PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

UNIT 1: Definition, meaning, nature, scope and branches of Philosophy:

Meaning and Definition of Philosophy: The word 'philosophy' involves two Greek words—Philo
meaning love and Sophia meaning knowledge. Thus, literally speaking, philosophy means love of
wisdom. The literal meaning of philosophy shows that the philosopher is constantly and everywhere
engaged in the search for truth.

• Dr.Sarvapali Radha Krishna – Philosophy is a logical inquiry into the nature of reality.
• Fichte – Philosophy is a Science of Knowledge.

Nature of Philosophy: Philosophy wants to understand man in relation to the whole universe.
Philosophy is the rational attempt to have a worldview. It endeavors to reach a conception of the
entire universe with all its elements and aspects and their interrelations to one another. It is not
contented with a partial view of the world. It seeks to have a synoptic view of the whole reality it
tries to have a vision, of the whole.

The philosophy seeks to provide a complete account of the man s world. It is concerned with
critical examination of the fundamental notions and assumptions of any field that falls within human
experience. From the above we may conclude that philosophy is a "search for a comprehensive view
of nature, an attempt at universal explanation of the nature of things." The word philosophy means
"the love of wisdom". Wisdom is not only knowledge. One may have knowledge, but he may not be
wise. Wisdom constitutes knowledge plus its implications an all circumstances.

Scope :

• Dealing with God is a significant concern of philosophy. It tries to find out the possibility of
the existence of God, nature of God, method of activities of God.
• Knowledge is the most important discussing matter of philosophy.
• The prime concern of philosophy is life. Nothing in the universe is beyond life and nothing in
life is beyond philosophy.
• Philosophy has a close affinity with psychology
• Philosophy and literature are closely related to each other: philosophy is often revealed
through literary works.
• Philosophy also deals with animal and plant life.
• Philosophy also deals with science. It tries to find out the origin of science

Branches of Philosophy:

While studying the philosophical thoughts of a philosopher, we study his thinking in different
branches of philosophy. These branches of philosophy are as follows:

Epistemology: Philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is critical. Hence, the first
problem which arises before a philosopher is about the nature of knowledge and its limitations.
Therefore, epistemology is the most fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically
truth, falsehood, validity of knowledge, limits of knowledge and nature of knowledge, knower and
known etc.

Metaphysics. This is the study of existence, reality or essence. Its main branches are as follows:

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 • Cosmogony. This is a study of creation. How was world created? Why was it created? Who
created the world? What is the purpose in creation? All these are the problems of
cosmogony
• Cosmology. The main problems of cosmology are: Is the world one or it many, or is it both
one and many?
• Ontology. Ontology is the study of ultimate reality. Is the reality one—or is it many or is it
both one and many? If reality is many, what is the relation between these many elements?
All these are ontological questions.
• Philosophy of self. This is mainly concerned with the philosophical analysis of self. What is
self? What is its relationship with the body? Is it free of does it depend on the body? Is it one
or many? All these are problems of philosophy of self.

Axiology. This branch of philosophy philosophically studies value. It has been divided into the
following three branches:

• Ethics. Ethics discusses the criteria of right and good.

• Aesthetics. Aesthetics discusses the nature and criteria of beauty.
• Logic studies truth. The subject matter of logic includes the methods of judgment, types of
proposition, hypothesis, definition, comparison, division, classification and fundamental laws
of thoughts, etc.
• Philosophy of Sciences. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the philosophical
examination of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences. Philosophy of Sciences.
This branch of philosophy is concerned with the philosophical examination of the postulates
and conclusions of different sciences.

Relationship between Philosophy and Education:

Dependence of education on Philosophy: Philosophy determines the real destination

towards which education has to go. Philosophy is wisdom; education transmits that wisdom from
one generation to the other. Philosophy embodies a way of life; education is the preparation for life.

Philosophy determines the various aspects of education: All the problems of education are
the problems of philosophy. That is why, Gentile says, “Education without philosophy would mean a
failure to understand the precise nature of education “. It is because philosophy determines both
aim of life and the aim of education. Every aspect of education has a philosophical base. There is no
aspect of education – aims, curriculum, methods, textbooks, discipline, teacher etc. which is not
influenced and determined by philosophy.

Great Philosophers have been great educationists also: Great Philosophers have been great
educationists in the East as well in the West. Philosophers like Tagore, Radhakrishnan, Aurobindo
Gosh, Plato, Socrates have been great educators. They reflected their philosophical views in their
educational schemes.

Dependence of Philosophy on Education: Education is the dynamic side of philosophy: Education

can be defined as the strongest instrument for the achievement of the ideals of life and civilized
attempt to bring about the balanced and proper development of human personality. The plant of
education draws its nourishment from the soil of philosophy.

Education is the best means for the propagation of philosophy. Education cannot even be
imagined without philosophical principles likewise philosophical principles are lifeless without the
help of education.

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 Education is the means to achieve the goal: Philosophy deals with the ends and education is
the means to achieve those ends. Philosophy gives ideals, values and principles; education works out
those ideals, values and principles.

Education Philosophy and its functions – Speculative, Normative and Critical:

Educational Philosophy: A philosophy of education is a statement (or set of statements) that

identifies and clarifies the beliefs, values and understandings of an individual or group with respect
to education. Defined in this sense, it may be thought of as a more-or-less organized body of
knowledge and opinion on education, both as it is conceptualized and as it is practiced.

A philosophy of this sort is critical in defining and directing the purposes, objectives and
focus of a school. It should also serve to inspire and direct educational planning, programs and
processes in any given setting. A philosophy of education may influence what subjects or topics are
taught, how they are taught, and perhaps more importantly, the supporting beliefs and values that
are taught, both implicitly and explicitly, within and around the core curriculum.

Functions: The function of educational philosophy is to investigate the character development in

order to find the desired educational management to foster the most constructive character for the
youth and old. In addition, the function of educational philosophy is also to help pedagogical
purposes. The functions of educational philosophy are as follows:

• Speculative Function: Function of Education is trying to understand the whole issue of

education and to formulate it in a basic description as a scientific data complement.
Philosophy of education also tries to understand the whole issue of education and its
relationship with other factors that affect education.
• Normative Function: The function of educational philosophy is as direction, guidance for the
realization of education. This principle is summed up in educational purpose, which is to
build an ideal society and establish norms aspired. Educational philosophy provides norms
and consideration for the normative and scientific realities to form culture.
• Criticism Function: Function of educational philosophy is to provide basis of rational critical
definition in considering and interpreting the scientific data. For example is measurement
data of evaluation analysis, both personality and achievement. Criticism function also means
analysis and comparative on something to get a conclusion. In this case, philosophy of
education can set achievement classification appropriately with objective data (figures,
statistics). In addition, philosophy of education is able to set assumptions or more
reasonable hypothesis. Philosophy should be competent to overcome the weaknesses found
by the scientific field and complete them with the data and arguments which do not come
from scientific data.

Definition, meaning and nature of Education :

Meaning & Definition: Education is a systematic process through which a child or an adult acquires
knowledge, experience, skill and sound attitude. For a civilized and socialized society, education is
the only means. Every society gives importance to education because it is a panacea for all evils. It is
the key to solve the various problems of life. Etymologically, the word ‘Education’ has been derived
from different Latin words.

• 'educare’ which means ‘to bring out’ or ‘to nourish’.

• ‘educere’ which means ‘to lead out’ or ‘to draw out’.

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The most common Indian word ‘shiksha’ is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root ‘shas’ which means
‘to discipline’, ‘to control’, ‘to instruct’ and ‘to teach’. Similarly the word ‘vidya’ is derived from
Sanskrit verbal root ‘vid’ which means ‘to know’.

• Swami Vivekananda – “Education is the manifestation of divine perfection already existing in

man.”
• John Locke said, “Plants are developed by cultivation and men by education”.
• Aristotle – “Education is the creation of sound mind in a sound body.”

Nature :

• Education is life-long process- Education is life long process because every stage of life of an
individual is important from educational point.
• Education is a systematic process- It refers to transact its activities through a systematic
institution and regulation.
• Education is development of individual and the society- It is called a force for social
development, which brings improvement in every aspect in the society.
• Education is modification of behavior- Human behavior is modified and improved through
educational process.
• Education is a training- Human senses, mind, behavior, activities; skills are trained in a
constructive and socially desirable way.
• Education is life- Life without education is meaningless. Every aspect and incident needs
education for its sound development.

Scope : Scope means range of view out look field or opportunity of activity operation and
application. Education has a wider meaning and application.

Educational philosophy : Philosophy of education covers aims of education, nature of education,

importance of education, function of education its very old and essential part of education.

Educational psychology: Main aim of education is the development of child. Psychology helps to
understand the child better and development of child with respect of physical, mental, emotional,
social adjustment, individual difference, personality, thinking, reasoning, problem solving.

Educational sociology: A child lives in the society so its important for him to know about the society
the nature of society, type of society, interdependence between culture and society.

History of education: It is also important to know background, origin, development, growth and
aspect of the subjects. And also education system method of teaching during ancient period,
medieval period, British period and modern period.

Economics of education: For the growth of business and market the world class economical
education is important for each and important.

Environmental education: Ecological in balances have drown the attentions of intelligence today. So
looking at the environmental problems study of environment education has great importance.

Method of teaching: In ancient time the pupil were passive listeners but now they actively
participate with the teacher in the process of education. So the skill and proficiency of difference
teaching methods needs to be developed.

Types of Education: Education goes beyond what takes places within the four walls of the
classroom. A child gets the education from his experiences outside the school as well as from those

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within on the basis of these factors. There are three main types of education, namely, Formal,
Informal and Non-formal. Each of these types is discussed below.

Formal Education: Formal education or formal learning usually takes place in the premises of the
school, where a person may learn basic, academic, or trade skills. Small children often attend a
nursery or kindergarten but often formal education begins in elementary school and continues with
secondary school.

Post-secondary education (or higher education) is usually at a college or university which

may grant an academic degree. It is associated with a specific or stage and is provided under a
certain set of rules and regulations.

The formal education is given by specially qualified teachers they are supposed to be
efficient in the art of instruction. It also observes strict discipline. The student and the teacher both
are aware of the facts and engage themselves in the process of education.

Examples of Formal Education:

• Learning in a classroom
• School grading/certification, college, and university degrees
• Planned education of different subjects having a proper syllabus acquired by attending the
institution.

Advantages of Formal education:

• An organized educational model and up to date course contents.

• Students acquire knowledge from trained and professional teachers.
• Structured and systematic learning process.
• Leads to a formally recognized certificate.
• Easy access to jobs.

Disadvantages of Formal education:

• Chance of bad habits’ adoption may be alarming due to the presence of both good and bad
students in the classroom
• Some unprofessional and non-standard education system may cause the wastage of time
and money of the students which leads to the disappointment from formal education and
argue them to go for non-formal education.
• Costly and rigid education as compare to other forms of learning

Informal Education: Informal education may be a parent teaching a child how to prepare a meal or
ride a bicycle. People can also get an informal education by reading many books from a library or
educational websites. Informal education is when you are not studying in a school and do not use
any particular learning method. In this type of education, conscious efforts are not involved. It is
neither pre-planned nor deliberate. It may be learned at some marketplace, hotel or at home.

Examples of Informal Education:

• Teaching the child some basics such as numeric characters.

• Someone learning his/her mother tongue

Advantages of Informal Education:

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 • More naturally learning process as you can learn at anywhere and at any time from your
daily experience.
• No specific time span.
• Less costly and time-efficient learning process.
• No need to hire experts as most of the professionals may be willing to share their precious
knowledge with students/public through social media and the internet.
• Learners can pick up the requisite information from books, TV, radio, or conversations with
their friends/family members.

