2024) implemented a system where QR codes placed on classrooms or bulletin

boards let a campus app retrieve the corresponding map or route image when scanned.

This approach works even on basic phones and complements other positioning

technologies. Because QR codes are low-cost and easy to deploy, they are ideal for

covering indoor areas where GPS and BLE signals may be weak or unavailable.

Additionally, their static nature makes them useful for distributing printed or digital

guides that remain consistent across various devices.

v. Web and Mobile Applications: The user interface is typically a responsive web portal or

native app that ties the components together. Designing a user-friendly interface is

critical. Adebola et al. (2019) emphasized the importance of a user-friendly and

responsive web interface to serve as a new student digital campus guide, complete with

real-time schedule updates and personalized info. In addition to usability, researchers like

Nordin et al. (2021) stress the value of interactive layouts and intuitive navigation flows,

particularly for users unfamiliar with campus layouts. Rich web/mobile features include

search by building name, push notifications of service changes, and the ability to work on

both smartphones and desktop browsers. Other commonly implemented elements include

collapsible menu panels, breadcrumb navigation, and map-based search results, which

contribute to better user orientation (Jain et al., 2023). Robust backend servers and APIs

handle the logic, while the front end emphasizes ease of navigation and readability

(Adebola et al., 2019). Furthermore, the use of web technologies makes it easier to ensure

broad accessibility across device types and operating systems, while also allowing

developers to update content dynamically without requiring users to install new versions.
 These features, when coupled with real-time data feeds and lightweight interfaces, enable

the system to function efficiently even under limited network conditions—a key factor in

regions with unreliable campus Wi-Fi or mobile service (Suleiman, 2021).

vi. Augmented Reality (AR): AR is emerging in campus navigation. By overlaying arrows

or information onto the camera view, AR can simplify indoor wayfinding. Nordin et al.

(2021) demonstrated an AR campus tour app that recognizes visual landmarks (e.g.,

statues or building facades) and displays contextual guidance on-screen. This reduces

reliance on textual directions, especially in complex indoor layouts. In addition to visual

overlays, some systems now incorporate voice prompts and directional animations to

guide users in real time (Yim et al., 2014). Although AR requires modern smartphones

with camera access, it offers an intuitive, spatially aware experience that helps users

better understand their environment without needing to interpret conventional maps. As

demonstrated in projects at Ming Chuan University and elsewhere, AR significantly

enhances user engagement while reducing confusion in multilevel or densely built-up

campus areas (Nordin et al., 2021; Yim et al., 2014).

In summary, an effective “smart campus guide” system is inherently multimodal and multi-

technology. It may employ BLE beacons to pinpoint location inside buildings, GPS for outdoor

movement, QR codes for instant data retrieval, and OSM-based maps as the navigation base

layer. The user simply uses a web/mobile app with intuitive design and minimal typing, tapping

on map points or scanning codes. Many of the literature examples and prototypes highlight this

integration. For instance, Adebola et al. (2019) designed a Nigerian university orientation system

using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript for real-time, personalized information (schedules, venues)
alongside a navigable map, embodying the web-application approach that underpins modern

smart transport guides.

2.4 Campus Navigation and Orientation for Students

On a university campus, transport accessibility is especially crucial for new students. Freshmen

arrive with little local knowledge, so wayfinding tools can significantly ease their onboarding.

Suleiman (2021) suggested that inadequate orientation contributes to first-year student anxiety

and even dropout (Suleiman, 2021). In response, many campuses now supplement traditional

paper maps with digital aids. Adedokun et al. (2022) proposed a digital student guide for

Nigerian campuses that integrates essential orientation tools such as academic schedules, campus

navigation aids, and student service directories to enhance the freshman experience (Adedokun

et al., 2022). By providing real-time, personalized guidance (e.g., walking routes to a class or a

reminder of where the registration office is), such a system keeps new students connected to the

academic community and reduces confusion.

