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2025 Chapter 2 On Theories

The document discusses the importance of theories in guiding community development practices, highlighting seven essential theories that address various contextual perspectives such as relationships, power, and communication. These theories serve as a theoretical core for practitioners, aiming to build solidarity and agency within communities. The chapter emphasizes the need for community developers to understand and apply these theories to navigate the complexities of community life and social change.

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2025 Chapter 2 On Theories

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2 Seven Theories for Seven

Community Developers1
Ronald J. Hustedde

Overview
Community developers need theories to help guide and frame the complexity of their work.
However, the field is girded with so many theories from various disciplines that it is difficult for
practitioners to sort through them. Although many undergraduate and graduate community devel-
opment programs have emerged in North America and throughout the world, there is no fixed
theoretical canon in the discipline. This chapter focuses on the purpose of theory and the seven
theories essential to community development practice. Why seven theories? In Western cultures,
seven implies a sense of near completeness. There are seven days in a week, seven seas, seven
climate zones, and seven ancient and modern wonders of the world. Rome was built on seven
hills. While seven may or may not be a lucky number, seven theories are offered as a theoretical
core for those who approach community development from at least seven contextual perspec-
tives: organizations; power relationships; shared meanings; relationship building; choice making;
conflicts; and integration of the paradoxes that pervade the field. Hence, the chapter’s title:
“Seven Theories for Seven Community Developers.” It is a potential canon for practitioners.

Introduction: Why Theory? The starting point is to offer a deﬁnition of

community development that is both distinctive
Theories are explanations that can provide help in and universal and can be applied to all types of
understanding people’s behavior and a framework societies from postindustrial to preindustrial. Bhat-
from which community developers can explain tacharyya (2004) met these conditions when he
and comprehend events. A good theory can be deﬁned community development as the process of
stated in abstract terms and help create strategies creating or increasing solidarity and agency. He
and tools for effective practice. Whether asserts that solidarity is about building a deep
community developers want others to conduct sense of shared identity and a code of conduct for
relevant research or they want to participate in the community developers. The developers need that
research themselves, it is important that they have solidarity as they sort through conﬂicting visions
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

theoretical grounding. Theory is the major guide and deﬁnitions of problems among ethnically and
to understanding the complexity of community life ideologically plural populations. It can occur in
and social and economic change (Collins 1988; the context of a “community of place” such as a
Ritzer 1996). neighborhood, city, or town. It can also occur in

the context of a “community of interest” such as a intended to build capacity, which makes it different
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breast cancer survivors’ group, an environmental from other helping professions. Community
organization, or any group that wants to address developers build the capacity of a people when
a particular issue. Bhattacharyya contends that they encourage or teach others to create their own
creating agency gives people the capacity to dreams, and to learn new skills and knowledge.
order their world. According to Giddens, agency Agency or capacity building occurs when practi-
is “the capacity to intervene in the world, or to tioners assist or initiate community reflection on
refrain from intervention, with the effect of influ- the lessons its members have learned from their
encing a process or the state of affairs” (1984: actions. Agency is about building the capacity to
14). There are complex forces that work against understand, create and act, and reflect.
agency. However, community development is

BOX 2.1 THEORY TO INFORM ACTION

As Green (2008: 50) explains:

If it is to be used in informing practice, theory must help us to interpret and understand the world.
Community theory may beneﬁt from directing more attention to the work that people collectively do to
shape community life. As one step in this direction, models of community development practice should
be revisited to bring in and synthesize theory describing, interpreting, and understanding people’s
strategic action.
The Editors

Seven Key Concerns in the tionships, communicating for change, full partici-
Community Development Field pation, rational decision making, and integrating
micro and macro forces into their community
Following this definition of community devel- development insights.
opment, there are seven major concerns involving Relationships are linked to a sense of solidarity.
solidarity and agency building: (1) relationships, How critical are trust and reciprocity in the
(2) structure, (3) power, (4) shared meaning, (5) community development process? What is
communication for change, (6) motivations for essential to know about relationship building?
decision making, and (7) integration of these Structure refers to social practices, organizations,
disparate concerns and paradoxes within the or groups that play a role in solidarity and
field. Horton (1992) shared similar concerns capacity building. It also refers to the relationships
about African-American approaches to community among them. Some of these social practices and
development. He emphasized historic power organizations may have a limited role. Therefore,
differences and the influence of culture and black to establish solidarity, new organizations may
community institutions in his black community need to be built and/or existing ones could
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

development model. Chaskin et al. (2001) focused expand their missions.