Disadvantages of Informal Education:

• Information acquired from the internet, social media, TV, radio, or conversations with
friends/family members may lead to the disinformation.
• Utilized techniques may not be appropriate.
• No proper schedule/time span.
• Unpredictable results

Non-formal Education: Non-formal education includes adult basic education, adult literacy
education or school equivalency preparation. Home education, individualized instruction (such as
programmed learning), distance learning and computer-assisted instruction are other possibilities.
Non-formal education is imparted consciously and deliberately and systematically implemented. It
should be organized for a homogeneous group. Non-formal, education should be programmed to
serve the needs of the identified group.

Examples of Non-formal Education

• Fitness programs.
• Community-based adult education courses.
• Distance learning
• Correspondence courses

Advantages of Non-formal Education

• Practiced and vocational training.

• Literacy with skillfulness growth in which self-learning is appreciated.
• Flexibility in age, curriculum, and time.
• Open-ended educational system in which both the public and private sector are involved in
the process.

Disadvantages of Non-formal Education:

• Attendance of participants is unsteady.

• Basic reading and writing skills are crucial to learn.
• No professional and trained teachers.
• Students may not enjoy full confidence as the regular students enjoy.

Process of Education: The process to provide knowledge to a student, in most situations, consists of:

• Provide information: You can provide the information to the learner through the various
educational media. Typically, the student has a textbook or other material to read. You also
give a lecture, explaining the material, as well as giving examples. With online learning, that
lecture may be in the form of a video.

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 • Reinforce with exercises: You then reinforce what was learned by giving homework
exercises and practice, as well as exercises in class. This is also done in a correspondence
course or in distance learning, and in a lesser degree in online lessons. Exercises also get the
participants more involved in the material, which helps keep their interest. In some classes,
students can discuss the material, allowing them to draw conclusions and to reinforce their
knowledge.
• Review information: You then give answers to the exercises, along with explanations, to
clarify the information and to help review the material. This helps the students retain the
information and skills learned.
• Verify knowledge: The last step in the education process is to verify knowledge or
competency in the subject matter. You usually give the students a test or exam to verify
what they have learned and to measure the success of the instruction. Most often, testing
comes after several lessons. If the student passes the test, it is assumed he or she
sufficiently knows the material or has competence in the subject. In the case of personal or
non-formal study, a test is seldom given or taken. Verification of learning or understanding is
up to the individual.

Aims of Education: Aims give direction to activities. Aims of education are formulated keeping in
view the needs of situation. The goal of education should be the full flowering of the human on this
earth. According to a UNESCO study, “the physical, intellectual, emotional and ethical integration of
the individual into a complete man/woman is the fundamental aim of education.”

Individual and Social Aims: Individual aims and social aims are the most important aims of
education. They are opposed to each other. Individual aims give importance for the development of
the individuality. Social aim gives importance to the development of society through individual not
fulfilling his desire.

Individual Aims: every individual is different from others. Every child is a new and unique product
and central aim of education is the autonomous development of the individual. No two individuals
are alike. So education should be according to the interest of the individual.

Criticism of Individual Aim:

• individual aim is not desirable because man is a social animal. Society’s interest should be
protected.
• Individual aim makes individual selfish.
• Maximum freedom may go against the society.
• Individuality cannot develop from a vacuum; it develops in a social atmosphere.
• Unless society develops, individual cannot develop.

Social Aim: The supporters believe that society or state is supreme or real. The individual is only a
means. The progress of the society is the aim of education. If society will develop individual will
develop automatically.

Criticism of Social Aim:

• It makes individual only a tool of government.

• It reduces individual to a mere non-entity.
• Society ignores the legitimate needs, desires and interests of the individual.
• It is against the development of individuality of the individual.

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Individual aim and social aim of education go independently. Both are opposing to each other. It is
not in reality. Neither the individual nor the society can exist without one another. The individual is
the product of the society while society finds its advancement in the development of its individual
member.

Utility of the subject: Educational Philosophy to the prospective teacher educators: Teachers are
mentors and play an active role in inculcating independent thinking in students. However, to do that
as a teacher, you must have a teaching philosophy of your own. Students always look up to their
teacher and therefore, it becomes necessary for you to have thoughts to inspire them. Here are
specific reasons why you should Study Philosophy of Education if you are a teacher.

Helps to Decipher The Path of Learning: Teaching philosophy has been defined as the map, which
provides directions to move ahead. One may feel lost without a map. In the same way, you are going
to be missed while teaching if a specific path is not decided. Once you know your path, you will be
helping your students to plan to reach their destinations.

Affects the Society: Teachers are termed as the future makers of the community. People like you are
the ones who help students choose different professions and identities. A teacher can leave a
profound impact on students and help them make independent decisions soon. The core values that
your students learn from you today are going to be applied and used in society as they grow up. A
solid philosophical background will help ensure that these values are all positive. If you believe in
breaking stereotypes, there are high chances your students will follow the same philosophical path.

To Be in Their Shoes: By learning philosophy, a teacher would be able to view and analyze from the
perspective of their students. Apart from understanding why students are behaving in a particular
way, teachers would also be able to know how students perceive their actions. This helps them
adapt better teaching strategies and guidance, eventually resulting in improved results. Best of all, a
teacher would be able to analyze his/her actions and understand the positives and negatives of their
methods.

To Avoid Being Judgemental: Philosophy of education also teaches a teacher the concept of not
prejudicing the personality of each student. Remember that you need to consider all students equal.
But, this should not affect the unique potential and capabilities of each student. As educators, you
are required to teach creativity, autonomy, and curiosity to all students without compromising their
intellectual levels. The idea is to avoid giving up on a pupil, who is a low-level learner. Philosophy
teaches you that ideology, where you train with an unbiased attitude.

To Teach The Concept of Unification: Philosophy also teaches about unifying each pupil and the
teacher as one body to ensure harmony. The idea is to work together to create a better citizen, who
diligently serves his community and keeps check on his/her morality. Through the philosophy of
education, teachers can understand how to deal with the students and unite them as one. Even the
students will then be able to confidently speak to the teacher as if he/she is their friend.

UNIT – 2 : Philosophical bases of Education

Contribution of Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Realism and Existentialism to Education ( Aims,

Curriculum, methods of teaching, teacher and discipline).

Idealism: Idealism is one of the oldest philosophies of the world. It dates back to the Vedic period in
India. It was born out of the minds of Socrates, Plato. First used by Plato, the word idealism has been
derived from the word "ideal" and "idea". The idea means true and testified knowledge. The main
subject of this philosophy is "idea" - the reality of everything lies in ideas, thoughts and mind and not

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in material things. Ideas or higher values are essences. Idealism had a powerful influence on every
aspect of education from time to time.

Basic Postulates of Idealism:

• Truth: Idealist believes in three spiritual values. These are truth, beauty and goodness. The
"truth" is an intellectual value, the "beauty" an aesthetic value and the "good" a moral
value. Together they constitute the "good"
• Mind: Idealists believe that mind or spirit is ultimately real. For Idealists, the enduring
substance of the world is mind, which explains everything. The physical world is just a
manifestation of this great spirit behind it. The physical world is subject to destruction and is
changeable. The idea behind it, which is the essence or the spirit of the universe, cannot be
destroyed.
• Reality: According to Idealists, ultimate reality lies in ideas. Mind is the source of these ideas
which relates to universal mind. Ideas are the true representative of the physical world. They
are evergreen and relevant forever. Whatever that is temporary, incomplete, and only
appearance cannot be considered as reality; only whatever is permanent, absolute and
eternal can be the ultimate reality.
• Knowledge: According to Idealists, knowledge is the product of reason and thinking which
emerges from mind. For them, knowledge of the heart or spiritual reality is the highest and
the worthiest knowledge. This knowledge can be obtained only through intuition and
thinking.
• Values: To the idealists, values reflect the good inherent in the universe. They believe that
values are absolute, eternal, and unchanging. Good and evil, right and wrong, beauty and
ugliness do not change from generation to generation or from society to society. In their
essence they always remain constant.

Aims of Education: Idealism has given the meaningful aims of education. Some of the important
aims of which are reproduced as

• Self-Realization or Exaltation of Personality: Self-realization means the actualization of the

highest potentialities of the self. Self-realization or "spiritual becoming" is the ultimate aim
of idealistic education. A self-realized man is an ideal man. He will have internalized the
spiritual values. The aim of education is to develop the “self” of individuals higher till self-
realization is achieved.
• Universal Education: Idealism places more emphasis upon more universal objects of
education. They believe that every man is equally the noblest work of God. There should be,
therefore, no exception made in the education of the children. Education should be
universal without distinction of wealth or status, creed, caste or colour.
• Preservation and Enrichment of Cultural Environment: Idealist education also aims at the
preservation, enrichment and transmission of culture. Education must contribute to the
development of this culture. It should help in enlarging the boundaries of spiritual realm.
The child needs to be introduced to his cultural heritage so as to enable him to conserve,
promote, and transmit it to coming generation.
• Development of Moral Sense: The aim of education according to idealism is to develop the
child's moral sense and thus enable him to distinguish right from wrong, to love good and
despise evil.
• Development of Inventive and Creative Powers: Man is not helpless like other species; He
has got certain inventive and creative powers. Through these inventions and creative skills,

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 he should change and modify the environment according to his needs and purposes. Hence,
the idealists aim at the development and propagation of such inventive and creative powers
through education.
• Simple Living and High Thinking: Idealism advocates that simple living and high thinking
should be the another aim of education. More than the environment it is the mind that
needs to be controlled

Curriculum: It is an accepted fact that curriculum construction involves knowledge selection and
organization. If the aim of education, according to idealistic philosophy, is to achieve the ideal man,
the curriculum has to be such which should enable man to develop fully. Any subject that creates an
ideal or spiritual self is most welcome to an idealist. Idealists would not object to the teaching of
science and technology but are only eager to caution that they must be humanized before they are
taught, that is organized and directed towards goals of human welfare. For example, while teaching
about the atom; it is essential to teach only about its peaceful uses, teach about the atomic reactor
and not the atomic bomb. The following subjects would be taught for developing students:

• Intellectual activity: The teachingof languages, literature, history, geography, mathematics

and science will encourage intellectual activity;
• Moral impulse: Moral impulse can be reinforced through art and poetry;
• Moral activities: Moral activities can be taught and instilled in the educand through the
teaching of religion, ethics etc;
• Physical activities: Besides intellectual, aesthetic and moral activities, education should be
physical. Without health and fitness the pursuit of spiritual values gets hampered. Health
and physical education cultivates bodily skills. Idealists also advocate various kinds of
handicrafts and manual skills.

Methods of teaching: Turning to methodology in education, idealists suggest that the methods must
be oriented to achieve the complete development of the innate abilities of child and to train him for
self-realization.” Idealists believe in a harmony between individual and social objectives. The child
must be provided with a liberal environment for his development and his education should be
related to present experience. Idealism does not propose the method rather asks us to follow
various methods. However, the predominant mode of 'activity' in the methods, idealism proposes is
thinking and reflection. Methods dear to idealism include: lecture, discussion, question-answer,
dialogue, and dialectic methods.

Discipline: While the idealists advocate freedom they emphasize the importance of discipline.The
idealists believe in strict discipline. The students are required to submit to laws and regulations and
they have "not to reason why". It is through hard and rigorous life that they will learn higher values
of life like sympathy, cooperation and devotion to duty.