Digital orientation tools typically include searchable campus maps, automated route planners,

and contextual alerts. For example, a web-based campus navigation system might allow a student

to enter their course code and see not only their timetable but also an optimal walking path

between successive classes. Interactive maps can display accessible routes (ramps/elevators) for

mobility-impaired users. Modern designs often incorporate user feedback—gathering data on

which routes students frequently take to prioritize those. Importantly, these tools operate on

common devices: the goal is a “responsive” web interface that works on phones and computers

alike (Adedokun et al., 2022).

Accessibility features are also considered. Nordin et al. (2021) designed a navigation system that

includes voice guidance and large text options to help visually impaired users navigate indoors.

Others offer multi-floor mapping by combining floor plans with 3D models, so first-time visitors

do not get “lost in the stairwell.” Studies also note that static printouts quickly become outdated

when campuses renovate or repurpose buildings. Adsul et al. (2023) addressed this challenge by

replacing static paper maps with an interactive web-based map, thereby solving the problem of

outdated printed materials and improving route planning for students and visitors alike (Adsul et

al., 2023).

In sum, digital campus guides play a critical role in improving transport accessibility for all

students, and freshers in particular. By unifying class schedules, building locations, and

navigation services into one system, universities can reduce congestion and help newcomers feel

grounded. The literature consistently recommends this integrated approach. As noted by

Adedokun et al. (2022), “by addressing the limitations of existing orientation frameworks, [a

digital guide] aims to develop a more effective, accessible, and student-centered guidance

system.”

2.5 Case Studies and Existing Implementations

2.5.1 Global Context

Several universities have pioneered comprehensive smart transport solutions that integrate real-

time vehicle tracking, multimodal routing, and user-centered interfaces. At Iowa State University,

Puppala et al. (2021) deployed the Smart Campus Mobility System (SCMS), which fuses GPS-

equipped shuttle data with predictive analytics to adjust schedules dynamically based on class

timetables and campus traffic workloads. The project reported a 15 % reduction in average wait
times and a 22 % increase in on-time shuttle arrivals after six months of operation (Puppala et

al., 2021).

Northwestern University and the University of Michigan both implemented GPS tracking on

campus buses coupled with mobile apps: users can view live bus locations, receive push-

notification alerts for delays, and plan trips across multiple routes (Kumar & Patel, 2022). A user

survey at Michigan showed that 87 % of students felt “more confident” in catching a shuttle on

time when using the app, and overall foot-traffic congestion around key stops decreased by 18 %

(Kumar & Patel, 2022).

At the National University of Singapore (NUS), a comprehensive smart mobility system known

as NUS NextBus was implemented to provide real-time shuttle tracking across the campus. The

system integrates GPS-enabled buses with a mobile app and web portal that offers arrival

predictions, stop selection, and route visualization. According to Tan et al. (2020), the platform

reduced average wait times by over 20% and significantly improved user satisfaction with

campus transportation. The solution also includes route optimization during peak hours and

incorporates feedback channels for continuous system improvement. The use of historical data

has allowed the university to adjust shuttle intervals based on semester periods and exam weeks,

ensuring better resource allocation.

In East Asia, Ming Chuan University (Taiwan) extended navigation into indoor spaces by

deploying an AR-based campus tour app (Yim, Cho, & Lee, 2014). The system recognizes fixed

campus landmarks and overlays directional arrows and contextual multimedia in real time. In a

controlled study, new users located unfamiliar lecture halls 35 % faster with AR guidance than

with static maps alone (Yim et al., 2014). Similarly, Stellenbosch University (South Africa)

launched “SUN Mobile,” an integrated web-app that combines outdoor shuttle tracking, indoor
building directories, and campus event notifications. Usage metrics indicated an 80 % adoption

rate within the first year, and anecdotal reports cited reduced confusion during exam periods

(Suleiman, 2021).