on neighborhood and other structures and Power refers to relationships with those who
networks in their work on capacity building. Littrell control resources, such as land, labor, capital,
and Littrell (2006), Green and Haines (2002), and knowledge, or those who have greater access
and Pigg (2002) all wove concerns about rela- to those resources than others. Since community

development is about building the capacity for through all the policies to decide which will
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social and economic change, the concept of maximize individual and collective needs. Who is
power is essential. Shared meaning refers to more likely to win or lose if a public policy is
social meaning, especially symbols, that people implemented? What are the potential conse-
give to a place, physical things, behavior, events, quences on other aspects of life if the policy is
or action. In essence, solidarity must be built carried out? Essentially, the process of making
within a cultural context. Individuals and groups rational choices can be nurtured as a form of
give different meanings to objects, deeds, and capacity building. The integration of paradox and
matters. For example, one community might see disparate macro and micro concerns are part of
the construction of an industrial plant as an community development practice. How does one
excellent way to bring prosperity to their town, reconcile concerns about relationships, power,
while another community might see a similar structure, shared meaning, communication for
construction as the destruction of their quality of change, and motivational decision making? Is
life. Community developers need to pay attention there a theory that ties some of these economic,
to these meanings if they wish to build a sense of political and sociological concerns together?
solidarity in a particular community or between These seven concerns form the basis for essential
communities. It is important to understand the community development theory: social capital
conceptual underpinnings and models of the theory, functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic
context of power in communities, especially to interactionism, communicative action theory,
increase the likelihood of desirable community- rational choice theory, and Giddens’ structuration
level outcomes (Brennan et al. 2013). theory. Table 2.1 lists these concerns and theories.
Communication for change is linked to the Each of these seven theoretical perspectives will
concept of full participation, a consistent value in be examined and considered as to how they can
the community development literature. Within a be applied to community development practice.
framework often dominated by technicians, the
corporate sector, or national political constraints,
practitioners raise questions about how the voice 1 Concerns about Relationships:
of citizens can be heard at all. Motivation can Social Capital Theory
influence many aspects of community devel-
opment. It helps us understand whether people Community developers inherently know that the
will or will not become involved in a community quality of social relationships is essential for
initiative. It also affects making difficult public solidarity building and successful community initi-
choices, a process which usually involves thinking atives. Friendships, trust, and the willingness to

Q Table 2.1 Concerns and Related Theories

Concern Related theory

1 Relationships Social capital theory

2 Structure Functionalism
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

3 Power Conﬂict theory

4 Shared meaning Symbolic interactionism
5 Communication for change Communicative action
6 Motivations for decision making Rational choice theory
7 Integration of disparate concerns/paradoxes Giddens’ structuration

share some resources are integral to collective are linked too closely with “communities of place”
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action. Community developers intuitively build on because memberships in organizations such as