Role of Teacher: Idealism accords a prominent position to the teacher in the educative process.
Although ideas are innate in the child, since the child is immature, the teacher has to function as the
'universe made personal' to the child. From idealistic perspective, the teacher

• is the personification of reality for the child;

• should be a specialist in the knowledge of pupils;
• should be an excellent technician;
• should be the kind of person who commands the respect of the pupil by virtue of what he
himself is;
• should be a personal friend of the individual student;

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 • should be a person who awakens in the pupil the desire to learn;
• should be a master of the art of living;
• must be one who appreciates the subject he teaches; and
• is an apostle of progress

Naturalism: Naturalism is a doctrine which separates nature from God. Naturalism is also termed as
materialism. According to this philosophy the basis of the world is matter. Mind is also a form of
matter. According to naturalism only nature is everything nothing is before and beyond it. It is a
system of thought that rejects all spiritual and supernatural explanations of the world and holds
that science is the sole basis of what can be known.Naturalism believes that it is through our sense
that we are able to get the real knowledge. The senses work like real gateways of knowledge and
exploration is the method that helps in studying nature.

Naturalism does not believe in spiritualism. It denies the existence of a spiritual universe —
the universe of ideas and values. According to naturalism, the material world is the only real world.
It is the only reality. Naturalism believes that mind is an accident in the process of evolution and it
can be explained in terms of nature. Mind is a function of the brain which is material in nature. Mind
is not the source of knowledge.

Forms of Naturalism:

• Physical Naturalism: It explains human activities and experiences in terms of material

objects and Natural laws. In other words physical Naturalism lays more stress on the
external material phenomena than the conscious human being.
• Biological Mechanism: Biological Naturalism is based upon the Darwinian theory of
evolution that man has evolved from lower animals by a gradual process of development.
Man is supreme product of this process of evolution.

Basic Postulates of Naturalism:

• Concept of God: Naturalist believe that God is within Nature. He is not all nature nor more
than nature .
• The Concept of Self: The self seems to be an organization of experience in everyone which is
constantly developing and changing. Naturalists are not much interested in the concept of
soul of man. According to them, man is the child of nature.
• Concept of Knowledge: In terms of theory of knowledge, Naturalism highlights the value of
scientific knowledge, through specific observation, accumulation, and generalization. It also
lays emphasis on the empirical and experimental knowledge.
• Concept of Values: Naturalism believes that. Nature is versatile. Instincts, drives, and
impulses need to be expressed rather than repressed. According to them, there is no
absolute good or evil in the world. Values of life are created by the human needs.

Naturalism and Education: Naturalism as a philosophy of education has exercised a great influence
on the theory and practice of education. Naturalism has no faith in formal education. To the
naturalists, formal education is artificial and vicious. Good education can be had only by a direct
contact with nature. Naturalism stands for complete freedom to be given to the child in learning.
He is to be left alone, free. Naturalism emphasizes free and spontaneous self-expression of the child

Aims of Education: Naturalism believes that education should aim at:

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 • Self-Expression: It is the main aim of education. It means giving the child full opportunity to
express or reveal his hidden capabilities and qualities.
• Perfection of human Machine: Mechanical naturalism suggests that education should aim at
the efficiency and perfection of human machine.
• Preparation for struggle of life: Biological Naturalists believe that life is a struggle, in which
only stronger living beings are successful. Hence the aim of education should be to prepare
the individual for the struggle of life.
• Development of Individuality: Every individual possesses his individuality and Special traits.
The aim of education should be the development of his Individuality.
• Secure Adjustment: Aim of education is to enable the individual to adjust himself physically
and mentally to his environment and to the changing circumstances in life.
• Progress: Education should accelerate the face of evaluation and thus achieve social
progress much earlier than other wise.

Curriculum: Regarding the concept of curriculum, naturalists emphasized:

• No rigid curriculum: Naturalism does not advocate any rigid or fixed type of curriculum.
Child learns best in a natural setting and nature is a grand book. Naturalistic curriculum is
based upon the psychology of child and gives maximum importance to the age and stage of
his development.
• Sciences: Idealists lay emphasis on the study of humanities but naturalists believe in science
subjects viz. Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany. They also give due importance to
Mathematics and languages.

Methods of Teaching: The naturalists say that there are two methods of teaching — the positive and
the negative. When systematic and sustained efforts are made to impose knowledge on the child
without considering his interests and aptitudes, it is called positive method of teaching. It is negative
education when the child is left free to develop his body and senses. A negative education does not
mean a time of idleness; far from it. It does not give virtue, it protects from vice; it does not
inculcate truth; it protects from error.

The greatest attraction of the child is play. The naturalists, therefore, have given a
prominent place to the play-way method. It is play which helps the child to express himself fully. To
the naturalists book reading is unpsychological. The child engages himself in those activities and
experiences, which appear to him interesting and joyful. He does all learning by his own interest. The
principle advocated by Naturalists have brought into being the modern methods of teaching which
are;

• Observation method.
• Experimental method.
• Play way method
• Heuristic method
• Dalton method
• Montessori Method

All these methods are self-learning methods and as such they are very effective and purposeful

Discipline: Nature will punish the child if he contravenes the law of nature and thus he will learn by
the consequences of his own action. Thus nobody should interfere in this process of nature.
Naturalists have no faith in discipline based on external force. They condemn corporal punishment

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as it represses the impulses and instincts of the children. Naturalism stands for a “hands-off’ policy in
education. The only discipline to be applied is the discipline of natural consequences.

If the consequences of his action turn out to be pleasant and favourable, it would be
repeated and, therefore, learnt. On the contrary, if the consequences of an action are found to be
unpleasant, it shall be given up. Thus, the forces of pleasure and pain will effectively teach discipline
to the child.

Role of Teacher: The educator should not interfere in the natural development of the child. He
should not impose ideals or ideas on him. He is only to help the child in the discovery of truth. He
has to provide suitable opportunities and create conditions which are conducive to the natural
development of the child. The place of the educator is not primary but secondary. He is an observer
of the child’s development rather than a giver of information.

The role of the educator is that of a friend, philosopher and guide. Such a role of the teacher
is advocated by all the modern educators and in all the modern methods of teaching.

Merits:

• Development of child psychology.

• Scientific study of society and sociology.
• Emphasis on experiences-centred curriculum.
• Important contribution in the field of methods of teaching.
• Opposition to Repression in the field of discipline.

Limitations:

• It altogether ignores the spiritual and moral aspects of human nature. It totally neglects the
moral development of the child.
• Naturalism takes into account only the present needs of the child and ignores his future
needs and the ultimate goals and purposes of man’s life.
• Naturalism leaves the child purely to the discipline of natural consequences which, often,
involves grave risks.
• Naturalism throws the teacher with superior knowledge and experience into the
background. He takes secondary position in the educative process.

Pragmatism: Pragmatism as a school of philosophy is recent in origin. According to the Concise

Oxford dictionary 'pragmatic' means dealing with matters according to their practical significance or
immediate importance. Pragmatism as a method welcomes and proposes any idea which is testable
and which leads to favorable outcomes. Pragmatism as a method welcomes and proposes any idea
which is testable and which leads to favorable outcomes.

Pragmatists lay down standards which are realizable.Whatever they wish to do, they
examine its utility and do it immediately. They do not believe in speculations.

Philosophical Concepts of Pragmatism:

• Truth: Examining the question of truth, Pragmatists believe that “any thing which helps in
achieving our purposes and goals of life and works best in advancing and developing our life”
is real and true. It believes that truth is that which works and can be verified by experience
and by public evidence.

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 • Reality: According to pragmatism there is no immutable, permanent reality; reality is ever
changing and dynamic. Reality is always in a constant flux. It is not found in 'being'; it is
always 'becoming'.
• Knowledge: Pragmatists do not distinguish between “truth and knowledge”. They believe
that it is knowledge when we have apprehended truth. So they believe that “if it is
knowledge, it must be true”.
• Values: What contributes to human and social growth and development is regarded as
valuable; what restricts or contracts experience is unworthy. Human experience is the main
determiner of values in life.
• Experience: Pragmatists do not believe in “abstractions”, “insufficiency”, “verbal solutions".
They want concreteness, adequacy, facts, and actions.

Aims of Education: Being a philosophy of change, pragmatism does not believe in permanent and
absolute values; all values are relative. There can, therefore, be no permanent aims of education.
The aims of education also keep changing in an ever changing reality.

• Creation of Values: The main aim of education, according to pragmatic school of philosophy
is the creation of values. Values are created by activity and experience. The main task of
educator is to put the educand in such a position so as to develop values for himself.
Thereafter, education should provide physical, intellectual, aesthetic, moral and religious
activities as the media for creation of values.
• Maximum Growth: Education should enable the individual to grow to his maximum. All
growth must be conducive to the welfare of the individual and the society. Thus, the aim of
education is to provide the conditions for the better and continuous growth.
• Harmonious Development: Like idealists, pragmatists do not believe in spiritual values but
they do not ignore the harmonious development of man - physical, intellectual, aesthetic,
social, moral and religious. Therefore, the aim of education is to direct "the impulses,
interests, and abilities towards the satisfaction of the felt want of the child in his
environment.
• Social Efficiency: The function of education is to habituate an individual to social control; to
develop a willingness to subordinate his natural urges to social rules. Social efficiency
includes industrial competence and good citizenship. Industrial competence refers to
economic efficiency and economic control. Good citizenship means the ability to judge men
and measure wisely and to take a determining part in making as well as obeying laws.
• Proper Adjustment: Pragmatists believe that education should enable the human being to
be fairly adjusted in his existent environment.

Curriculum: Experience is education for pragmatism. Therefore it rejects the tendency of traditional
approaches to curriculum where knowledge is separated. Pragmatists does not approve a rigid,
traditional pattern of curriculum wherein there would be water-tight compartmentalization of
knowledge into different subjects. Pragmatists favour the curriculum which permits the educand to
develop all his qualities and obtain all knowledge. The pragmatists have suggested the following
principles in determining a curriculum:

• Principle of Utility: Pragmatists advocates that curriculum should be utilitarian. According to

the principle of utility, only those subjects, activities and experiences be included in the
curriculum which are useful for the present needs of the child and also for the future
requirements

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 • Principle of Child’s Natural Interests: Curriculum should be governed by child's natural
interests, aptitudes and tastes at the successive stages of his development.
• Principle of Experience: Pragmatists advocate teaching through actual experience rather
than rote learning. Teaching through books should be supplemented by programmes which
provide practical experience of varied nature.
• Principle of Integration: This principle deals with the integration of subjects and activities.
Pragmatism regards knowledge as one unit. It cannot be divided into watertight
compartments. Teaching of various units should be closely inter linked and correlated so as
to form right concepts and proper understanding in children.

Methods of Teaching: The emphasis in teaching is on problem-solving method in real life situations.
The pragmatic methods of education are based on psychology and sociology; subject to the
conditions that they give adequate scope for active participation by the educand and also that the
method adopted must be dynamic and changeable. Both these conditions are laid down by the
pragmatists because they believe in teaching through actual experience. One of the methods
evolved by them is the project method. Pragmatic thinkers point out that success of any educational
philosophy lies in its ability to raise the standard of teaching.

Pragmatism refuses to distinguish between theory and practice. True education lies not in
knowing but in doing, and the child learns by active work, either in group activity or individual
activity. This is known as the method of learning by doing. The educand has to learn not from the
educator's experience but by his own experience, and this experience cannot be replaced by books,
schools or any other institution.