The University of Cambridge adopted a digital wayfinding solution combining QR-code stations,

BLE beacons, and a responsive mobile map interface to assist visitors and students in navigating

the complex historical campus layout. As described by Baxter et al. (2019), the solution was

originally designed for visually impaired users but was expanded due to high demand. The

system features turn-by-turn indoor and outdoor directions, audio prompts, and a location-based

information overlay. It leverages OpenStreetMap as its base and allows departments to update

points of interest in real-time through an admin panel. Piloting in six colleges showed a 42%

reduction in misnavigation during open days and orientation.

2.5.2 Nigerian Context

In Nigeria, early efforts have addressed single aspects of campus mobility rather than end-to-end

guidance. At Covenant University, Ogundokun, Fashina, and Adebayo (2021) implemented an

RFID-based fare collection system on campus shuttles. Though it automated payments and

reduced cash handling errors by 92 %, it did not provide route or schedule information to

students—leaving a gap in user orientation (Ogundokun et al., 2021).

Tai Solarin University of Education’s pilot navigation app (Suleiman, 2021) integrated GPS

routing and basic AR overlays for major buildings. In field tests, it reduced time-to-destination

on unfamiliar routes by 25 %, yet its coverage was limited to three buildings and lacked shuttle-

stop integration. Feedback from students emphasized the need to expand the geofence to bus

stops and dormitories (Suleiman, 2021).

At the University of Lagos, Akinyemi and Okon (2022) led a campus mobility initiative that

leveraged WhatsApp bots to relay real-time shuttle updates to students. The system utilized GPS-

tagged buses and integrated these updates with students’ most frequently used messaging

platform—WhatsApp. Though it lacked a dedicated app, the initiative achieved rapid adoption

across the student body. Real-time location data and estimated arrival times were disseminated

through a central WhatsApp broadcast list. According to their internal assessment, this approach

helped reduce peak-hour shuttle congestion by approximately 18% during weekday mornings.

Adeyemi, Ibrahim, and Fajobi (2023) developed a web-based prototype aimed at helping first-

year students navigate the Obafemi Awolowo University(OAU) campus. Their system combined

enhanced OpenStreetMap data with manually charted interior routes and departmental markers

to deliver location-specific guidance. Although the platform did not feature shuttle integration, it

supported building search, estimated walking durations, and location-to-location routing. During

pilot testing in orientation week, students using the system located target buildings 30–40%

faster than those relying on printed maps. Survey feedback from 120 users informed a second

iteration of the prototype, which the authors proposed for full deployment via the university’s

student portal.

Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University’s departmental mobile handbook (Abiodun & Oyelami,

2022) delivered offline curriculum details via Android, but did not map the physical campus. In

contrast, the UNIZIK orientation guide by Adebola, Salako, and Ajayi (2019) combined class

schedules with a web-based interactive map of campus landmarks. Initial usage analytics showed

a 60 % drop in orientation-week inquiries to staff, demonstrating the effectiveness of merging

schedule and location data (Adebola et al., 2019).

While existing systems at both international and Nigerian universities have addressed individual

aspects of campus mobility—such as real-time shuttle tracking, AR-based navigation, or digital

orientation tools—these features are typically offered in isolation. None of the reviewed

platforms combine real-time proximity-based bus stop visualization, searchable building and

sub-building directories, and personalized orientation support into a single, fully integrated

solution. In the context of Olabisi Onabanjo University, no published or institutional digital

mobility system currently addresses these needs, despite student feedback pointing to persistent

confusion about campus layouts and transport schedules. This highlights an opportunity for a

centralized, web-based smart campus transport guide tailored specifically to OOU’s

infrastructure and user behaviors.

2.6 Technical and User-Experience Considerations

Designing an effective smart transport guide requires careful attention to both technology and

user experience. The reliability and accuracy of data is paramount: GPS tracking should sample

frequently enough to show smooth bus movement, and BLE beacons must be placed densely

enough to avoid location “dead zones.” For maps, high-quality geospatial data (from OSM or

campus GIS) ensures that navigation routes are accurate. Field testing with real users can also

help reveal gaps in map coverage, mislabeled buildings, or inaccessible areas.