these relationships. Social scientists view these rela- the Sierra Club and other groups have increased
tionships as a form of capital. Social capital is that significantly. They have also asserted that commu-
set of resources intrinsic to social relations and nities with strong social capital can also breed
includes trust, norms, and networks. It is often corre- intolerance and smugness. They have distin-
lated with confidence in public institutions, civic guished between “bonding social capital” and
engagement, self-reliant economic development, “bridging social capital.” They contend a mafia
and overall community well-being and happiness. group or the Klu Klux Klan may have strong
Trust is part of everyday relationships. Most bonding social capital, but it does not build any
people trust that banks will not steal their accounts new bridges that can expand horizons, provide
or that when they purchase a pound of meat from new ideas, or generate wealth. They suggest
the grocer, it will not actually weigh less. Life can focusing more on “bridging social capital”—the
be richer if there is trust among neighbors and formation of new social ties and relationships to
others in the public and private sectors. Think of expand networks and to provide a broader set of
settings where corruption, indifference, and open new leaders with fresh ideas and information. For
distrust might inhibit common transactions and example, some communities have created stronger
the sense of the common good. Equality is links between African-American and Caucasian
considered to be an important cultural norm that faith-based communities or established leadership
is high in social capital because it reaches across programs that nurture emerging and diverse
political, economic, and cultural divisions. Reci- groups of leaders. These activities both create
procity is another cultural norm that is viewed as new community linkages to broader resource
part of social capital. It should not be confused bases and build new levels of trust, reciprocity,
with a quid pro quo economic transaction; it is and other shared norms.
much broader than the concept of “I’ll scratch
your back if you’ll scratch mine.” When indi-
How Can Social Capital Theory Serve as a
viduals, organizations, or communities provide
Guide for Community Development Practice?
food banks, scholarship funds, low-cost homes—
or other forms of self-help, mutual aid, or Community developers can integrate social capital
emotional support—it stimulates a climate of reci- theory into their initiatives. In some cases, they will
procity in which the recipients are more likely to find communities which have relatively low levels
give back to the community in some form. A of social capital. In such cases, they may have to
culture with high levels of reciprocity encourages begin by nurturing “bonding social capital”
more pluralistic politics and compromise which through sharing food and drink, celebrations,
can make it easier for community development storytelling, dance, or public art. They will have to
initiatives to emerge. create opportunities for people to get to know
Putnam (1993, 2000) has argued that social each other and build new levels of trust through
capital has declined in the United States since the shared interests including music, book clubs,
1990s. Social capital indicators have included games, or other pursuits.
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

voter turnout, participation in local organizations, In other cases, communities may have strong
concert attendance, or hosting others for dinner at bonding social capital but really need “bridging
one’s home. Suburban sprawl, increased mobility, social capital” if they are going to prosper and
increased participation of women in the labor increase their quality of life. Take the case of
force, and television are among the reasons given tobacco-dependent counties in rural Kentucky that
for this decline. Some critics claim the indicators have limited communications with sister counties

to build new regional initiatives such as agricul- those involved with the growth machine or real
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tural and ecological tourism. The Kentucky Entre- estate developers.

preneurial Coaches Institute was created to build Functionalists such as Parsons argue that struc-
a new team of entrepreneurial leaders through a tures often contribute to their own maintenance, not
mutually supportive network and linkages with the particularly to a greater societal good. Concern for
“best and brightest in rural entrepreneurship” from order and stability also leads functionalists to focus
around the world, nation, and region (Hustedde on social change and its sources. They view conﬂict
2006). Social capital was built through the mutual and stability as two sides of the same coin. If a
support of multi-county mini-grant ventures community development practitioner wants to build
consisting of international and domestic travel community capacity, he or she will have to pay
seminars in which participants shared rooms, attention to the organizational capacity for stimu-
buses, seminars, and programs. These activities lating or inhibiting change. Structural functionalism
led to new forms of bonding and bridging social helps one to understand how the status quo is main-
capital which stimulated not only entrepreneurship tained. Some critics claim that the theory fails to
but an entrepreneurial culture. offer much insight into change, social dynamics, or
existing structures (Collins 1988; Ritzer 1996;
Turner 1998).
2 Concerns about Structure: Functionalism

How Can Structural Functionalism Guide

Second, it is important to look at structure, which
Community Development Practice?
underlies organizational and group capacity to
bring about or stop change. In essence, structure is Structural functionalism is a useful tool for
related to Giddens’ concept of agency or capacity practitioners. Looking at the case of an inner city
building. The theoretical concept concerned with neighborhood that is struggling to create a micro-
structure is known as structural functionalism. It is enterprise business that will benefit local people, if
also called systems theory, equilibrium theory, or one applied structural functionalism to community
simply functionalism. According to this theoretical development practice, one would help the com-
framework, societies contain certain interdependent munity analyze which organizations are committed
structures, each of which performs certain functions to training, nurturing, and financing microenterprise
for societal maintenance. Structures refer to organi- development and what their latent or hidden func-
zations and institutions such as health care, educa- tions might be. A functionalist-oriented practitioner
tional entities, business and nonprofits, or informal is more likely to notice dysfunctions in organiza-
groups. Functions refer to their purposes, missions, tions. If existing organizations are not meeting local
and what they do in society. These structures form needs in this area, the functionalist would build
the basis of a social system. Talcott Parsons and community capacity by transforming an existing
Robert K. Merton are the specialists most often organization to meet the same concerns. A function-
associated with this theory. According to Merton alist would also want to build links with broader
(1968), social systems have manifest and latent social systems, such as external organizations, that
functions. Manifest functions are intentional and could help the community’s micro-entrepreneurs to
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

recognized. In contrast, latent functions may be ﬂourish. In essence, a functionalist would see struc-
unintentional and unrecognized. For example, it tures as important components of capacity building.
could be argued that the manifest function of urban While structural functionalism is an important tool
planning is to assure well-organized and efﬁciently for community development, it is limited because it
functioning cities, whereas the latent function is to does not fully explore the issue of power that can be
allocate advantages to certain interests such as found in other theories.