The principle of integration is of major importance in pragmatic theory. It is believed that

knowledge should not be fragmented. The process of learning should be an integrated one because
it is natural for human beings to create a unity in their experience.

Project Method : The first step in the project method is to determine the objective, and then to
consider the various ways in which it can be achieved. The next step is to formulate a project for
achieving it. Following this, the project is put into actual practice and finally the success or failure of
the project is evaluated. All that remains is to prepare a complete detailed report of the project. The
merits of this method lie in the; fact that it involves active participation and hence it takes the
educand along the path of self-development and self-discipline. Being psychological in nature, it
helps to evolve social and civic qualities in the individual and thus leads to success in adult life. The
project method has been particularly successful in the case of curricular programmes.

Discipline: Pragmatist aim of education is growth and it happens only under conditions of freedom.
Freedom, however, is not absence of discipline. Let the natural interests of the children be aroused,
satisfied and sustained and the problem of indiscipline will not arise.Purposeful cooperative
activities create in the children virtues like initiative, self reliance, tolerance and consideration for
others. They help in building the morals and training of the character. They encourage social virtues
and discourage selfishness and individualism.

In pragmatism, there is no place for rewards and punishments, as every activity is to be

pursued in social setting, where all the members are equal. Ultimately the child has to become an
enlightened and contributory citizen

Role of Teacher: The teacher is not a dictator but only a leader of group activities. He should not
overshadow the personality of the pupil. He has to plan and organize the teachinglearning situation,
provide learning experiences and opportunities for experimentation. The pragmatic teacher is more

15
concerned with the process of solving problems intelligently. The pragmatist teacher does not ignore
the importance of subject matter but rather uses it instrumentally to fashion solutions to problems.

He has to be active, alert, and resourceful. He must be trained, efficient and a man of
foresight. He has to create learning situations for the child. In different situations, he remains a
friend and helper, but not superfluous nor the supreme authority. It is he who educates the child
about self discipline and active participation.

Pragmatist teacher works to make the classroom into a community. He consciously

encourages the students to share their interests, concerns and problems with each other. Students
build a sense of community as they work together to solve common problems.

Realism: (To be elaborated by

• Physical world is real.

• Importance on material world which is real.
• Cause-effect relation-ship is universal and universally accepted.
• Fully scientific attitude.
• Do not believe in the existence of God.
• Matter is the centre of reality, (matter-centric).
• Believe in material prosperity and comfortable living.
• It is a pluralistic concept
• Physical laws are universal.
• It is reality-centred.

Educational Principles:

• Based on science only material world is the base.

• Emphasises child- centered education. Education is to be imparted in accordance with the
interests of the child.
• Emphasises observa-tion, experimentation, and experience.
• Opposes bookish learning.
• It is liable to change according to a change in life.
• Attaches due importance to discipline.
• Philosophy is developed from education.

Aims of Education:

• Preparing the child for a real life.

• Development of physical and mental powers of the child.
• Development and training of senses.
• Development of a complete man.
• Adjustment with physical and social environment.
• Imparting vocational education.

Curriculum:

• Subjects concerning day-to-day life are included.

• Emphasis on practical and utilitarian subjects.
• Main subjects are Natural science, Biological science, Physical sciences, Health, Culture,
Math’s, Geography, History, Astronomy, Sports and Vocational education.

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Methods of Teaching:

• Inductive method, objective methods, learning by walking and by experience, correlation

teaching, experimental method and heuristic method etc..

Discipline:

• Restricted freedom.
• Self-discipline.
• Emphasises a synthetic type of impressionistic and emancipating discipline.

Teacher:

• Teacher’s role is supreme.

• He should present facts in the real form in an intelligent way. He should not add any thing of
his own.
• He should provide opportunities for observation and experimentation.

School:

• It is a socially well-planned institution.

• It is a mirror of society.

Existentialism: Existentialism is the most individualistic of all modern philosophies. Its overriding
concern is with the individual and its primary value is the absolute freedom of the person. Great
emphasis is placed on art, on literature, and the humanistic studies, for it is in these areas that man
finds himself and discovers what values he will seek to attain.

Fundamental Postulates of Existentialism:

• Permanence and Change: existentialists reject the notion that there is a predetermined
nature for every human being. Man is not born with a rational soul which “forms the
matter,” the body. Man has no essence at birth; he must create his own essence. the
existentialist would concur that no living beings will remain the same – all are in the process
of changing. Consequently, existentialism is to be classified as one of the philosophies of
change.
• Existence precedes essence: Existentialism is a revolt against any kind of determinism and
an affirmation of the free nature of man. They affirm that existence is prior to essence that
man is fundamentally free to create his essences. As Black ham writes, “There is no creator
of man. Man discovered himself. His existence came first; he now is in the process of
determining his essence. Man first is, and then he defines himself.”
• Freedom is identical with existence: The most important characteristic to an existentialist is
freedom and that it is absolute. Man has no guideposts by which to make his choice. He
must simply make choices and this choice will determine his being. He is completely
responsible for his own decisions and the effects they will have upon himself and others.
• Reason-Existentialism asserts that people actually make decisions based on the meaning to
them rather than rationally.
• Abandonment-By abandonment, the existentialist means that since God does not exist, man
is left to his own deserts in crating himself and the kind of world in which he will live.

Existentialism in education: The philosophy of existentialism has not displayed any particular
interest in education. Therefore, it has been observed that the educational implications are derived

17
and deduced from their philosophy rather than that are developed by existentialists. Just as its
namesake sprang from a strong rejection of traditional philosophy, educational existentialism sprang
from a strong rejection of the traditional, essentialist approach to education.

Existentialism rejects the existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth about
metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible for determining for
themselves what is “true” or “false,” “right” or “wrong,” “beautiful” or “ugly.”

Aims and Objectives of Education:

• According to existentialist, education should make a man subjective and should make him
conscious for his individuality or ‘self’. Being self conscious he will recognize his ‘self’ and he
will get an understanding of his ‘being’. Individuality lies on self-realization, a motivating
force, from an existential perspective.
• Education for happiness is a dangerous doctrine because there can be no happiness without
pain and no ecstasy without suffering.” Therefore, existentialists would welcome an
education, which throws open to children human suffering, misery, anguish and the dreadful
responsibilities of adult life.
• Every individual is unique. Education must develop in him this uniqueness. It must cater to
individual differences.
• The most important aim in education is the becoming of a human person as one who lives
and makes decisions about what he will do and be.
• The ultimate aim of education is to make man conscious of his destination, to give
understanding of his ‘being’ and ultimately lead him to his heavenly abode.

Curriculum of Existentialism:

• Although many existentialist educators provide some curricular structure, existentialism,

more than other educational philosophies, affords students great latitude in their choice of
subject matter. In an existentialist curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options
from which to choose.
• Existence of individuals must constitute the “core of studies” both in and out of school. It is
worth noting, however, they do not demand that history, science, mathematics, and the like
be thrown out of the curriculum. Their criticism is leveled at the impersonal, cold, and dry as
dust approach to subject matter found in the schools.
• There is one feature of the existentialist curriculum which should differentiate it sharply
from most existing elementary, secondary, and college programs. Existentialists advise using
art forms to express opinions among students.
• The central place is given to ‘humanities’, poetry, drama, music, art, novels etc. as they exert
the human impact in revealing man’s inherent quilt, sin, suffering, tragedy, death, late and
love
• Scientific subjects and mathematics should be included in the curriculum but they should
not be given more stress, as they deal with objective knowledge. ‘Self-knowledge precedes
universal knowledge.

Teaching Methods:

• Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self directed, and
includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who relates to each student
openly and honestly.

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 • Perhaps the most significant assumption or underlying belief regarding educational
methodology is that any teaching method must place the responsibility for choosing what to
learn on the individual. This assumption is entirely in harmony with the existentialist’s
insistence upon the absolute freedom of the individual.
• Existentialists favor the "Problem Method' of teaching which emphasises on providing
solutions to problems only if they originates in ones life.
• They reject the group method, because in-group dynamic, the superiority of the group
decision over individual decision is prominent. There is a danger of losing unique
individualism and free choice.

Role of Teacher:

• The teacher’s role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various
paths they may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely choose
their own preferred way. Existentialists demands the education of the whole person, not just
the mind.
• An important characteristic of a teacher is that they have the ability to make judgments with
regards to what is worthwhile and valuable in them and in others
• He must himself be a free personality, engaged in such relations and projects with individual
students that they get the idea that they are too are free personalities. He may indirectly
influence them about his values but he should impose his cherished values on them, test his
values become the code of conduct for the students, who may begin to accept them without
thought. Instead of expecting them to imitate he should help them to be ‘original’ and
‘authentic’.
• The teacher must build positive relationships between himself and his students. He should
avoid applying labels to children (such as ‘lazy’, ‘slow learner’ etc.) for individuals may
indeed come to think of themselves this way. The teacher is also changing and growing as he
guides the pupil in his discovery of self.

Contribution made to educational thought and practice by – Plato, Gandhi, Dewey, Rousseau and
Tagore: The field of education is a critical one. On it, depends the psyche of the future generation. It
is the one factor which can be used to influence even in a very minor way the outcomes of the
future. This is why this field has seen a lot of theorizing from varied philosophical geniuses and
visionaries of different time periods. Every one of the philosophers have brought their own unique
theory on what could be the ideal way of imparting education to the little children.

Gandhi: The essence of greatness of Mahatma Gandhi not only lies in his achievements in social,
economic and political field for the emancipation of his countrymen in South Africa or for the
liberation of India from the British rule, but also in attuning a high degree of transformation in
himself and in the lives of his followers. Gandhi looked upon his life as a series of experiments with
truth and concluded that ‘life consists of nothing but experiments.’

Gandhi’s philosophy relating to society and its institutions seem to be centred on his
concept of: ‘(a) human happiness and development and (b) the place of man in society and the
relationship between the two.’ His concept of man (or God) and non-violence (ahimsa) developed
slowly in the course of the pursuit of his human and social ends. On truth and non-violence, Gandhi
built the entire edifice of his thought and action.

Gandhi’s Philosophy of Education : In his words, ‘By education, I mean all-round drawing out of the
best in the child and man-body, mind and spirit’. Literacy, according to him, is neither the end of

19
education nor even the beginning. It is one of the means whereby man and woman can be educated.
Gandhi’s purpose of education is to raise man to a higher order through full development of the
individual and the evolution of a ‘new man.

Aims of Education: Gandhiji’s concept of education has two-fold aims—ultimate and immediate.

Ultimate aim of education: Self-realization is the ultimate aim of life as well as of education. . In the
words of Gandhi, ‘True education should result not in material power but in spiritual force. It must
strengthen man’s faith in God and not weaken it.

Immediate aims of education: The immediate aims of education of Gandhiji are many as they are
related to different aspects of life. They are education for character building, education for
community (community-centred education), self-supporting aspects of education, cultural aims of
education, social and individual aims of education, sex education, etc

Education for character building: Character building was the fundamental enterprise in Gandhi’s
ideal school. Development of personality was more significant than accumulation of intellectual
tools and academic knowledge.

Community centred education: Gandhi advocated community-centred education. According to him,

the school is basically a community linked to social achievements. It should be an organized society
itself which is engaged in some faithful activity contributing to the greater society. Students should
learn how to live together in a community on the basis of cooperation, truth and non-violence

Self-supporting aspect of education: Gandhi aimed at the self-supporting aspect of education. He

advocated knowledge through work. The use of craft at all levels and at all stages of education was
his concept of ‘Karma-Yoga’. He wanted to teach children the dignity of labour. He was against
bookishness and excessive verbalizing in teaching

Fundamentals of Gandhian Basic Education (Wardha Scheme): In the year 1937, Gandhi finalized a
scheme of education out of his experiments and tried for its adaptation throughout the country. He
placed the salient feature of his scheme of education in the All India National Education Conference
convened at Wardha. The report generated is known as ‘Wardha scheme’ or ‘Basic National
Education'.

