Module V

Introduction to Groups Theory

Syllabus: Definitions and Examples of Particular Groups Klein 4-group, Additive

group of Integers modulo n, Multiplicative group of Integers modulo-p and permutation
groups, Properties of groups, Subgroups, cyclic groups, Cosets, Lagrange’s Theorem.
1 Properties of groups
Group: Let 𝐺 be a non-empty set and ∗ be a binary operation on G.
A non-empty set 𝐺 is called a group under the operation ∗ if
i. Closure law: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
ii. Associative law: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺
iii. Identity law: There exists 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
iv. Inverse law: For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝐺.
It is denoted by (𝐺,∗).
Abelian group: A group (𝐺,∗) is said to be an abelian group if it satisfies commutative property

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𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, ∀𝑎, Prepared
𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. by Dr. P Prathapa Reddy 1
Finite and infinite groups: A group (𝐺,∗) is said to be a finite group if 𝐺 has a finite number
of elements. Otherwise, it is called as an infinite group. If 𝐺 has 𝑛 elements, then 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑛.
1. Check whether the set of integers under addition is an abelian group.
Sol: (i) Closure law: 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍
(ii) Associative law: 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍
(iii) Identity law: There exists 0 ∈ 𝑍 such that 𝑎 + 0 = 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍.
(iv) Inverse law: For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists −𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0.
(v) Commutative law: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎, ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
Therefore, (𝐺, +) is closed, associative, identity, inverse and commutative.
Hence, (𝐺, +) is an abelian group.
2. Check whether the set of integers under subtraction is a group.
Sol: (i) Closure law: 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍
(ii) Associative law: 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑐 ≠ 𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍
Therefore, (𝑍, −) is closed but not associative. Hence, (𝑍, −) is not a group.
3. Check whether the set of integers under multiplication is a group.
Sol: (i) Closure law: 𝑎 × 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍
(ii) Associative law: 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍
(iii) Identity law: There exists 1 ∈ 𝑍 such that 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍.
1 1 1
(iv) Inverse law: For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍, such that 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 1, but 𝑎 ∉ 𝑍.
Therefore, (𝑍, ×) is closed, associative, identity, but not inverse. Hence, (𝑍, ×) is not a group.
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4. Check whether the set of all non-zero rational numbers under multiplication is a group.
Sol: (i) Closure law: 𝑎 × 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 − 0 , ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄 − 0
(ii) Associative law: 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐, ∀ 𝑄 − 0 ∈ 𝑍
(iii) Identity law: There exists 1 ∈ 𝑄 − 0 such that 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀ 𝑄 − 0 .
1 1 1
(iv) Inverse law: For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 − 0 there exist 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 − 0 , such that 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 1.
Therefore, (𝑄 − 0 , ×) is closed, associative, identity, and inverse. Hence, (𝑄 − 0 , ×) is a group.
5. Prove that the set of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 non-singular matrices under matrix multiplication is
a group but not abelian.
Sol: Let 𝑀 be the set of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 non-singular matrices.
(i) Closure law: 𝐴𝐵 ∈ 𝑀, ∀𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀
(ii) Associative law: 𝐴 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶, ∀ 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝑀
(iii) Identity law: There exists 𝑖 ∈ 𝑀 such that 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴, ∀ 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀.
(iv) Inverse law: For every 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀 there exist 𝐴−1 ∈ 𝑀, such that 𝐴−1 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴−1 = 𝐼.
Therefore, (𝑀, ×) is closed, associative, identity, and inverse. Hence, (𝑀, ×) is a group.
Since 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴, 𝑀, × is not an abelian group.
6. Check whether the set of all fourth roots of unity under multiplication is a group.
Sol: Let 𝑊 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}.
(i) Closure law: 𝑎 × 𝑏 ∈ 𝑊, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑊
(ii) Associative law: 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐, ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑊
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(iii) Identity law: There exists 1 ∈ 𝑊 such that 𝑎 × 1 = 1 × 𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝑊.
(iv) Inverse law: For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝑊 there exist 𝑏 ∈ 𝑊, such that 𝑏 × 𝑎 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 1.
Therefore, (𝑊, ×) is closed, associative, identity, and inverse. Hence, (𝑊, ×) is a group.
1
6. Let 𝑮 be a set of all non-zero real numbers and let 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 (𝑎𝑏).
Show that (𝐺, ∗) is an abelian group.
1
Sol: (i) Closure law:𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 (𝑎𝑏) ∈ 𝐺, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
1 1 1 1
(ii) Associative law: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ 2 𝑎𝑏 = 2 𝑎 2 𝑏𝑐 = 4 𝑎𝑏𝑐
1 1 1 1
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 2 𝑎𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 2 𝑎𝑏 𝑐 = 4 𝑎𝑏𝑐 .
2
Therefore 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺
(iii) Identity law: There exists 2 ∈ 𝐺 such that
1
𝑎 ∗ 2 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎, ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
2
1
2 ∗ 𝑎 = 2 2𝑎 = 𝑎, ∀ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
4
(iv) Inverse law: For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 there exist 𝑏 = ∈ 𝐺, such that
𝑎
1 1 4
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 𝑎𝑏 = 2 𝑎 × 𝑎 = 2.
1 1 4
𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 2 𝑏𝑎 = 2 × 𝑎 = 2.
𝑎
Hence, (𝑊, ×) is a group.
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 1 1
(v) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 2 𝑎𝑏 = 2 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 , ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺
Therefore, (𝐺,∗) is closed, associative, identity, inverse and commutative.
Hence, (𝐺, ∗) is an abelian group.
8. Let ∘ be an operation on 𝒁 defined by 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1, prove that (𝑍,∘) is an abelian group.
(i) 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 , ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍
(ii) 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 ∘ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1 + 1
𝑥∘𝑦 ∘𝑧 = 𝑥∘𝑦 +𝑧+1=𝑥+𝑦+1+𝑧+1=𝑥+𝑦+𝑧+1+1
Therefore, 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 ∘ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 ∘ 𝑧.
(iii) There exists −1 ∈ 𝑍 such that
𝑥 ∘ −1 = 𝑥 − 1 + 1 = 𝑥 , ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑍
−1 ∘ 𝑥 = −1 + 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 , ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑍
(iv) For every 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍, there exists −𝑥 − 2 ∈ 𝑍 such that
𝑥 ∘ (−𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2 + 1 = −1
(−2 − 2) ∘ 2 = −2 − 2 + 2 + 1 = −1 .
𝑣 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 = 𝑦 + 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑦 ∘ 𝑥, ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍
Therefore, (𝑍,∘) is closed, associative, identity, inverse and commutative.
Hence, (𝑍,∘) is an abelian group.

