Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration
Speed is simply the distance traveled per unit of time. If a car moves Speed is simply the distance traveled per unit of time. If a car moves
100 meters in 5 seconds, its speed is calculated as \( s = 100 meters in 5 seconds, its speed is calculated as \( s =
\frac{100}{5} = 20 \) m/s. \frac{100}{5} = 20 \) m/s.
Velocity, on the other hand, is speed with direction. If a car travels Velocity, on the other hand, is speed with direction. If a car travels
20 m/s east, that’s its velocity. 20 m/s east, that’s its velocity.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. If a body accelerates Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. If a body accelerates
from 5 m/s to 20 m/s in 3 seconds, the acceleration is \( a = \frac{(20 from 5 m/s to 20 m/s in 3 seconds, the acceleration is \( a = \frac{(20
- 5)}{3} = 5 \) m/s². - 5)}{3} = 5 \) m/s².
#### **Resistor, Resistance, and Types of Resistors** #### **Resistor, Resistance, and Types of Resistors**
Resistance opposes electric current and is measured in ohms Resistance opposes electric current and is measured in ohms
(\(\Omega\)). A resistor is a device that controls current flow. There (\(\Omega\)). A resistor is a device that controls current flow. There
are different types of resistors: are different types of resistors:
1. **Fixed Resistors** – Their resistance remains constant. 1. **Fixed Resistors** – Their resistance remains constant.
2. **Variable Resistors (Rheostat)** – Their resistance can be 2. **Variable Resistors (Rheostat)** – Their resistance can be
changed. changed.
3. **Thermistors** – Their resistance varies with temperature. 3. **Thermistors** – Their resistance varies with temperature.
4. **Light-dependent Resistors (LDRs)** – Their resistance changes 4. **Light-dependent Resistors (LDRs)** – Their resistance changes
based on light intensity. based on light intensity.
#### **Electric Current and Its Types** #### **Electric Current and Its Types**
Electric current (\(I\)) is the flow of charge, measured in amperes Electric current (\(I\)) is the flow of charge, measured in amperes
(\(A\)). There are two types: (\(A\)). There are two types:
- **Direct Current (DC)**: The charge flows in one direction. - **Direct Current (DC)**: The charge flows in one direction.
- **Alternating Current (AC)**: The charge direction reverses - **Alternating Current (AC)**: The charge direction reverses
periodically. periodically.
#### **Uniform Circular Motion** #### **Uniform Circular Motion**
When an object moves in a circle at a constant speed, it undergoes When an object moves in a circle at a constant speed, it undergoes
uniform circular motion. A force known as **centripetal force** acts uniform circular motion. A force known as **centripetal force** acts
toward the center, keeping it in motion. The formula for centripetal toward the center, keeping it in motion. The formula for centripetal
force is \( F = \frac{mv^2}{r} \), where \( m \) is mass, \( v \) is force is \( F = \frac{mv^2}{r} \), where \( m \) is mass, \( v \) is
velocity, and \( r \) is the radius. Examples include planets orbiting velocity, and \( r \) is the radius. Examples include planets orbiting
stars and a car moving around a roundabout. stars and a car moving around a roundabout.
Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration
Speed is simply the distance traveled per unit of time. If a car moves Speed is simply the distance traveled per unit of time. If a car moves
100 meters in 5 seconds, its speed is calculated as \( s = 100 meters in 5 seconds, its speed is calculated as \( s =
\frac{100}{5} = 20 \) m/s. \frac{100}{5} = 20 \) m/s.
Velocity, on the other hand, is speed with direction. If a car travels Velocity, on the other hand, is speed with direction. If a car travels
20 m/s east, that’s its velocity. 20 m/s east, that’s its velocity.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. If a body accelerates Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. If a body accelerates
from 5 m/s to 20 m/s in 3 seconds, the acceleration is \( a = \frac{(20 from 5 m/s to 20 m/s in 3 seconds, the acceleration is \( a = \frac{(20
- 5)}{3} = 5 \) m/s². - 5)}{3} = 5 \) m/s².
#### **Resistor, Resistance, and Types of Resistors** #### **Resistor, Resistance, and Types of Resistors**
Resistance opposes electric current and is measured in ohms Resistance opposes electric current and is measured in ohms
(\(\Omega\)). A resistor is a device that controls current flow. There (\(\Omega\)). A resistor is a device that controls current flow. There
are different types of resistors: are different types of resistors:
1. **Fixed Resistors** – Their resistance remains constant. 1. **Fixed Resistors** – Their resistance remains constant.