Features of basic education:

Free and compulsory education: Gandhi advocated that within the age group 7 to 14, there should
be free, compulsory and universal education. He wanted to combine the primary education with
secondary education and called it, ‘English less-matriculation.’ Thus, matriculation minus English was
his aim of education

The curriculum: The Gandhian curriculum consisted of ‘the craft, the mother tongue of the students,
mathematics, social studies, natural science and music.’ English, as medium of instruction, according
to him was the greatest handicap in the prevailing system of education. It hindered understanding,
obstructed clarity of thought and put a check on self-expression. He considered Hindustani to be the
common language which can be used both by the Hindus and Muslims.

Influence of Gandhi on the Practices of School Education: Let us analyse the various aspects of
education as envisaged by Gandhi.

Basic education, as conceived and explained by Mahatma Gandhi, is essentially an education

for life and an education through life. That is why productive, creative and socially useful work in

20
which all boys and girls may participate, irrespective of any distinction of caste, creed or class, is
placed at the very centre of Basic Education.

The effective teaching of a Basic craft is an essential part of education at this stage. It makes
the acquisition of much related knowledge more concrete and realistic. It makes a powerful
contribution to the development of personality and character and instills respect and love for all
socially useful work. The fundamental objective of Basic education is the development of the child’s
total efficiency as well.

The emphasis on productive work and crafts in Basic School should not be taken to mean
that the study of books can be ignored. the value of the book, both as a source of additional
systematized knowledge and of pleasure, cannot be denied.

The Basic scheme envisages a close integration between the schools and the community so
as to make education as well as the children more social-minded and co-operative. It endeavors to
achieve this firstly, by organizing the school itself as a living and functioning community with its
social and cultural programmes and other activities. Secondly, by encouraging students to
participate in life around the school and in organizing various types of social service to the local
community.

Tagore: The educational idea and ideals of Tagore originated out of his own home, life, and the
freedom he had experienced within it. His father did not send him to school but educated him at
home with the help of tutors. So he says, ‘Whatever I learned, I have learned outside of class.
‘Tagore emphasized that true education can be imparted during freedom and cultural surroundings.
Learning must be linked organically to the whole of life, the people, the land, and its culture. With
this ideal in view, he developed his own educational theory-Basis Principles of Tagore’s Philosophy of
Education.

• Realization of harmony with all things: Tagore advocated that true education is the
realization of an inner quality of man, a realization that places human life in harmony with
all existence. India, according to Tagore, is a land of harmony. It has the special power of
binding together and bringing about synthesis of the various elements of man’s being. Thus,
realization of harmony has been specified in the educational ideas and ideals of Tagore.
• Principle of freedom, sympathy and joy: Another important aspect of Tagore’s educational
ideas is freedom, sympathy and joy. The life of a child is life of freedom. Man can attain his
fullness of growth only through freedom. True education is that which liberates. Sympathy
and joy are two important educational values. Man can attain full personality with all forms
of life. Sympathy can be developed by intimate contact between nature and man. Natural
environment can provide the child with education in sympathy.
During his student life, Tagore realized that education in India was ‘joyless
education.’ When he developed his own theory of education, he emphasized that education
should wed joy to knowledge. The noblest work in life is that work which is wedded to joy.
Thus, the right path to education is the path (Yoga) full of joy (Ananda). So he is popularly
known as an ‘Anandayogi’.

Aims of Education: The most important aim of education, according to Tagore, is the development
of individual leading to the harmonious development of personality. Personality should develop to
the fullness. In the words of Tagore, ‘To attain full manhood is the ultimate end of education; every
thing else is subordinate to it.

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 Tagore also emphasized on the intellectual development of the child. By intellectual
development, he means the development of imagination, free thinking, constant curiosity and
alertness of the mind. He is against bookish education.

Tagore’s educational philosophy also aimed at the physical development of the child. He
gave much importance to a healthy body

Curriculum: Curriculum was meant to attain the aims of education; Tagore advocated that it was
wide and comprehensive. It referred to all aspects of human life, physical intellectual, moral and
spiritual. The curriculum was designed to acquire, ‘fullness of experience’ from multiple source.

Subjects included in the curriculum

• Languages and literature, mother tongue, other Indian languages and other foreign
languages like German, Latin, Chinese, French, and Russian.
• Mathematics.
• Natural sciences like physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, general science and
health education.
• Social sciences like history, civics, geography, economics and sociology.
• Agriculture and technical subjects.
• Arts, music, dance etc.
• Religion, philosophy and psychology.

Methods of Teaching: Tagore was against the mechanical and parrot like repetition used by our
teachers. He was an ardent lover of children. He had an implicit faith in the child’s inborn
potentialities. For the expression of these potentialities, Tagore felt that the environment is more
important than the formal rules and methods, techniques and textbooks, building and equipments.
Tagore emphasized the following methods of teaching :

• Teaching while walking: While discussing about the methods of teaching, Tagore opined,
‘Teaching while walking is the best method.’ He believed that subjects like History,
Geography and other Social Sciences can be effectively taught through frequent excursions
and tours.
• Activity method: Tagore believed that for the development of body and mind, learning
through activities is essential.
• Debate and discussion method: Debating activities were organized to develop oratorical
abilities of the students. Students were encouraged to solve various problems through
discussion.
• Medium of instruction: Tagore emphasized on the study of mother tongue as the medium
of instruction. He publicly opposed the study of English in Indian schools. He had a faith that
the harmony in language will be only through the study of one’s own language.
• Social service: Social service was one of the important objectives of Tagore’s theory of
education. According to him, it is a bond which knitted the human beings into communities
and communities into nations and so on. Education is to bring about a synthesis between
individual and society.
• The school system: According to Tagore, a school does not lay the foundation for the
development of man. It only lays seeds. A free atmosphere is better than the classroom
teaching. So a natural harmonious, free, open and simple atmosphere should be provided to
the children of school.

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Influence of Tagore on the Practices of School Education: Shantiniketan : To give practical shape to
his educational ideas, Tagore established an educational institution. He named it ‘Shantiniketan’ the
Abode of Peace. In his words, the school was a work of art and not a Pedagogical Laboratory. This
school had all the characteristics of a garden school, ‘Ashram’ like and ‘gurukula.’

Special Features of Shantiniketan :

• Homely atmosphere: The school was a ‘Gurukula’ (a residential hermitage), where students
and the teachers were living together in a very simple manner. All the students reside on the
premises, eat, drink and sleep together without the distinction of caste and creed. Simple
and cheap food was cooked and served by the students themselves.
• Religious and spiritual atmosphere: Being a great visionary and a man of wisdom, Tagore
wanted the emancipation of man from material bondages with the help of religious and
spiritual education. He aimed at perfection, not only that of body and mind only but also
that of the soul. In Shantiniketan, he made provision for the, study of the religious ideas of
the Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians and other religions of the east and
the west.
• Natural atmosphere: Shantiniketan was a garden school. Students were receiving education
in the open air. The whole life of the school was going on out of the doors. Classes were held
under the shades of the trees. Students were free to enjoy the flowers of the spring and the
harvest of autumn the heat and the dew storm, rain and the quiet moonlight nights.

Dewey: Dewey’s philosophy and programme has been variously termed as ‘Experimentalism’,
‘Functionalism’, and above all ‘Pragmatism’All these indicate his emphasis on the dynamic and ever
charging character of life. Dewey tests every hypothesis or belief or principle by the way it works or
by its consequences. He does not believe in the existence of any absolute values or ultimate moral
principles. Pragmatism teaches that which is useful, what works in a practical situation is true; what
does not work is false. Truth thus becomes not a ‘fixed’, ‘eternal’ thing, but something that is subject
to change. Five values stressed by Dewey:

• Aesthetic taste or capacity.

• Conscientiousness.
• Efficiency.
• Scientific spirit.
• Sociability and social efficiency

Experience and Experimental Method: Dewey explains that - where there is experience, there is a
living being.To learn from experience is to make a backward and forward connection between what
we do to things and what we enjoy or suffer from things.

Experimental method is the friend of every belief that permits habits andwants to dominate
invention and discovery, and readymade system to override verifiable fact. Constant revision is the
work of experimental inquiry.

Selectivity in experience: Mere activity is not experience. A stream of meaningful experiences have
to be provided. That kind of present experience should be selected and emphasised which lives
fruitfully and creatively in the course of future experiences

Education in growth: What is of enormous significance for Dewey is the present life and its
possibilities. He criticises the conception of education as a ‘preparation’ for the realisation of some

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remote future goal. It is essential that the immediate situation should be interpreted in such a
meaningful way

Influence of Dewey on the Practices of School Education

Functions of School: The first office of the school is to provide a simplified environment. It should
select the features which are fairly fundamental.

In the second place, it should be the business of the school environment to eliminate, so far
as possible, the unworthy features of the existing environment. It should establish a purified
medium of action. Selection should aim not only at simplifying but at weeding out what is
undesirable.

In the third place, it is the office of the school environment to balance the various elements
in the social environment, and to see to it that each individual gets an opportunity to escape from
the limitations of the social group in which he was born, and to come into living contact with a
broader environment.

Laboratory School: Dewey wanted that the training of scholars in the school should be such as to
enable them for a complete living in the social world of today. Dewey posed the following problems
and attempted to find their solution:

• How to bring the school life into closer relation with the home and surrounding life?
• How to introduce subject-matter in history, science and arts to give a positive value
and real significance in the child’s life?
• How to correlate instruction in different subjects with everyday experience and
occupation?
• How to cater to individual powers and needs

Manual Occupations in the School: Dewey found the answer to the above mentioned problems in
the introduction of the following occupations in the school:

• Shopwork with wood and tools

• Cooking work
• Work with textiles (sewing and weaving)

School Curriculum: Development of social insight and interest:

With this increase in a diversified school population, Dewey advocates that broader
curricular programmes are needed and emphasis should be placed on the total development of the
person as being equally important as the intellectual and the academic. Such a curriculum
acknowledges that the social responsibilities of education must present situations where problems
are relevant to the issues of living together, and where observation and information are calculated
to develop social insight and interest.

The subject-matter of geography, arithmetic and grammar should come out of school
situations in answer to social needs.

The curriculum must grow out of child’s interests, experiences, impulse and needs. The
curriculum must be child centered. He stressed that the school subjects should be woven around the
child’s activities. Following are the main characteristics and principles of the curriculum:

• Curriculum should reflect the social life and social activities. It should have utility.

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 • It must follow the principle of progressive organization of knowledge consisting
• of educative experiences and problems of the learners
• The new experiences and problems should grow out of the old ones.
• The experiences should be flexible and changeable in accordance with the child’s
• interests and should be graded.
• Dewey briefly recommended the following methods of instruction:
o Learning by doing
o Learning by integration and correlation.
o Learning through productive and creative activities

Philosophy of Rousseau: Rousseau was greatly influenced by three factors viz., the state of time,
extremely varied experience of his life and his impulsive and emotional nature. His philosophy is
usually designated by the term ‘Naturalism’. He contends that all the ills and miseries of civilisation
are due to a departure from a ‘State of Nature’. ‘Return of Nature’ was his method to cure the world
of ills and miseries.