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9. Let 𝐺 be the set of all real numbers not equal to −1 and ∗ be defined by
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 then prove that (𝐺, ∗) is an abelian group.
(i) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 , ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
(ii) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑐
= 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐
Therefore, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺.
(iii) There exists 0 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑎 ∗ 0 = 𝑎 + 0 − 𝑎(0) = 𝑎 , ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
0 ∗ 𝑎 = 0 + 𝑎 − (0)𝑎 = 𝑎 , ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
𝑎
(iv) For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there exists − 1+𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎+𝑎2 −𝑎−𝑎2
𝑎∗ − 1+𝑎 =𝑎− +𝑎 − 1+𝑎 = =0.
1+𝑎 1+𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 −𝑎+𝑎+𝑎2 −𝑎2
− ∗𝑎 = − +𝑎+ − 𝑎= =0.
1+𝑎 1+𝑎 1+𝑎 1+𝑎
(v) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎 + 1 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
Therefore, (𝐺,∗) is closed, associative, identity, inverse and commutative.
Hence, (𝐺,∗) is an abelian group.
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10. Theorem 1: In a group, prove that there exists only one identity element.
Proof: Suppose there are two identity elements 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 ∈ 𝐺.
Since 𝑒1 is an identity element, 𝑒1 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒1 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Since 𝑒2 is an identity element, 𝑒2 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒2 = 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
This shows that 𝑎𝑒1 = 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑒2 and hence 𝑒1 = 𝑒2 .
This means that 𝑒1 and 𝑒2 are not different.
Therefore, there exists only one element.
11. Theorem 2: In a group G, prove that every element has only one inverse.
Suppose 𝑎′ and 𝑎′′ are two inverse elements of 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Since 𝑎′ is an inverse of 𝑎, 𝑎𝑎′ = 𝑎′ 𝑎 = 𝑒, where 𝑒 is an identity element of 𝐺.
Since 𝑎′′ is an inverse of 𝑎, 𝑎𝑎′′ = 𝑎′′𝑎 = 𝑒, where 𝑒 is an identity element of 𝐺.
Therefore, 𝑎′ = 𝑎′𝑒 = 𝑎′(𝑎𝑎′′) = (𝑎′𝑎)𝑎′′ = 𝑒𝑎′′ = 𝑎′′.
This means that 𝑎′ and 𝑎′′ are not different.
Therefore, every element has only one inverse.
12. Theorem 3: For any elements 𝑎, 𝑏 in a group G,
Prove that (𝑎 −1 )−1 = 𝑎 and (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 .
(i) Let 𝑎−1 = 𝑐. Then 𝑐𝑎 = 𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑒 and 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒.
Therefore, 𝑐𝑎 = 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑒.
Hence, 𝑎 = 𝑐 −1 = (𝑎−1 )−1
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 (ii). (𝑎𝑏) 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 = 𝑎 𝑏𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑒𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒.
𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 𝑏 = 𝑒
Therefore, 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎𝑏.
Hence, (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 .
13. Theorem 4: Let 𝑮 be a group and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺. Prove that left cancellation law and right
cancellation law hold.
(i) To prove: 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥𝑏 ⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑏 (Left cancellation law)
𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥𝑏 ⟹ 𝑥 −1 (𝑥𝑎) = 𝑥 −1 (𝑥𝑏)
⟹ (𝑥 −1 𝑥)𝑎 = (𝑥 −1 𝑥)𝑏
⟹ 𝑒𝑎 = 𝑒𝑏
⟹𝑎=𝑏
Therefore, left cancellation law holds.
(ii) To prove: 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥 ⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑏 (Right cancellation law)
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏𝑥 ⟹ (𝑎𝑥)𝑥 −1 = (𝑏𝑥)𝑥 −1
⟹ 𝑎 𝑥𝑥 −1 = 𝑏 𝑥𝑥 −1
⟹ 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑏𝑒
⟹𝑎=𝑏
Therefore, right cancellation law holds.
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14.Theorem 5: Let 𝑮 be a group and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. Then (i) The equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 has
a unique solution in 𝑮. (ii) The equation 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 has a unique solution in 𝑮.
Sol: (i) 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑎−1 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎−1 𝑏 = 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑏
Therefore, 𝑥 = 𝑎−1 𝑏 is the solution of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏.
Suppose 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the two solutions of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏.
Then 𝑎𝑥1 = 𝑏 and 𝑎𝑥2 = 𝑏.
This implies that 𝑎𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑥2
By left cancellation law, 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 .
Therefore, the two solutions of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 are not different.
Hence, the equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 has a unique solution in G.
(ii) 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑒 = 𝑏
Therefore, 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎−1 is the solution of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏.
Suppose 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 are the two solutions of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏.
Then 𝑦1 𝑎 = 𝑏 and 𝑦2 𝑎 = 𝑏.
This implies that 𝑦1 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑦2
By left cancellation law, 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 .
Therefore, the two solutions of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 are not different.
Hence, the equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 has a unique solution in G.