From the user interface perspective, usability is critical. The application should have a clean

layout with easily recognizable icons and minimal reliance on textual instructions. Adebola et al.

(2019) highlighted the importance of a “user-friendly interface and robust backend” for

managing student transport and schedule data efficiently. An intuitive UI allows users to find

buildings quickly, check shuttle locations, or read step-by-step directions without technical

frustration. Features like real-time notifications, zoomable maps, and color-coded icons improve
interaction. The interface should prioritize core features such as "Locate Me," current shuttle

positions, or campus facility search.

Cross-device compatibility is another key factor. Since most students rely on mobile phones—

and often mid-range Android devices—the guide must be responsive and work on mobile

browsers without requiring a native app download. Performance is equally crucial: it should load

quickly on slow connections and support caching or limited offline use, such as viewing the last

known map or saved directions. For example, Jain et al. (2023) emphasized mobile-first layouts

and caching methods to support navigation in areas with poor connectivity.

Accessibility and inclusivity should not be overlooked. Nordin et al. (2021) introduced voice

assistance and adjustable font sizes to make their navigation system usable for visually impaired

students. Likewise, ramps, elevators, or stair-free paths should be mapped and prioritized in route

planning. Though English remains the default language in Nigerian campuses, campuses that

host international students or visiting researchers could consider multilingual UI features to

broaden usability.

Data privacy and security must also be managed properly. While features like geolocation and

student check-ins can improve personalization, the system must follow best practices for storing

and handling user data. Permissions should be transparent and minimal.

Lastly, maintainability is a major consideration. A system like this must be regularly updated as

new buildings are constructed, offices relocated, or shuttle routes changed. To reduce long-term

cost and effort, an admin portal could allow school staff to log in and modify map markers, route

data, or announcements without needing to edit the application’s core codebase. Adedokun et al.
(2022) emphasized building backend dashboards to allow non-technical school administrators to

manage transport data and student info.

In summary, a smart transport guide must balance technical precision with student-centered

design. Real-time GPS, BLE beacons, open mapping tools, and responsive design are only

effective if the user interface is simple, accurate, and inclusive. Systems should anticipate low-

bandwidth scenarios and accommodate the digital access levels of all students. These factors

directly affect the success and adoption of the solution.

2.7 Gaps in Existing Literature and Justification for the Proposed Solution

The literature shows growing interest in smart campus transport, but several gaps remain. First,

integration is often partial. Many projects address either shuttle tracking or indoor navigation,

but rarely both. Few systems seamlessly combine outdoor transit routing, indoor wayfinding, and

academic scheduling into a unified platform. For example, while the SCMS developed at Iowa

State University integrates transport analytics, it lacks an indoor campus mapping component

(Puppala et al., 2021). On the other hand, projects that focus on indoor wayfinding often ignore

shuttle data or real-time transport schedules (Mehta & Sinha, 2023).

Second, regional relevance is limited. Most of the fully developed systems come from

universities in Europe, North America, or East Asia, where infrastructure and digital literacy

levels may differ significantly from West African campuses. In Nigeria and other African

countries, the few documented efforts—such as RFID-based fare systems (Ogundokun et al.,

2021) or student information portals (Adebola et al., 2019)—tend to be narrow in scope or only

theoretical. There is little literature that addresses challenges specific to Nigerian universities,
such as inconsistent power supply, poor internet coverage, or students with limited access to

smartphones or mobile data.

Importantly, no published work has yet addressed the mobility and navigation issues at Olabisi

Onabanjo University (OOU). Despite anecdotal evidence of student confusion, shuttle

overcrowding, and lack of signage, no academic project has developed or tested a digital

mobility platform tailored to OOU. Informal student surveys and complaints often highlight long

walking distances, unmarked buildings, and irregular transport schedules—but these

observations remain undocumented in scholarly literature.