Three Sources of Education

According to Rousseau, following were three sources:

• Education of nature: ‘The constitutional exertion of our organs and faculties is the education
of nature.’
• Education given by men: ‘The uses we are taught to make of that exertion, constitute the
education given to us by men.’
• Education from circumstances: ‘And in the acquisitions made by our own experience, on the
objects that surround us, consists of our education from circumstances.’

Influence of Rousseau on the Practices of School Education: Rousseau was against the oral and
theoretical methods of teaching which was pursued in his time. Instead, he recommended play way
method of teaching learning. Real education to him was self-education acquired through experience
observation.

Rousseau’s Views on Methods of Teaching:

• Individual instruction: Rousseau emphasised the due importance of individual instruction.

He believed that the individuality of the child should be recognised by the educator and duly
respected by him.
• The principle of learning by doing: He lays stress on the principle of learning by doing. He
says, ‘teach by doing whenever you can and only fall back on words when doing is out of
question.’ He believes that the child should take part in various activities and learn in a
natural way. When the child wants to do something with his own hands, his urge for creative
activity must be satisfied.
• Direct experiences of the child: Knowledge acquired from books is secondhand and easily
forgotten. Personal knowledge directly acquired, from various learning situations, is
something permanent, which the child will not forget. This will constitute the permanent
nature of his character.
• Example is better than precept: For imparting moral education, Rousseau believes in the
principle that example is better than precept. There is no use lecturing on morality to him,
he should have an example of moral behaviour and opportunities may be provided to him to
practise virtue.

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 • Social knowledge by social participation: The child in his period of adolescence will get
knowledge about social relations by actually visiting places and coming in contact with the
members of the community.

Rousseau’s Views on Curriculum:

Rousseau recommends curriculum in accordance with the stage of the child. Curriculum at the first
stage (from one to five years) would be such as it develops physical strength. The child should be
allowed to wander freely in the countryside. His play-things should be very simple such as branches
with fruits and flowers and no expensive toys.

Curriculum at the second stage (between five to twelve years) should lead to the
development of senses. Rousseau thinks that if senses are not trained properly, independent
reasoning and judgement are impossible.

Curriculum at the third stage of pre-adolescence (twelve to fifteen years) should be built
around curiosity which should create an urge for knowledge. Rousseau states that this is the period
for developing intellect.

In the fourth stage of the adolescence period (fifteen to twenty years of age), training of
heart should receive attention. In the earlier stages, the boy was an individual working for self-
perfection and self-development. Now he has to be social and adapt himself to the conduct and
interest of others. The study of society, politics, economics, history and religion are the appropriate
studies for the youth to understand complex social relationships.

Plato: Plato was born in Athens in a wealthy and influential family. Plato began his philosophical
career as a student of Socrates. Plato founded a school in Athens, in a grove sacred to the demigod
Academus, called the Academy (which is where we get the word academics from today). His work,
Republic, is a dialogue which discusses the education necessary to produce an ideal society. It is an
education of a strange sort – he called it paideia. Paideia refers to the process whereby the physical,
mental and spiritual development of the individual is of paramount importance. It is the education
of the total individual.

Plato’s Epistemology: He distinguished between the reality presented to us by our senses sight,
touch, taste, sound and smell and the essence or Form of that reality. In other words, reality is
always changing – knowledge of reality is individual, it is particular, it is knowledge only to the
individual knower, it is not universal.

There are 3 sources of knowledge: Knowledge obtained from senses i.e. knowledge of objects ,
colours, taste, touch etc.

But Plato does not consider this as real knowledge. An opinion regarding any object , but
this knowledge cannot be relied upon as the views of every person differs regarding the same
object. Knowledge through mind or wisdom – it is the highest degree of knowledge which includes
virtues like truth , goodness and beauty. This knowledge is idealistic and is based on original
thinking. The characteristic of knowledge is that it is found in the form of universal truth

The highest goal of education, Plato believed, is the knowledge of Good; to nurture a man to
a better human being, it is not merely an awareness of particular benefits and pleasures.

Teaching Methods: Plato recommended play method at elementary level; student should learn by
doing. And when he/she reaches the higher level of education, his reason would be trained in the

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processes of thinking and abstracting. Plato wanted motivation and interest in learning. He was
against the use of force in education.

Plato wanted a place where children love to go and stay there and they play with things which
enhance their education by playing. Plato gave importance to nursery education, as nursery
education plays a vital role in the education of man and it helps to build his moral character and
state of mind

Role of Teacher: In Plato’s plan of education

• The educator is considered to have greatest importance.

• He is like torch bearer who leads a man lying in the dark cave, out of the darkness into the
bright light of the outside world.
• The teacher is thus the constant guide of the students.
• The teacher must be a person of high integrity and must possess high self worth.
• He must have pleasing personality, in depth knowledge and professional training.
• He should be deeply committed to his profession, have high sense of responsibility and a
true role model. Teachers should lead a true moral life. They should practice what they
preach.

The aim of education is not personal growth but service of the state, which is the guarantor of the
happiness of its citizens for as long as they allow it to be the embodiment of justice. Education must
be compulsory for all.

Epistemology – meaning, kinds and instruments of Knowledge:

Meaning: Epistemology, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos (word/speech) is
the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge.Epistemology
deals with the definition of knowledge and its scope and limitations. It translates from Greek to
mean ‘theory of knowledge’. It questions the meaning of knowledge, how we obtain knowledge,
how much do we know and how do we have this knowledge.?

Kinds of knowledge: As Epistemology is the investigation into the grounds and nature of knowledge
itself. The study of epistemology focuses on our means for acquiring knowledge and how we can
differentiate between truth and falsehood. Knowledge can be acquired in numerous forms:

• Priori it is possible to know things before we have had experiences — this is known as a
priori knowledge because priori means before. It includes Independent of the knowledge of
experience. Belonging to the mind prior to experience. This term is usually applied to
principles or judgments whose validity is independent of sense data Knowledge which is self-
evident. Principles which, when once understood, are recognized to be true and do not
require proof through observation, experience, or experiment.
• Posteriori: we can only know things after we have had the relevant experience — this is
labeled a posteriori knowledge because posteriori means “after.”It includes (Inductive
thinking beginning with the data of experience opposed to a priori)Knowledge which is
based upon experience and observation
• Experimental knowledge- It is something to be put to work in experience as a function
which carries experience forward satisfactorily.

The Instruments of Knowledge:

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 • Empiricism: knowledge is obtained through experience .The position, or sense-perceptual
experience, is the medium through which knowledge is gained. Empiricism, is more uniform
in the sense that it denies that any form of rationalism is true or possible.
• Rationalism: knowledge can be acquired through the use of reason .The position that reason
is the chief source of knowledge. Rationalism is not a uniform position. Some rationalists will
simply argue that some truths about reality can be discovered through pure reason and
thought (examples include truths of mathematics, geometry and sometimes morality) while
other truths do require experience. Other rationalists will go further and argue that all truths
about reality must in some way be acquired through reason, normally because our sense
organs are unable to directly experience outside reality at all.
• Intuitionism-A position that knowledge is gained through immediate insight and awareness
.Direct or immediate knowledge of self, others,or data .An internal, personal phenomenon.
• Autoritarionism-The position that much important knowledge is certified to us by an
indisputable authority.
• Reveleation –T he position that God presently reveals himself in the holy books or holy
places. A communication of God,s will to man from some external source.

Metaphysical problems and education – with reference to nature of man, problem of freedom and
the concept of god(Reader thoughts required): Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that
studies the ultimate nature of reality or existence. It asks questions such as ‘What exists?’ or ‘What
is real?’ Metaphysicians seek an irreducible foundation of reality or ‘first principles’ from which
absolute knowledge or truth can be induced and deduced. The term metaphysics is derived from the
Greek words “meta” means (“beyond”, “upon” or “after”) and physika, means (“physics”). Literally it
refers ‘those things after the physics.’.

Metaphysical questions are the most basic to ask because they provide the foundation upon which
all subsequent inquiry is based. Metaphysical questions may be divided into four subsets.

• Cosmology consists in the study of theories about the origin, nature, and development of
the universe as an orderly system.
• Theology is that part of religious theory that deals with conceptions of and about God. “Is
there a God? If so, is there one or more than one? What are the attributes of God? If God is
both all good and all powerful, why does evil exist? If God exists, what is His relationship to
human beings and the ‘real’ world of everyday life?”
• Anthropology deals with the study of human beings and asks questions like the following:
What is the relation between mind and body? Is mind more fundamental than body, with
body depending on mind, or vice versa? What is humanity’s moral status? Are people born
good, evil, or morally neutral? To what extent are individuals free? People have obviously
adopted different positions on these questions, and those positions influence their political,
social, religious, and educational ideals and practices.
• Ontology is the study of the nature of existence, or what it means for anything to exist.
Several questions are central to ontology: “Is basic reality found in matter or physical energy
(the world we can sense), or is it found in spirit or spiritual energy? Is it composed of one
element (e.g., matter or spirit), or two (e.g., matter and spirit), or many?”

MetaPhyscis and Education: Even a cursory study of either historical or contemporary societies will
reveal the impact of the cosmological, theological, anthropological, and ontological aspects of
metaphysics upon their social, political, economic, and scientific beliefs and practices. People

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everywhere embrace answers to these questions and then live their daily lives in keeping with those
assumptions. There is no escape from metaphysical decisions.

Education, like other human activities, cannot operate outside the realm of metaphysics.
Metaphysics, or the issue of ultimate reality, is central to any concept of education, because it is
important for the educational program of the school (or family or church) to be based upon fact and
reality rather than fancy, illusion, error, or imagination. Varying metaphysical beliefs lead to differing
educational approaches and even separate systems of education. At their deepest levels, men and
women are motivated by metaphysical beliefs. History demonstrates that people are willing to die
for those convictions, and that they desire to create educational environments in which their most
basic beliefs will be taught to their children.

The anthropological aspect of metaphysics is especially important for educators of all

persuasions. After all, they are dealing with malleable human beings at one of the most
impressionable stages of their lives. Views about the nature and potential of students form the
foundation of every educational process. Variations in anthropological positions will produce
significantly different approaches to the educational process. Metaphysics is speculative and focus
on issues as the nature of cause-effect relationships. It relates to teaching in terms of thoughts
about educational goals, the selection of appropriate content and educational goals, and attitudes
towards the general nature of learners

UNIT-3 : Democracy and Education

Education for Citizenship – Fundamental rights and Duties:

“Education for democratic citizenship” means education, training, dissemination, information,

practices and activities which aim, by equipping learners with knowledge, skills and understanding
and moulding their attitudes and behaviour, to empower them to exercise and defend their
democratic rights and responsibilities in society, to value diversity and to play an active part in
democratic life, with a view to the promotion and protection of democracy and the rule of law.

“Human rights education” means education, training, dissemination, information, practices

and activities which aim, by equipping learners with knowledge, skills and understanding and
moulding their attitudes and behaviour, to empower them to contribute to the building and defence
of a universal culture of human rights in society, with a view to the promotion and protection of
human rights and fundamental freedoms

Education for democratic citizenship and human rights education are closely interrelated
and mutually supportive. They differ in focus and scope rather than in goals and practices. Education
for democratic citizenship focuses primarily on democratic rights and responsibilities and active
participation, in relation to the civic, political, social, economic, legal and cultural spheres of society,
while human rights education is concerned with the broader spectrum of human rights and
fundamental freedoms in every aspect of people’s lives.