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15. Prove that a group 𝑮 in which every element is its own inverse is abelian.
Sol: Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. By data, 𝑎 = 𝑎 −1 , 𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 and 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)−1
𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 = 𝑏𝑎
Therefore, 𝐺 is an abelian group.
16. Prove that a group 𝑮 is abelian if and only if 𝑎𝑏 −1 = 𝑎−1 𝑏−1 , ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
Sol: 𝑰f part: Suppose 𝐺 is abelian.
𝑎𝑏 −1 = 𝑏𝑎 −1 = 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 , ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
Only if part: Suppose 𝑎𝑏 −1 = 𝑎−1 𝑏−1
𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎−1 )−1 (𝑏 −1 )−1 [Since 𝑎 = (𝑎 −1 )−1 , 𝑏 = (𝑏 −1 )−1
= (𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 )−1 [ Since 𝑎−1 𝑏−1 = 𝑎𝑏 −1 ]
= (𝑏 −1 )−1 ((𝑎−1 )−1 ) [Since (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 in 𝐺.
= 𝑏𝑎 [Since (𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎]
Therefore, 𝐺 is abelian.
17. In a group 𝑮 having more than one element if 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺.
Prove that 𝑮 is abelian.
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. By data, 𝑎2 = 𝑎, 𝑏2 = 𝑏 and (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎𝑏
𝑎(𝑎𝑏)𝑏 = (𝑎𝑎)(𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎2 𝑏2 = 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎𝑏)2 = (𝑎𝑏)(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎(𝑏𝑎)𝑏
By left cancellation law, (𝑎𝑏)𝑏 = (𝑏𝑎)𝑏
By right cancellation law, 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
Therefore, 𝐺 is an abelian Prepared
22-05-2025
group.by Dr. P Prathapa Reddy 10
2 Particular groups
1. The Klein 4-group
Consider a set 𝐴 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} on this set, suppose we define a binary operation described
by the following table: . 𝒆 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
𝒆 𝑒 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

