Cortical control of voluntary motor function;

Motor commands start from cerebral cortex, the motor cortex, programming the complex
patterns of movements, then deliver these patterns to lower brain areas; Basal ganglia,
Cerebellum, Brainstem, and Cord. These in turn send control signals to skeletal muscles of the
body.
Higher cortical centers for voluntary motor function
Anterior to the central sulcus is the pre-central gyrus which is the primary motor cortex
The motor cortex is divided into three subareas, each of which has its own topographical
representation of muscle groups and specific motor functions:
(1) the primary motor cortex
(2) the premotor area
(3) the supplementary motor area

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Dr. Talar hamaali Neurophysiology
 (1) the primary motor cortex
topographical representations of the different muscle areas of the body in the primary motor
cortex, beginning with the face and mouth region near the sylvian fissure; the arm and hand area,
in the midportion of the primary motor cortex; the trunk, near the apex of the brain; and the leg
and foot areas, in the part of the primary motor cortex that dips into the longitudinal fissure.
***Note that more than half of the entire primary motor cortex is concerned with controlling the
muscles of the hands and the muscles of speech.

the premotor area (the programmer/designer of the “motor Image”

Located anterior and inferior to the primary motor cortex.
The topographical organization of the premotor cortex is roughly the same as that of the
primary motor cortex, with the mouth and face areas located most laterally; as one moves
upward, the hand, arm, trunk, and leg areas are encountered.

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Nerve signals generated in the premotor area cause much more complex “patterns” of
movement than the discrete patterns generated in the primary motor cortex.
To achieve these results, the most anterior part of the premotor area first develops a “motor
image” of the total muscle movement that is to be performed. en, in the posterior premotor
cortex, this image excites each successive pattern of muscle activity required to achieve the
image. is posterior part of the premotor cortex sends its signals either directly to the pri mary
motor cortex to excite specific muscles or, often, by way of the basal ganglia and thalamus back
to the primary motor cortex. A special class of
(3) the supplementary motor area
Located; anterior and superior ti primary motor cortex,
Often concerned with bilateral rather than unilateral bodily movements, it controls axial
movements of head and hip as well.
Plans primitive motor functions like climbing and crawling.
In general, this area functions in concert with the premotor area to provide body- wide attitudinal
movements, fixation movements of the different segments of the body, positional movements of
the head and eyes, and so forth, as background for the finer motor control of the arms and hands
by the premotor area and primary motor cortex.

Some Specialized Areas Of Motor Control Found In The Human Motor Cortex
Broca’s Area (Motor Speech Area);
The figure shows a premotor area labeled “word formation” lying immediately anterior to the
primary motor cortex and immediately above the sylvian fissure. is region is called Broca’s area.
Function; planning area, here motor patterns for expressing individual words or short phrases
are initiated and executed.

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Damage to it does not prevent a person from vocalizing but makes it impossible for the person
to speak whole words rather than uncoordinated utterances or an occasional simple word such
as “no” or “yes.”

“Voluntary” Eye Movement Field;

In the premotor area immediately above Broca’s area is a locus for controlling voluntary eye
movements and controls eyelid movements such as blinking.
Damage to this area prevents a person from voluntarily moving the eyes toward different
objects. Instead, the eyes tend to lock involuntarily onto specific objects,
3. Head Rotation Area;
This area is closely associated with the eye movement field; it directs the head toward different
objects.
3. Hand Skills;
In the premotor area immediately anterior to the primary motor cortex for the hands and fingers
is a region that is important for “hand skills.”
Damage to this area, hand movements become uncoordinated and non purposeful, a condition
called motor apraxia.

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Transmission Of Signals From The Motor Cortex To The Muscles
Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tract

Motor signals are transmitted directly from the

cortex to the spinal cord through the
corticospinal tract
and indirectly through multiple accessory
pathways that involve the basal ganglia,
cerebellum, and various nuclei of the brain
stem.
In general, the direct pathways are concerned
with discrete and detailed movements,
especially of the distal segments of the limbs,
particularly the hands and fingers.
Corticospinal (Pyramidal) Tract, The most
important output pathway from the motor
cortex is the corticospinal tract, also called the
pyramidal tract, shown in Figure

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Origin; the motorneurons originate in the motor cortex thats located in the precentral gyrus
1. 30% from primary motor cortex
2. 30% from premotor and supplementary motor area
3. 40% from the somato-sensory cortex
The most impressive fibers in the pyramidal tract are
a population of large myelinated fibers, these fibers
originate from giant pyramidal cells, called Betz cells,

The total number of fibers in each corticospinal tract

is more than 1 million,

so these large fibers represent only 3%

1. They are found only in the primary motor

cortex
2. very heavily myelinated
3. very large diameter fibers
4. directly end up on lower motor neurons in
spinal cord

As it passes through the posterior limb of the internal capsule, it gets extremely compacted,
this area has a clinical significance

Then enter the midbrain;

fibers pass through the anterior part of it , in the middle 3/5 of the crus cerebri (cerebral
peduncle)
Pons;
Passing through pontine nuclei
Medulla oblongata:
Down to pyramids of the medulla oblongata (hence the name Pyramidal Tract)!

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 In lower medulla oblongata;
Then takes two pathways;

‘majority of fibers dicussate and cross to the Few fibers do not cross and descend
contralateral side, forming lateral cortico- ipsilaterally forming ventral corticospinal
spinal tract tract

Many, if not most, of these fibers eventually

cross to the opposite side of the cord either in
Finally terminate
the neck or in the upper thoracic region.
Principally on interneurons
These fibers may be concerned with control
Few on sensory relay neurons in dorsal of bilateral postural movements by the
grey horn supplementary motor cortex.