2. **Variable Resistors (Rheostat)** – Their resistance can be 2. **Variable Resistors (Rheostat)** – Their resistance can be
changed. changed.
3. **Thermistors** – Their resistance varies with temperature. 3. **Thermistors** – Their resistance varies with temperature.
4. **Light-dependent Resistors (LDRs)** – Their resistance changes 4. **Light-dependent Resistors (LDRs)** – Their resistance changes
based on light intensity. based on light intensity.
#### **Electric Current and Its Types** #### **Electric Current and Its Types**
Electric current (\(I\)) is the flow of charge, measured in amperes Electric current (\(I\)) is the flow of charge, measured in amperes
(\(A\)). There are two types: (\(A\)). There are two types:
- **Direct Current (DC)**: The charge flows in one direction. - **Direct Current (DC)**: The charge flows in one direction.
- **Alternating Current (AC)**: The charge direction reverses - **Alternating Current (AC)**: The charge direction reverses
periodically. periodically.
#### **Uniform Circular Motion** #### **Uniform Circular Motion**
When an object moves in a circle at a constant speed, it undergoes When an object moves in a circle at a constant speed, it undergoes
uniform circular motion. A force known as **centripetal force** acts uniform circular motion. A force known as **centripetal force** acts
toward the center, keeping it in motion. The formula for centripetal toward the center, keeping it in motion. The formula for centripetal
force is \( F = \frac{mv^2}{r} \), where \( m \) is mass, \( v \) is force is \( F = \frac{mv^2}{r} \), where \( m \) is mass, \( v \) is
velocity, and \( r \) is the radius. Examples include planets orbiting velocity, and \( r \) is the radius. Examples include planets orbiting
stars and a car moving around a roundabout. stars and a car moving around a roundabout.
#### **Collision, Impulse, and Momentum** #### **Collision, Impulse, and Momentum**
Momentum (\( p \)) is mass times velocity (\( p = mv \)). Impulse (\( Momentum (\( p \)) is mass times velocity (\( p = mv \)). Impulse (\(
J \)) is the change in momentum, given by \( J = F \Delta t \). There J \)) is the change in momentum, given by \( J = F \Delta t \). There
are two types of collisions: are two types of collisions:
1. **Elastic Collisions** – Both momentum and kinetic energy are 1. **Elastic Collisions** – Both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved. conserved.
2. **Inelastic Collisions** – Only momentum is conserved, but 2. **Inelastic Collisions** – Only momentum is conserved, but
kinetic energy is lost. kinetic energy is lost.
#### **Ammeter, Voltmeter, and Ohmmeter** #### **Ammeter, Voltmeter, and Ohmmeter**
An **ammeter** measures current and is connected in series with a An **ammeter** measures current and is connected in series with a
circuit. A **voltmeter** measures voltage and is connected in circuit. A **voltmeter** measures voltage and is connected in
parallel. An **ohmmeter** is used to measure electrical resistance. parallel. An **ohmmeter** is used to measure electrical resistance.
#### **Electrostatics** #### **Electrostatics**
Electrostatics deals with static electric charges. **Coulomb’s Law** Electrostatics deals with static electric charges. **Coulomb’s Law**
states that the force between two charges is given by \( F = k states that the force between two charges is given by \( F = k
\frac{q_1 q_2}{r^2} \), where \( k \) is a proportionality constant. \frac{q_1 q_2}{r^2} \), where \( k \) is a proportionality constant.
**Electric fields** exert forces on charges and are defined as \( E = **Electric fields** exert forces on charges and are defined as \( E =
\frac{F}{q} \). \frac{F}{q} \).
#### **Galvanometer, Ammeter, and Voltmeter** #### **Galvanometer, Ammeter, and Voltmeter**
A **galvanometer** detects small electric currents. An A **galvanometer** detects small electric currents. An
**ammeter** is a modified galvanometer that measures current **ammeter** is a modified galvanometer that measures current
more effectively. A **voltmeter** is used to measure potential more effectively. A **voltmeter** is used to measure potential
difference. difference.
#### **Projectile Motion** #### **Projectile Motion**
Projectile motion occurs when an object is launched and moves Projectile motion occurs when an object is launched and moves
under gravity. The motion follows a **parabolic trajectory**. Some under gravity. The motion follows a **parabolic trajectory**. Some
important equations include: important equations include:
- **Horizontal displacement**: \( x = v_x t \). - **Horizontal displacement**: \( x = v_x t \).