𝒂 𝑎 𝑒 𝑐 𝑏

𝒃 𝑏 𝑐 𝑒 𝑎

𝒄 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 𝑒

It is easy to verify that 𝐴 is an abelian group under the binary operation defined.
𝑒 is the identity element of 𝐺 and every element is its own inverse.
This group is of order 4.
It is called as the Klein 4-group or Quadratic group.
It is denoted by 𝐾4 or 𝑉4 .
2. Additive group of Integers modulo 𝒏.
Let 𝑛 be a specified positive integer 𝑛 ≥ 2. It is known that Congruent to modulo
𝑛 is an equivalence relation on 𝑍. This relation induces a partition of 𝑍 with the
congruence classes. For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍 , Additive group of Integers modulo the
congruence class determined by the expression
[𝑎] = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍|𝑥 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)} = {𝑎 + 𝑛𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}.
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Now [0] = {0 + 𝑛𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}, [1] = {1 + 𝑛𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}, … , [𝑛 − 1] = {𝑛 − 1 + 𝑛𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑍}
Let 𝑍 be the set of these equivalence classes. That is, 𝑍 = {[0], [1], [2], … , [𝑛 − 1]}.
Consider 𝑍 under the binary operation of addition modulo 𝑛, denoted by ⨁𝑛 .
This group is called the additive group of integers modulo 𝑛 and is denoted by (𝑍𝑛 , ⨁𝑛 ).
The order of this group is 𝑛. * 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓

Example: Operation table for (𝑍6 , +) is given by 𝟎 0 1 2 3 4 5

𝟏 1 2 3 4 5 0

𝟐 2 3 4 5 0 1

𝟑 3 4 5 0 1 2

𝟒 4 5 0 1 2 3

𝟓 5 0 1 2 3 4
3. Multiplicative group of integers mod 𝒑
Let 𝑛 be a given integer > 1 and 𝑍𝑛 denote the set of all congruence classes modulo 𝑛.
That is, 𝑍𝑛 = {[0], [1], [2], … , [𝑛 − 1]} .
Multiplication modulo n denoted by ⨂𝑛 defined as [𝑥]⨂𝑛 [𝑦] = [𝑥 × 𝑦], ∀[𝑥], [𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 .
(i) [𝑥]⨂𝑛 [𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 , ∀[𝑥], [𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 .
(ii) 𝑥 ⨂𝑛 𝑦 ⨂𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑥 ⨂𝑛 𝑦 ⨂𝑛 𝑧 , ∀[𝑥], [𝑦], [𝑧] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 .
(iii) There exists [1] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 , such that 𝑥 ⨂𝑛 1 = [1]⨂𝑛 [𝑥] = [𝑥].
(iv) For any [𝑥] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 , there exists [𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 such that 𝑥 ⨂𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑦 ⨂𝑛 𝑥 = [1],
if 𝑛 is a prime number.
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 𝑣 [𝑥]⨂𝑛 [𝑦] = [𝑦]⨂𝑛 [𝑥], ∀[𝑥], [𝑦] ∈ 𝑍𝑛 .
Therefore, (𝑍𝑛 , ⨂𝑛 ) is an abelian group only if 𝑛 is a prime number.
Note: (𝑍𝑝+ , ⨂𝑝 ) is the multiplicative group of integers modulo 𝑝.
It is also denoted by (𝑍𝑝+ , ×).
𝑍𝑝+ = {[0], [1], [2], … , [𝑝 − 1]}. Order of the group 𝑜(𝑍𝑝+ , +) = 𝑝 − 1.
Operation table for (𝑍𝑝+ , ×) is
Example 1: Find the operation table for (𝑍7+ , ×).
× 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 2 4 6 1 3 5
× 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
2 2 4 6 8 10 1 3 5 7 9
5 5 3 4 6 4 2
3 3 6 9 1 4 7 10 2 5 8
6 6 5 1 3 2 1
4 4 8 1 5 9 2 6 10 3 7
Example 2: Find all 𝑥 in (𝑍11
+
, ×) such that 𝑥 = 𝑥 −1 .
5 5 10 4 9 3 8 2 7 1 6
From the above table 𝑥. 𝑥 = 1 is true only if 6 6 1 7 2 8 3 9 4 10 5
𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 10. 7 7 3 10 6 2 9 5 1 8 4
1 and 10 are only elements of (𝑍11+
, ×) which
8 8 5 2 10 7 4 1 9 6 3
are their own inverses.
9 9 7 5 3 1 10 8 6 4 2
That is, 1 and 10 are only solutions of 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
𝑥 2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11)
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Example 3: If 𝑝 is a prime, prove that (𝑝 − 1)! ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝) [Wilson’s theorem]
Consider the group (𝑍𝑝+ , ×).
𝑍𝑝+ = 1 2 3 … 𝑝−1
In 𝑍𝑝+, only [1] and [𝑝 − 1] have their own inverses. ([𝑥] = [𝑥]−1 )
𝑝−3
Remaining (𝑝 − 3) elements have pairs of the form 𝑥 , [𝑥]−1 with [𝑥] ≠ [𝑥]−1 .
2
Multiplying all these elements,
𝑝−3
2 × 3 × ⋯× 𝑝 − 2 ≡ 1 2
𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝
2 × 3 × ⋯ × 𝑝 − 2 ≡ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝
2 × 3 × ⋯ × 𝑝 − 2 × 𝑝 − 1 ≡ 1 × 𝑝 − 1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝
𝑝 − 1 ! ≡ 𝑝 − 1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝
𝑝 − 1 ! ≡ −1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝 since 𝑝 − 1 = −1
This proves the result.
4. Permutation groups
Example: Permutation group of degree 3
Consider that set 𝐴 = {1,2,3}. These 3 elements can be permuted in 3! = 6 ways.
These permutations are 123,132,213,231,312,321. That is,
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑃0 = , 𝑃1 = , 𝑃2 =
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑃3 = , 𝑃4 = , 𝑃5 =
1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3
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Since these six permutations are 1 − 1 and onto functions from 𝐴 to 𝐴, the
composition of any two of these permutations is also a permutation.
If 𝑆3 = {𝑃0 , 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 , 𝑃5 }, composition table for 𝑆3 is as below.
× 𝑷𝟎 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝟑 𝑷𝟒 𝑷𝟓
𝑆3 is closed and associative under composition of permutations.
𝑆3 contains identity element 𝑃0 .
𝑷𝟎 𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃5

𝑷𝟏 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃0 𝑃5 𝑃3 𝑃4

𝑷𝟐 𝑃2 𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃4 𝑃5 𝑃3 𝑆3 contains inverse of each element.

𝑷𝟑 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃5 𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃2 By table, 𝑃0−1 = 𝑃0 , 𝑃1−1 = 𝑃2 , 𝑃2−1 = 𝑃1 ,
𝑷𝟒 𝑃4 𝑃5 𝑃3 𝑃2 𝑃0 𝑃1