Nature of inequalities and measures to address them, constitutional Provisions:

Nature of Inequalities: Inequality is a state of non-possession of those attributes which enable an

individual or group of individuals or community in social set up to achieve some desirable goals.
Negation of these enabling qualities or attributes due to social-economic status, or birth create
'inequalities'. We can say that ideology, institutions, and the social process are major factors which
perpetuate inequality. Institutions (governments; family; trusts; associations; committee) and the
process of acquiring empowerment through economic and educational system, would go a long-way

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in helping the deprived individuals acquire the good and positive attributes which aim at achieving
equality d opportunities.

In short, we can say that ideology, institutions, and the social process are major factors
which perpetuate inequality or ameliorate it. We delimit the scope of our dimension within the
frame of our educational process. But it should be made clear that the attributes of the educational
process permeate to economic, social, political, and cultural aspects too. It is so, simply because the
education system is a sub-system of the large set up of society in totality. All these aspects have a
direct bearing upon the educational system. For example, if a child does not attend school or fails to
achieve a minimum expected 'standard' in school, it has economic causes, and implications on the
future of his/her social-system and immediate environment of the school. Poverty might be the
factor which forces the child to support his/her family by earning rather than going to school. The
concept of inequality is also historical in nature. The historical paradigm is related to time and space.
When we discuss the historical typology of 'inequality', we wish to distinguish between two types of
factors which address to this phenomenon.

• Exogeneous factors: These are factors that exist outside the education system. These are
economic, social, political, technological and cultural factors. Education system, delivery of
education etc. have been seen to be adversely or positively affected by it.
• Endogenous Factors: These are those factors which lead to inequality from within the
educational domain. We have already cited absence of schooling facilities as well as poor
organisational climate of the school-system, where learning is monotonous, irrelevant and
unpleasant to a child. Truancy, low achievement in school and dropouts are some of the
outcomes of poor organisational climate of school-system.

Measures to Address them: Below are interventions to concerns which focus in realising the goals of
educational opportunities through deliberate direction for helping those who deserve help.

Micro-Planning: It would imply:

• mobilising community participation in villages through environment building activities,

such as cleanliness drives, health and nutrition camps, employment generation
awareness etc.
• decentralising educational administration so that it is accountable to the local
community;
• inviting and strengthening local administrative and resource support system;
• bringing children to the school who can be enrolled and retained,
• seeing that all children, particularly girls and those disadvantaged goups, regularly and
realistically participate in the learning-process at school; and
• planning for the infrastructural improvement of schooldnon-formal education centres.

Structural Changes: In the third world countries, the more relevant questions are how to raise the
availability of school inputs, how to distribute them more fairly and how to utilise-them efficiently.
These problems really address the production and efficiency'aspects of schooling itself. The basic
questions related are:

• What are the factors that determine student learning or academic achievement?
• What are the sources for achievement differences?
• Are the sources within the school input or out of school control?

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 • What is the role of the socio-economic background of the student (family input) and
peer
group ?
• Which schools (Govt. or private) are successful in increasing academic achievement?
• What can policy do for increasing the academic achievement of students?

The Effect of Teacher Training: The belief that investment in teacher training will improve the
quality of schooling by increasing the level of pupil achievement has always been held steadfast in
India. The NCERT organised the following programmes under centrally-sponsored scheme
(Programme for massive orientation of school teachers) . All these programmes are likely to have
positive effects on retention and learning achievement of pupils, particularly of the disadvantaged
groups, which suffer from high drop-outs as well as low achievements. The question of teacher
education is to be addressed in terms of

• cost effectiveness of improvements in teacher training;

• an upgrading of existing teachers by provision of enrichment materials;
• in-service training for poorly trained or untrained teachers;
• retraining of teachers for neui curricula; and
• improvements in initial or pre-service training, making it concrete ,and realistic.

Constitutional Provisions: In the constitution of India a special provision for the welfare of children
is made in Articles 24, 39 and 45.

Article 24 reads: Prohibition of employment of children in factories etc. No child below the age of 14
years shall be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous
employment.

Article 39 reads: Certain principles to be followed by the states: the state shall direct its policies
towards securing the children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner in
conditions of freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation
and against moral and material abandonment

Article 45 reads: Provision for free and compulsory education for children - states shall endeavor to
provide, within a period of 10 years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and
compulsory education for children until they complete the age of 14 years.

UNIT-4 : Current Issues and their educational implications.

Poverty has various manifestations: Poverty affects many people. But, arguably, the effects of
poverty are seen most in children. Not only does poverty affect a child‟s development and
educational outcomes, it also severely affects a child‟s morality and understanding of the right and
wrong, as they are denied access to the basic fundamental rights of children laid down in the
Constitution of India. here are some bee stings of Poverty that affect the children in India.

• Child Development: Often associated to food insecurity, children living below the poverty
line are at an increased risk for becoming both malnourished and overweight. This can highly
affect a child‟s confidence. Moreover, evidence suggests that many of the effects of poverty
on children are often added to by their families. As they have limited education, it reduces
their ability to provide a responsive stimulating environment for their children.
• Education: Education begins at home. In fact, many studies suggest that, being read to in
the first few years of a child‟s life contributes to the development of phonemic and

31
 comprehension skills. However, children from families living below the poverty line are less
likely to be read to, highly restricting proper growth of their skills.
• Moral Values: Malnutrition, taunting and not getting basic necessities can be daunting
enough for any child, a situation which easily becomes a turning point in their life.
Moreover, with peer pressure and wanting what others have, their sole aim of life would be
achieving financial success, no matter what the means. The end result becomes more
important to them than the path they choose. This, in turn, results in them resorting to
joining the antisocial and unlawful elements of our society.

Understanding Poverty: Lack of income and productive resources sufficient to ensure sustainable
livelihood that results in hunger & malnutrition and is directly connected to employment

Poverty can be seen in two ways:

• Absolute poverty is the lack of resources that leads to hunger and physical deprivation.
• Relative poverty refers to a deficiency in material and economic resources compared with
some other population.

How education is affecting poverty in India: “there may be a chance of escaping poverty through
education.” The government in India seems to agree with this statement as they promoted the Sarva
Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) project as a part of their flagship program. SSA was a project in India that
began in 2002 to enrol all 6-14 years old in primary education by 2010. The project attempted to do
so by improving the facilities and infrastructure of schools while also expanding access to these
facilities nationally. As a result, by 2009, 98 percent of children were only 1 kilometer away from
educational facilities.

While the reductions in the extreme poverty rate in India over the past 20 years in India are
not due solely to educational improvements, the investment in enhancing basic education has had a
significant impact on the poverty rate in India.

Unemployment: A situation, in which the workers are capable of working and willing to work, but do
not get employment. Unemployment and poverty are the two major challenges that are facing the
world economy at present

Types of unemployment:

• Structural unemployment: It is that type of unemployment which arises due to structural

changes in the economy of the country. For example, if there is a long term decline in the
export trade of a country, this may be considered as the structural change in the economy of
that country.
• Technical unemployment : It is that type of unemployment which is caused by changes in
the techniques of production. Technical changes are taking place constantly, leading to the
discovery of new production methods involving a goods deal of mechanization. This
naturally results in displacement of labour and resultant unemployment.
• Seasonal unemployment: It is that type of unemployment which is due to seasonal variation
in the activities of particular industries as caused by the climatic chages or the inherent
nature of such industries. Indian agriculture is a seasonal occupation so that the farmers
have not sufficient work to do during the slack season.
• Educated Unemployment: This problem is very much acute among the middle class people.
The universities are turning out number of graduates each year who enter the job market.
But the pattern of education is not job oriented. Hence education does not promote job-

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 worthiness of a person. Consequently, many fail to find employment and add to the
category of unemployed.

Contributors for unemployment:

• Increase in population : Over the years mortality rate has declined and the country has thus
registered an unprecedented population growth. This was naturally followed by an equal
expansion in labour force.
• Defective education system: The education system in India is defective. It is, in fact, the
same education system which Macaulay had introduced in this country during the colonial
period.
• Lack cottage, and village industries: The traditional handicrafts and village industries which
provided employment and livelihood to village crans men and rural artisans declined
• Lack of mobility among labourers : The Indian labourers lack in mobility. They do not want
to leave their villages for employment.
• Lack of infrastructural facilities : Inspite of five years planned development, infrastructural
of facilities like supply of electricity, water, communication system etc. have not been
developed adequately in India. The constraint of financial resources is stated to be
responsible for unemployment.

Impact of Education on Employment: Poverty, unemployment, and education are inextricably linked
because poverty causes children may not be able going to school, which leaves them without
education and skills they need to further their future. People with low education and skills normally
end up working as low-income labours.

Since education is the means of providing a skilled workforce, it is necessary for the overall
development of the economy. A well-educated and highly skilled workforce is important for ensuring
high economic growth and quality of life. At the same time, inequitable access to education can
contribute to large disparities across different social groups and affect the employment distribution
pattern in the country. The empirical evidence for the relationship between education attainment
and employment (and earnings) is strong and robust to time and geographies. However, in the
Indian context, the disparities based on social groups, gender and inter-regional development affect
access to education and therefore influence the employment pattern. Since the socioeconomic
group of an individual is a key determinant of their level of education, the employment distribution
is skewed in favour of the socially better-off sections.

As we have discussed above, the traditional theory of human capital and some other
economic theories believe that educational level has a direct relationship with the unemployment
rate. However, in reality, many previous empirical studies have found that the unemployment rate
of people belonging to the group who have completed higher education is higher than those people
belonging to the group with lower educational level.

The relationship between the unemployment rate and the level of educational seemed to be
positive. In some developing countries that higher the educational level was, the higher the
unemployment rate would be. India is facing this problem which is better known as ‘youth
unemployment conundrum’ probably because unskilled jobs are easier to find. This problem can be
attributed to skill mismatch where workers are not well-matched with their current jobs.

Peace Education: The highest form of objective for any education is inculcating peace and it is an
essential value to be cherished by every individual. The peace nurtured at home again enhanced at

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school. Peace has been understood to mean the absence of conflict or violence and conversely as
the presence of states of mind and of society such as harmony, accord, security and understanding.

Peace education is a planning strategy of eliminating the conflicts and violence caused by in
justice, inequality and human rights, violations, and implementing the ways and means of reducing
the same through appropriate teaching and learning tactics by means of producing responsible
global citizen to attain and spread the peace in the world.

Definition of the Peace Education: Peace Education is an attempt to respond to problems of conflict
and violence of scale ranging from the global and national to the local and personal. It is about
exploring ways of creating more just and sustainable futures .

Scope of peace education: Peace education is concerned with helping learners to develop an
awareness of the processes and skills that are necessary for achieving understanding tolerance and
good will in the world today. Peace education brings together multiple traditions of pedagogy,
theories of education and international initiatives for the advancement of human development
through learning. The practice of peace education is an opportunity to promote the total welfare of
students, advocate for their justice and equitable treatment of youth and promote individual and
social responsibility for both educators and learners

Aim and objectives of Peace Education:

• To develop sense of universal values in every individual.

• To prepare citizens to cope with difficult and uncertain situations and fitting them for
personal utonomy and responsibility.
• To educate the individual and develop the ability to recognize and accept the values which
exist in the diversity of individuals.
• To strengthen peace, friendship and solidarity between individuals and people.
• To develop the ability of non-violent conflict – resolution among the individuals.
• To cultivate the ability to make informed choices, basing their judgments and actions not
only on the analysis of present situations and the vision of a preferred future among the
individuals
• To teach the citizens to respect the cultural heritage, protect the environment and social
harmony.
• To cultivate citizens in the line of solidarity feeling and feeling of equity at the national and
international levels in the perspectives of a balanced and long-term development.