- **Vertical displacement**: \( y = v_{y0}t - \frac{1}{2}gt^2 \). - **Vertical displacement**: \( y = v_{y0}t - \frac{1}{2}gt^2 \).
- **Time of flight**: \( t = \frac{2v_{y0}}{g} \). - **Time of flight**: \( t = \frac{2v_{y0}}{g} \).
#### **Physics Theory** #### **Physics Theory**
Physics is built on principles such as **Newton’s Laws**, which Physics is built on principles such as **Newton’s Laws**, which
describe motion. The concepts of **work, energy, and power** describe motion. The concepts of **work, energy, and power**
define how forces act in mechanical systems. **Thermodynamics** define how forces act in mechanical systems. **Thermodynamics**
explains heat and energy transfer in different conditions. explains heat and energy transfer in different conditions.
#### **Collision, Impulse, and Momentum** #### **Collision, Impulse, and Momentum**
Momentum (\( p \)) is mass times velocity (\( p = mv \)). Impulse (\( Momentum (\( p \)) is mass times velocity (\( p = mv \)). Impulse (\(
J \)) is the change in momentum, given by \( J = F \Delta t \). There J \)) is the change in momentum, given by \( J = F \Delta t \). There
are two types of collisions: are two types of collisions:
1. **Elastic Collisions** – Both momentum and kinetic energy are 1. **Elastic Collisions** – Both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved. conserved.
2. **Inelastic Collisions** – Only momentum is conserved, but 2. **Inelastic Collisions** – Only momentum is conserved, but
kinetic energy is lost. kinetic energy is lost.
#### **Ammeter, Voltmeter, and Ohmmeter** #### **Ammeter, Voltmeter, and Ohmmeter**
An **ammeter** measures current and is connected in series with a An **ammeter** measures current and is connected in series with a
circuit. A **voltmeter** measures voltage and is connected in circuit. A **voltmeter** measures voltage and is connected in
parallel. An **ohmmeter** is used to measure electrical resistance. parallel. An **ohmmeter** is used to measure electrical resistance.
#### **Electrostatics** #### **Electrostatics**
Electrostatics deals with static electric charges. **Coulomb’s Law** Electrostatics deals with static electric charges. **Coulomb’s Law**
states that the force between two charges is given by \( F = k states that the force between two charges is given by \( F = k
\frac{q_1 q_2}{r^2} \), where \( k \) is a proportionality constant. \frac{q_1 q_2}{r^2} \), where \( k \) is a proportionality constant.
**Electric fields** exert forces on charges and are defined as \( E = **Electric fields** exert forces on charges and are defined as \( E =
\frac{F}{q} \). \frac{F}{q} \).
#### **Galvanometer, Ammeter, and Voltmeter** #### **Galvanometer, Ammeter, and Voltmeter**
A **galvanometer** detects small electric currents. An A **galvanometer** detects small electric currents. An
**ammeter** is a modified galvanometer that measures current **ammeter** is a modified galvanometer that measures current
more effectively. A **voltmeter** is used to measure potential more effectively. A **voltmeter** is used to measure potential
difference. difference.
#### **Projectile Motion** #### **Projectile Motion**
Projectile motion occurs when an object is launched and moves Projectile motion occurs when an object is launched and moves
under gravity. The motion follows a **parabolic trajectory**. Some under gravity. The motion follows a **parabolic trajectory**. Some
important equations include: important equations include:
- **Horizontal displacement**: \( x = v_x t \). - **Horizontal displacement**: \( x = v_x t \).
- **Vertical displacement**: \( y = v_{y0}t - \frac{1}{2}gt^2 \). - **Vertical displacement**: \( y = v_{y0}t - \frac{1}{2}gt^2 \).
- **Time of flight**: \( t = \frac{2v_{y0}}{g} \). - **Time of flight**: \( t = \frac{2v_{y0}}{g} \).
#### **Physics Theory** #### **Physics Theory**
Physics is built on principles such as **Newton’s Laws**, which Physics is built on principles such as **Newton’s Laws**, which
describe motion. The concepts of **work, energy, and power** describe motion. The concepts of **work, energy, and power**
define how forces act in mechanical systems. **Thermodynamics** define how forces act in mechanical systems. **Thermodynamics**
explains heat and energy transfer in different conditions. explains heat and energy transfer in different conditions.