𝑷𝟓 𝑃5 𝑃3 𝑃4 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃0
𝑃3
−1
= 𝑃 3 , 𝑃4
−1
= 𝑃4 , 𝑃5
−1
= 𝑃5 .
Therefore, 𝑆3 is a group under composition of permutations.
𝑆3 is a symmetric group of order 3. 𝑆3 is not commutative.
Problem : Consider the symmetric group 𝑆4 consists of all the permutations of
the set 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}. What is the order of 𝑆4 ? What is the identity element of 𝑆4 ?
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
If 𝛼 = and 𝛽 = verify that (𝛼𝛽)−1 = 𝛽 −1 𝛼 −1 .
2 4 3 1 4 2 1 3
(i). The order of 𝑆4 = 4! = 24.
1 2 3 4
(ii) Identity element of 𝑆4 = 𝑃0 =
1 2 3 4
−1
−1 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝛼𝛽 =
2 4 3 1 4 2 1 3 𝛼𝛽 −1 = 𝛽 −1 𝛼 −1
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3 Sub group
Definition: A non-empty subset 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is called a subgroup of 𝐺
whenever 𝐻 itself is a group under the binary operation in 𝐺.
Examples:
1. Under the usual addition, the set of all even integers is a subgroup of the
group of integers.

2. Under the usual multiplication, the set of all even integers is the subgroup of
the group of all non-zero real numbers.
3. Under the composition of permutations, 𝑃0 , 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃0 , 𝑃3 , {𝑃0 , 𝑃4 } are the
subgroups of the symmetric group 𝑆3 = 𝑃0 , 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 , 𝑃5 .
4. Let 𝐻 = {0,2,4} ⊆ 𝑍0 , (𝐻, +) is a subgroup of (𝑍6 , +).
Remarks:
1. For any group 𝐺, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 and {𝑒} ⊆ 𝐺.
Since {𝑒} is a group under the operation in 𝐺, {𝑒} is a subgroup of 𝐺.
2. For any group 𝐺, 𝐺 ⊆ 𝐺. Thus every group is a subgroup to itself.
3. {𝑒} and G are called trivial subgroups of a group 𝐺.
All the other subgroups are called proper subgroups of 𝐺.
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1. Theorem 1: Prove that 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 if and only if
𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
If part:
Suppose 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
⟹ 𝐻 is a group under the same operation of 𝐺.
⟹ 𝐻 is closed and 𝐻 has inverse for each element of 𝐻.
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
Only if part:
Suppose 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
Since 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝐻 is closed.
Since 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺, 𝑎(𝑏𝑐) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐, ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻. 𝐻 is associative.
Since 𝑎, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 by given conditions. Hence 𝐻 has identity element.
Since 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝐻 has inverse.
Therefore, 𝐻 is a group.
Since 𝐻 is a group and 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺, 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
2. Theorem 2: Prove that 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮 if and only if 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
If part:
Suppose 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
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 Then clearly, 𝐻 is a group under the same operation of 𝐺.
Hence, for any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Only if part:
Suppose 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
By taking 𝑏 = 𝑎, 𝑎𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻. Thus 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻. Identity property holds.
By taking 𝑎 = 𝑒 and 𝑏 = 𝑎, 𝑒𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻. Inverse property holds.
Since 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎(𝑏 −1 ) ∈ 𝐻, by given condition.
Therefore, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻. Closed property holds under the binary operation of 𝐺.
Since associative property holds for all the elements of 𝐺, this holds for 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺.
Therefore, 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
3. Theorem 3: When H is finite, P.T. 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮 if and only if
𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
If part:
𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 ⟹ 𝐻 is a group.
⟹ 𝐻 is closed.
⟹ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
Only if part:
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻. That is, 𝐻 is closed.
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 Since 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 and 𝐺 is associative, 𝐻 is also associative.
Consider a set 𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎ℎ|ℎ ∈ 𝐻}, for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻.
Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎ℎ ∈ 𝐻, for any ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
Therefore, 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻. Since 𝐻 is finite, 𝑎𝐻 is also finite.
Define a function 𝑓: 𝐻 → 𝑎𝐻 by 𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑎ℎ, ∀ℎ ∈ 𝐻.
Then 𝑓(ℎ1 ) = 𝑓(ℎ2 ) ⟹ 𝑎ℎ1 = 𝑎ℎ2 ⟹ ℎ1 = ℎ2 , by left cancellation law.
Therefore, 𝑓 is 1-1 from 𝐻 to 𝑎𝐻. Since 𝑓 s finite, |𝐻| = |𝑎𝐻|.
𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻, |𝐻| = |𝑎𝐻| ⟹ 𝐻 = 𝑎𝐻.
Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 = 𝑎ℎ1 , for some ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻.
By left cancellation law, 𝑒 = ℎ ∈ 𝐻. Identity law holds.
𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑒 ∈ 𝑎𝐻 ⟹ 𝑒 = 𝑎ℎ2 , for some ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻. ℎ2 = 𝑎−1 . Inverse property holds.
Therefore, 𝐻 is a group. Since 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺, 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
This completes the proof of the theorem.
4. Prove that the intersection of two groups of a group is a subgroup of the group.
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐻 and 𝐾 be two subgroups of 𝐺.
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾.
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐾
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾
Therefore, 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a subgroup of G.
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5. Check whether the union of two subgroups of a group is a subgroup?
Consider two subgroups of a symmetric group 𝑆3 as 𝑇1 = 𝑃0 , 𝑃3 , 𝑇2 = {𝑃2 , 𝑃4 }.
But 𝑇1 ∪ 𝑇2 = {𝑃0 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 } is not closed. Because 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 = 𝑃1 ∉ 𝑇1 ∪ 𝑇2 .
Therefore, 𝑇1 ∪ 𝑇2 is not a group.
6. Let 𝑮 be a group and 𝐼 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺|𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐺}. P.T. 𝐼 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 ⟹ 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑦𝑒, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐺
⟹𝑒∈𝐺
⟹ 𝐽 is non-empty.
For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐽 and any 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺,
(𝑎𝑏)𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑦) = 𝑎(𝑦𝑏) = (𝑎𝑦)𝑏 = (𝑦𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑦(𝑎𝑏)
Therefore, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐽.
𝑦𝑎 = 𝑎𝑦
⟹ 𝑎−1 (𝑦𝑎)𝑎−1 = 𝑎 −1 (𝑎𝑦)𝑎−1
⟹ 𝑎−1 𝑦 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 𝑎 𝑦𝑎−1
⟹ 𝑎−1 𝑦 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑦𝑎−1
⟹ 𝑎−1 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑎 −1
Therefore, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐼
Thus, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐽, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐽, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐽 Therefore, 𝐽 is a subgroup of 𝐺.
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7. Consider the subset 𝑯 of the symmetric group 𝑆4 consisting of the following
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
elements of 𝑆4 . 𝑃0 = , 𝑃1 = , 𝑃2 = ,
1 2 3 4 2 1 4 3 3 4 1 2
1 2 3 4
𝑃3 = . Construct a table to show that H is an abelian group of 𝑆4 .
4 3 2 1
× 𝑷𝟎 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝟑
This table shows that 𝐻 is closed under permutation.
𝑷𝟎 𝑃0 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
Therefore, by theorem 3, 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝑆4 .
𝑷𝟏 𝑃1 𝑃0 𝑃3 𝑃2
The table also shows that the commutative law holds in 𝐻. 𝑷𝟐 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑃0 𝑃1
Therefore, 𝐻 is an abelian group. 𝑷𝟑 𝑃3 𝑃2 𝑃1 𝑃0