Human Miseries in the Modern world and Quest for peace: Never before in the history of the
world, has the human race been in such great need to be free from conflict, ill-feeling selfishness,
descent and strife. We are neither in need of peace nor only in our personal life at home and work,
but also at the global level. The tension, anxiety and fear arising from the conflict are not only
disruptive but continue to extent a constant drain on our well being, mentally and physically. The
basic problem we face today is moral degeneration and misused intelligence. In spite of all the
advances made by science and technology, the world is far from being safe and peaceful.

Gandhian Concept of Peace: By nonviolent action, Gandhi meant peaceful, constructive mass action.
It is true that Gandhi did not write on peace ducation in any specific way, but his whole philosophy
and life have been, of course, important in peace studies and peace education not only for India but
for other nations of the world as well.

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 Gandhi’s concept of peace and non-violence is integrally related to his world view. Gandhiji
evolved his world view from a concept of “self” and human nature. Acknowledging the inherent
goodness of human beings, Gandhi emphasized the capacity of all human beings to develop their full
potential of non-violence. He believed that all human beings are part of divine and they are
interdependent and interrelated. Gandhiji’s concept of peace is also a board one. For him peace
emerged from a way of life.

Concept and meaning of Education of Peace: Education for peace is a conceptual framework from
which schools may devise a programme comprising the transmission of Universal values and
enduring attitudes, and the development of skills which enable our students to become active global
citizen. The implementation of this conceptual framework recognizes the practice of peaceful
relations at all levels: personal, familial, communal, inter-cultural and global. It entails a process of
knowledge acquisition and skill – building which affects the behaviour of individuals and groups and
provides a model for the formal and informal curriculum of the school. Education for peace is a
process and condition which permeates all aspects of school life, with implications for learners,
teachers and administrators and it extends beyond the school to society as a whole.

Stage Specific Approaches:

The primary stage of education is the ideal time for laying the foundation of peace oriented
personality. These years comprise the formative period in the lives of the students. At this stage,
students are comparatively less burdened. The number of students who could be exposed to
education for peace is at the maximum during this phase. Thereafter, students begin to drop out.
Therefore, this is the stage at which focused attention should be paid to laying the foundation for a
culture of peace through education. As the saying goes, “it is easier to build a child than it is to repair
an adult”.

• Peace education approach to early childhood: Starting peace-building education in early

childhood is of paramount importance. In yearly years a child’s brain architecture is
developing most rapidly, habits are formed, differences are recognized and emotional ties
are build through social relationships and day-today in homes and neighborhoods.
• Peace education approach to elementary: A crucial issue for children at this stage is that of
relating to other children and their environment. Since, the school brings together children
from environment backgrounds, streets need to be equipped with cognitive competence to
understand the values underlying hygiene both of the self and of the surroundings, respect
for others and for elders, recognition of the dignity of labour, honesty, love, sharing and
cooperation, tolerance, regularity, punctuality, responsibility etc.
• Peace education approach to secondary stage: In the secondary and senior secondary stage
students gradually become aware of their identity. They are on the threshold of becoming
independent persons, though still deficient in maturity. They need training to resolve,
through dialogue and negotiation, the conflicts they are sure to encounter in day-to-day
interactions. They also need to develop awareness about inter – relationship and
interdependence in the global and ecological contest, so that they can form a wider
perspective on justice, peace, and non-violence.
• Peace education approach to Higher Education Stage: Higher education is perceived as
extremely important, and the students in the higher education should be inculcated the
knowledge, attitude and competencies in the area of peace keeping. These students are
going to become a national builders and role models of the society. Therefore the students
in the higher education should come out with all good entities of human beings. Further, the

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 role of the teachers in the higher education is of paramount importance. The higher
education teachers to be a role model for their students.

National Integration and International Understanding:

Meaning and Dimensions of National Integration: The dictionary meaning of ‘integrity’ is the state
of being whole and undivided: upholding territorial integrity and national sovereignty. National
integration is a complex concept. It has social, political, religious, regional and economic dimensions.
The basic factors of national integration; Ideological unity and awareness about 'national objectives'
should be created among the people who hold divergent views on political and religious and similar
other fields. National integration is the creation of a feeling of oneness where the diversities are
recognized and respected by imbibing a sense of nationhood.

Challenges In The Way Of National Integration:

• Communalism : Communalism is one of the great obstacles on the way of national

integration. There are many communities, tribal groups and parties in India trying their best
to snatch the fruit of independence for satisfying their selfish desires ignoring the interest of
the society as a whole. As a result of which, every now and then, we have communal riots
taking place in different parts of our country.
• Casteism: In ancient times Indian society was divided into a number of castes, sub-castes
and sub-castes based on birth. The people of high castes develop a feeling of superiority
towards the low caste. This causes bitterness among the people. It becomes very difficult to
develop a sense of oneness among the people.
• Regionalism: Regionalism is also an obstacle on the way of national integration. Now our
country has been divided into a number of states. This develops a rivalry between different
regions, different states and also within the slate. Now the people of Assam, Meghalaya and
Manipur have started agitation against the outsiders living in these states which go against
national integration.
• Provincialism: People of different province think themselves as Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali,
Punjabi etc. without thinking themselves to be Indians. This tendency of provincialism
should be checked because it lends to disunite us.
• Linguism: India is a land of many languages. This variety of language is an indication of
cultural enrichment. But it is a matter of regret that a number of ‘linguistic conflicts exist in
our country. People have developed a tendency of unwillingness to grant to other languages
the same rights as they claim for their own. Quarrel or conflict over languages will definitely
disintegrate us.
• Religious Prejudices: Every community is free to develop its religion but not at the cost of
other religions. India is a secular country but still there are sudden out breaks of violence in
the name of religion. Our people do not have sufficient knowledge about different religions
and ways of life of others. So, they become suspicious of others religion and hate them
which creates an obstacle on the way of national integration.
• Economic Conditions: Economic conditions affect national integration. At one end are those
millions who suffer from poverty and on the other end those who maintain a life of
economic sufficiency. The provision of employment opportunities to those young men shall
prove helpful to national integration.

Role of Education in National Integration and Communal Harmony: The Report of the Education
Commission (1964-66) in evolving the educational system, identified the "social and national

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integration" as one of the major problems of national development and called for different means
through which these themes can be taught in schools and colleges.

In 1999, a committee was set up under the Chairmanship of Justice J.S. Verma to implemnet
the suggestions to teach Fundamental Duties to the Citizens of the country. The report popularly
known as Justice J.S. Verma Committee Report, provides conceptual definition of "Duty", Preamble
of the Constitution and all the Fundamental Duties. The Reports lists out the Schemes/Programmes
related to National Integration and Communal Harmony, culture and Values and Environment. The
report also contains an analysis of curriculum at various levels of education and teacher education.
The important recommendations of Committee as follows:

• Recognition of Education Institutions: Recognition should j be granted only to those

educational institutions which do not practiced discrimination on the grounds of caste,
creed, religion, clan etc.
• Basis of Admission: The basis of admission to educational I institutions should be the merit
of student and not caste, clan, religion, class etc.
• School Uniform: The Uniform of students in every school should be identical.
• Oath to be taken by the students: Every year, students should be required to take oath twice
to devote themselves to the service of their country and countrymen. The oath was to the
effect that “India is my country; all Indians are my brothers and sisters. I love my country. I
am proud of its glorious traditions and that I will always strive to make myself worthy of my
country.”
• National Anthem: Students should be taught the meaning of our national anthem and sing
properly in chorus.
• Respect for the National Flag: Students should be taught the importance of the national flag
and to show due respect to the national flag.
• Celebration of National Days: Students and teachers in co-operation with other members of
the Community should celebrate such national days as 15th August, 26th January, 2nd
October etc.
• Organization of lectures of National Unity: The gathering organized for the various activities
and purposes of school should be utilized for laying emphasis upon national integration.
• Exhibition of Films and Organizing Tours: The exhibition of films depicting various aspects of
national development and national Unity. Organizing tours to places of historical
importance.
• School Project: Project should be initiated in schools for the specific purpose of acquainting
students with their country. These projects should increase knowledge about various parts
of the country and thus stimulate love for the country.
• Open Air Theatre: At least four times in a year, play should be staged in schools for the
benefit of students. The themes of these plays should be ancient India, contemporary India,
and unity at the time of freedom movement and the promotion of national integration.
• Reorganization of the Curriculum: The Curriculum of schools should be organized on the
basis of modern India’s democratic and secular values.
o Primary Level: Importance should be laid on prayer meeting, singing national songs
telling stories of great-men, folk-song, patriotic song and social studies.
o Secondary Level: Priority should be given to moral and ethical education, Co-
curricular activities, knowledge of languages and literature and social studies.
o University Level: Special emphasis should be placed upon the various social science,
languages, literature, culture and art.

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International Understanding: Education for International Understanding means a cosmopolitan
education which will produce a loyalty to world citizenship. There are some of the ways and means
of organising education for promoting the feelings of internationalism and the teacher plays a very
vital role in contributing international understanding. The need of international understanding is felt
essential all quarters in modern times. The countries are coming close to each other now-a-days
through rapid communication revolution. The sense of unity, co-operation and mutual relation are
to be fostered among people to ensure a peaceful living in the globe

Ways and Means for education for International Understanding: Education for international
understanding implies the promotion of democratic citizenship etc. The following are some of the
ways and means of organising education for promoting the feelings of internationalism :-

• Aims
o Promotion of world citizenship
o Promotion of world peace
o Promotion of independent and critical thinking
o Promotion of construction rather than destructive feeling
o Developing the student's faith.
o Eradicating of racial, religious, cultural and national prejudices
• Redesigning the curriculum : The traditional curriculum followed in our schools and
universities does not fulfill all the possibilities of internationalism. The redesigning
curriculum should enable our students :-
o To learn that the earth is the home of man and other living things
o To gain knowledge about the world we live in
o To learn how to promote better understanding of the interdependence of the world
o To inculcate respect for all major religions of the world
o To know something about the long strength of mankind to replace conflicts with co-
operation
o To develop a desire and the simple skills
o Knowledge of various cultures of the world

Role of teacher in International Understanding: The teacher is even more important than the
curriculum because he is medium through which the curriculum is implemented and its goals are
achieved. A teacher can make the following contributions towards international understanding:-
• Broad Outlook: The teacher must have broad outlook among his students. He must have international
outlook and world - mindedness to promote international understanding among his students.
• To understand man as man: The major objective of the teacher should be to enable children to
"understand man as man", first then as a Indian, American, Jew, Hindu or any other
• Wedding out the idea of violence and war: The teacher has to keep in mind that , "since war begins in
the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that defence of peace must be constructed." Every person
should grow up with faith in man and courage in himself.
• Emphasizing peace: The teacher must emphasize that the maintenance of peace is the only panacea
for all the ills of the present sick world and to build that peace in the minds of man is our major task.
• Cultivating right values: The teacher should inculcate among children the right values of life, like co-
operation, friendliness, love for justice, love for truth and love for humanity.
• Educating adult society: The teacher should make an all out effort to educate the adult society for
peaceful co-existence and international understanding.
• Correct Interpretation: The teacher should not give a biased view of other countries. He should give
correct facts, correct knowledge and correct interpretation of history, culture, life style etc.
• Use of effective methods of teaching: The teacher should teach in such a way that ideal of 'world
citizenship','live and let live' may be developed.

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