Very few terminate directly on anterior

motor neurons

The Red Nucleus Serves As An Alternative Pathway For Transmitting Cortical Signals To
The Spinal Cord

The red nucleus, located in the mesencephalon

The Rubro spinal tract;
Direct motor fibers from cortical motor area (cortico-
rubral tract) +branching fibers of corticospinal tract
as they pass through midbrain
In the lower portion of red nucleus, These fibers
synapse in the lower portion of the red nucleus with
large neurons similar in size to the Betz cells in the
motor cortex.
These large neurons then give rise to the rubrospinal
tract
which crosses to the opposite side in the lower brain
stem and follows a course immediately adjacent and
anterior to the corticospinal tract into the lateral
columns of the spinal cord.

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The mag nocellular portion of the red nucleus has a somatographic representation of all the
muscles of the body, as does the motor cortex.
The corticorubrospinal pathway serves as an accessory route for transmission of relatively
discrete signals from the motor cortex to the spinal cord, they have same origin, side by
side tracts and almost same function, therefore the corticospinal and rubrospinal tracts
together are called the lateral motor system of the cord,

termination: this tract ends in cervical and upper thoracic region, and specifically end on motor
neurons thar flexor muscles of the upper limb

Tecto-spinal tract
A descending motor tract controlling the movement of the head in response to auditory and
visual stimuli
Origin; 1. superior colliculus nucleus in tectum /mid-brain
Function; turns head toward sight /visual stimuli
Origin 2; inferior colliculus nucleus in tectum /mid-brain
Function; turns head toward auditory stimuli
Decussation; lower medulla oblongata/brainstem
Termination/ neck and upper thoracic spinal cord/segmental

Control Of Motor Functions By The Brain Stem(midbrain+pons+medulla oblongata)

What we know so far abut brain stem function is;

Did you hear about being involved in Motor
It has many important control centers; functions?
1. Control of respiration The brain stem has important role in controlling
whole- body movement and equilibrium.
2. Control of CVS (vaso-motor center)
Especially important for these purposes are the
3. Control of GI function brain stem’s reticular nuclei and vestibular
nuclei

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 The reticular nuclei are divided into two major groups:

Medullary reticular nuclei;

Pontine reticular nuclei;
Location; extend through the entire medulla,
located in pons and extending into the
lying near the midline
mesencephalon.
Function; relaxing the anti-gravity muscles
Function; Exciting anti-gravity muscles
Descending motor tract; medullary-
Descending motor tract; pontine-
reticulospinal tract descends in the lateral
reticulospinal tract descends in in the
column of the cord,
anterior column of the cord,
Receive excitatory input signals from the;
Receive excitatory input signals from the
Vestibular nuclei 1. Rubro-spinal tract
2. Cortico-spinal tract

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 The vestibular nucleus and the vestibulo-spinal tract
All the vestibular nuclei, function in association with the pontine reticular nuclei to control
the antigravity muscles.
Descending motor tracts;
Descends ipsilaterally via the lateral and medial vestibulospinal tracts in the anterior columns
of the spinal cord,
Without this support of the vestibular nuclei, the pontine reticular system would lose much of its
excitation of the axial antigravity muscles.
The specific role of the vestibular nuclei, however, is to selectively control the excitatory signals
to the different antigravity muscles to maintain equilibrium in response to signals from the
vestibular apparatus.

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What happens when we stand up? the fibers of pontine-reticulospinal tract
terminate on the anterior motor neurons that
Standing up is an anti-gravity action, and its excite the axial muscles of the body, which
achieved by our anti-gravity muscle (extensors) support the body against gravity—that is, the
Pontine Reticular System Transmits Excitatory muscles of the vertebral column and the
Signals. extensor muscles of the limbs.

The fibers of medullary reticular nuclei What happens when we sit down?
transmit inhibitory signals to the same
Sitting down is achieved
antigravity anterior motor neurons via a
different tract, the medullary 1. primarily by inhibiting anti-gravity
reticulospinal tract, muscles (extensor inhibition)
2. Stimulating flexors
Medullary Reticular System Transmit
Inhibitory Signals.

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**The pontine reticular nuclei have a high degree of natural excitability. In addition, they
receive strong excitatory signals from the vestibular nuclei, as well as from deep nuclei of the
cerebellum.
therefore, when the pontine reticular excitatory system is unopposed by the medullary reticular
system, it causes powerful excitation of antigravity muscles throughout the body, so much so that
four- legged animals can be placed in a standing position, supporting the body against gravity
without any signals from higher levels of the brain
**The rubrospinal and cortico-spinal tracts normally activate the medullary reticular inhibitory
system to counterbalance the excitatory signals from the pontine reticular system, so under
normal conditions the body muscles are not abnormally tense
Yet, some signals from higher areas of the brain can “disinhibit” the medullary system when the
brain wishes to excite the pontine system to cause standing.
At other times, excitation of the medullary reticular system can inhibit antigravity muscles in
certain portions of the body to allow those portions to perform special motor activi ties.
The excitatory and inhibitory reticular nuclei constitute a controllable system that is manipulated
by motor signals from the cerebral cortex and elsewhere to provide necessary background
muscle contractions for standing against gravity and to inhibit appropriate groups of muscles as
needed so that other functions can be performed

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