8. For the group 𝑍63 , find subgroups of orders 6, 12 and 36.

Consider the group 𝑍6 of order 6.
𝑍63 = 𝑍6 × 𝑍6 × 𝑍6 is a group of order 63 = 216.
Every element of 𝑍63 is of the form (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) , where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍6 .
𝐻1 = {(𝑎, 0,0)|𝑎 ∈ 𝑍6 } is a subgroup of order 6.
𝐻2 = {(𝑎, 𝑏, 0)|𝑎 ∈ 𝑍6 , 𝑏 = 0, 3} is a subgroup of order 12.
𝐻3 = {(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)|𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍6 } is a subgroup of order 36.
4 Cyclic group: A group is said to be the cyclic group if for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, every
element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 is of the form 𝑎𝑛 , for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍. The element 𝑎 is called the
generator of the cyclic group 𝐺. It is denoted by 𝐺 =< 𝑎 >.
22-05-2025 Prepared by Dr. P Prathapa Reddy 21
 Example: 𝐺 = {𝑖, −𝑖, −1,1} is the cyclic group generated by 𝑖.
Every element of 𝐺 is of the form 𝑖 𝑛 , for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
Hence, 𝑖 is the generator of the cyclic group 𝐺.
Theorem: If 𝑎 is a generator of a cyclic group 𝑮, show that inverse of 𝑎 is also a
generator.
𝑎 is a generator of the cyclic group 𝐺.
⟹ If 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑔 = 𝑎 𝑛 , for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
⟹ 𝑔 = 𝑎𝑛 = {(𝑎−1 )−1 }𝑛 = (𝑎−1 )−𝑛 , for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
⟹ 𝑎 −1 is also a generator of the cyclic group 𝐺.
Examples:
1. Show that the group (𝐺,∗) is a cyclic group whose multiplication table is
∗ 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄 𝒅 𝒆 𝒇 𝑎 is an identity element of 𝐺.
𝒂 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓
𝑏2 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑐
𝒃 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎
𝑏3 = 𝑏2 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑑
𝒄 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎 𝑏
𝑏4 = 𝑏3 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑑 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒
𝒅 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