Third, user-experience limitations persist in existing platforms. Many tools still rely on static

maps, which cannot reflect changes in campus layout or class schedules. Adsul et al. (2023)

emphasized the limitations of static paper maps and proposed an interactive digital alternative

that allows real-time updates. Others, like Nordin et al. (2021), implemented AR-based direction

overlays, but these innovations are often difficult to scale, especially in regions with basic phone

hardware or unreliable internet. While features like multilingual support, voice assistance, or

personalized schedule integration are recommended in theory, they are underutilized in practice,

even in newer solutions.

In summary, while the existing literature offers a solid foundation on smart transport tools,

especially in GPS tracking, BLE beacon deployment, AR interfaces, and web-based portals, it

does not fully meet the contextual and integrated needs of a Nigerian university campus like

OOU. The lack of real-time indoor/outdoor integration, regional customization, and user-

centered design leaves a wide gap in the current body of work.

This gap justifies the proposed project: a smart transport guide for OOU, built as a responsive

web application using Firebase, Leaflet.js, OpenStreetMap, and real-time data. By incorporating

both indoor and outdoor navigation, personalized fresher guidance, building-level search, and

shuttle stop proximity, the system will provide a holistic, usable, and scalable solution. It aims

not only to reduce confusion and improve time management for students—especially new

arrivals—but also to contribute a valuable Nigerian case study to the global body of smart

campus research

2.8 Summary of Literature Review

Author(s) and Year Study Objective Methodology/ Key Findings

Technology Used

Puppala To optimize campus Smart Campus Reduced wait times

et al. shuttle scheduling
(2021) using analytics and Mobility System by 15%, improved
student data
(SCMS), predictive shuttle punctuality

analytics, GPS

Kumar & Patel (2022) Implement real-time Mobile app with GPS- Improved trip
shuttle tracking for
university transit enabled buses planning and reduced

student uncertainty

by 87%

Yim et al. (2014) Use AR to guide AR-based mobile Helped students find
students around navigation, image buildings 35% faster
campus using recognition than paper maps
physical landmarks
Nordin et al. (2021) Enhance indoor AR overlays, mobile Significantly
improved indoor
navigation with AR camera interface wayfinding;
especially useful for
and web apps large buildings

Rao et al. (2024) Link QR codes to QR codes at Enabled basic indoor

route data for simple navigation with low-
indoor navigation entrances, mobile- cost infrastructure

linked floorplans

Mehta & Sinha Improve indoor QR code scanning Delivered turn-by-

positioning accuracy turn indoor
(2023) using QR and OSM with OpenStreetMap navigation with
integration accurate indoor
base positioning

Adebola et al. (2019) Create a digital guide Web app, building Reduced orientation-
for new students search, campus time confusion; 60%
schedules drop in help desk
visits

Ogundokun et al. Automate transit RFID smart cards for Reduced payment
payment system on bus fare collection delays but lacked
(2021) campus navigation features

Suleiman (2021) Provide AR and GPS Prototype mobile app Reduced navigation
campus building with AR overlays time by 25%; limited
navigation deployment scope

Abiodun & Oyelami Offer offline access to Mobile handbook Useful for academics,
(2022) curriculum without navigation but did not address
information spatial guidance

Akinyemi & Okon Deliver shuttle GPS buses + Informal system

(2022) updates using WhatsApp broadcast reduced peak-hour
WhatsApp bots lists congestion by ~18%

Adeyemi et al. (2023) Support freshmen Web-based OSM- Students completed

with building location enhanced navigation tasks 30–40% faster;
 search platform positive orientation
feedback

Salisu et al. (2020) Assess willingness to Urban transport Students and drivers
adopt ITS in Nigeria survey open to ITS; need for
local campus
solutions noted

References

 Abiodun, L., & Oyelami, M. (2022). Development of a mobile student handbook for

Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University. ATBU Press.

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