𝒆 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑏5 = 𝑏4 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑓
𝒇 𝑓 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒 𝑏6 = 𝑏4 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑓 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎
Every element of 𝐺 is an integral power of 𝑏.
Therefore, (𝐺, ∗) is a cyclic group.
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 2. Prove that the Klein-4 group is not cyclic.
In the Klein-4 group, every element is its own inverse.
𝑥 2 = 𝑥. 𝑥 = 𝑒
𝑥 3 = 𝑥 2 . 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥
If 𝑛 is even, 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 2𝑟 = 𝑥 2 𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑒.
If 𝑛 is odd, 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 . 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑥
Therefore, every integral power of 𝑥 is equal to either 𝑒 or 𝑥.
⟹ No element in this group can be a generator.
⟹ Klein-4 group is not cyclic.
3. Prove that the multiplicative group of non-zero rational numbers are not cyclic.
Consider (𝑄 ∗ ,×).
𝑄∗ is the set of all non-zero rational numbers and × is the usual multiplication.
Suppose (𝑄∗ ,×) is cyclic.
𝑝
⟹ There is a non-zero rational number ≠ 1 as a generator.
𝑞
𝑝 𝑚 𝑝 𝑛
⟹ Since 2,3 ∈ 𝑄∗ , we have 2 = 𝑞
and 3 = 𝑞
for some 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.

⟹ This gives 2𝑛 = 3𝑛 , which is impossible.

Therefore, (𝑄∗ ,×). is not cyclic.

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4. Prove that the group (𝑍4 , +) is cyclic. Find all its generators.
The elements of 𝑍 are the congruent classes [0], [1], [2], [3].
The operator + is ′addition module 4′. [1] = [1]1
2 = 1 + 1 = 12
[3] = [1] + [1] + [1] = [1]3
4 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 14
Therefore, every element of 𝑍 is an integral power of [1].
Therefore, (𝑍4 , +) is a cyclic group.
[1] is the generator of 𝑍4 .
[1]−1 = [−1] = [4 − 1] = [3] is also a generator of 𝑍4 .
[0]𝑛 ≠ [1], for any 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
[2]𝑛 ≠ [1], for any 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
Therefore, [1] and [3] are the only generators of 𝑍4 .

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5 Lagrange’s theorem
If 𝑮 is a finite group and 𝑯 is a subgroup of 𝑮, then 𝑂 𝐺 /𝑂(𝐻).
Proof: 𝐻 is a subgroup of a finite group 𝐺.
⟹ 𝐻 is also finite.
⟹ 𝐻 = {ℎ1 , ℎ2 , ℎ3 , … , ℎ𝑛 }, where each ℎ𝑖 is distinct.
⟹ 𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ1 𝑎, ℎ2 𝑎, ℎ3 𝑎, … , ℎ𝑛 𝑎}, where each ℎ𝑖 𝑎 is distinct.
⟹ The right coset 𝐻𝑎 has 𝑛 distinct elements.
Since 𝐺 is finite, there are a finite number of distinct right cosets.
Let 𝐺 = 𝐻𝑎1 ∪ 𝐻𝑎2 ∪ ⋯ ∪ 𝐻𝑎𝑘
⟹ 𝑂 𝐺 = 𝐻𝑎1 + 𝐻𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝐻𝑎𝑘 = 𝑛 + 𝑛 + ⋯ 𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛𝑘
⟹ 𝑛|𝑂(𝐺)
⟹ 𝑂(𝐻)|𝑂(𝐺).

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