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SEVEN THEORIES FOR SEVEN COMMUNITY DEVELOPERS 27
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BOX 2.2 SOCIAL JUSTICE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN A CHANGING WORLD

There are many ways of thinking about social justice in the contemporary world. For philosophers, social
justice represents a normative ideal concerning the society and polity we should strive to achieve. In both
eastern and western traditions, philosophers as varied as the Chinese confucian Mencius (1966) and
classical Greek scholar Plato (1894/2000) have associated justice with ideal properties that should be
sought in the relationship between the governed and those who govern. In more modern times, the concept
of social justice has been linked to liberal notions of fairness and thus a desired future rooted in principles of
desert, need, and equality (Miller 1999) in which the procedure for distributing benefits and burdens
throughout society is based on the arrangement of social and economic inequalities so that it provides the
greatest benefit to the least advantaged (Rawls 1971).
For social scientists, the study of social justice focuses less on aspirational ideals than on legacies of past
injustices. Sociologist Avery Gordon (2008), for example, reminds us that the pursuit of social justice requires
the recognition of shadowy historical forces of injustice, such as the experience of slavery, and the complex
ways in which these experiences continue to impact contemporary life. By examining the cultural, economic,
and political forces that have contributed to these injustices, we are better able to understand how and why
they occurred and thus take steps to minimize if not prevent unjust actions, processes, and outcomes yet to
come.
For activists engaged in organizations and movements pursuing social change, social justice represents
the intertwining of theory and praxis as a foundation for transforming the status quo through the active pursuit
of a more fully representative society. Grounded in the notion of fundamental human rights, mutual
interdependence, and a commitment to the power of human agency, social justice provides a basis for action
whose legitimacy is derived in large part from its universal appeal (Shaw 2001). Tapping a set of values that
transcend political ideology, economic class, and cultural cleavages created by gender, ethnicity, and race,
it provides a framework for uniting and mobilizing disparate interests into a common cause.
The Intersection of Social and Economic Justice with Community Development
Interdisciplinary research focusing on the intersection of social and economic justice and community
development bridge knowledge domains across multiple levels of analysis, from global governance and
national policies and programs to local community and neighborhood initiatives and projects. Though often
focused on processes of change, analytically this research is rooted in a broader critique of the economic,
political, and/or cultural systems and conditions in which social interactions are embedded. Consequently,
it raises questions and exposes dilemmas often ignored and/or overlooked by mainstream disciplinary
approaches, such as why and how income inequality and racial hierarchy persist and how they impact
community development in specific contexts around the globe.
Rooted in a concern for communities’ most vulnerable populations, much of the theoretical work related to
social justice and community development seeks to illuminate the ways in which social stratification and
disparities in economic and political power become engrained in cultural and institutional arrangements,
thus accounting for the persistence of social and economic injustice over time. Antonio Gramsci (1971), for
example, underscores the critical role that cultural hegemony plays in enabling those with power in a society
to maintain their dominance by normalizing and naturalizing their values, interests, norms, and ideologies
thus making them appear commonsensical even to those that may be harmed by them. In her exploration of
the tension between universal ideals and individual and group interest, Iris Marion Young (1990), a prominent
theorist of justice, exposes the myriad ways in which the “five faces of oppression”—exploitation,
marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism, and violence/harassment—block effective group
representation in the democratic process. Focusing to how oppression becomes embedded in the U.S.
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

criminal justice system, scholar-activist Angela Davis (2003) highlights the ways in which low-income and
minority communities are adversely and unjustly impacted by practices embedded in the penal system.
Connecting local issues and problems to a broader range of experiences and perspectives regarding the
causes and consequences of social and economic (in)justice, brings academics, practitioners, and community
activists together to tackle a wide variety of social justice issues that impact community development. These
include voter suppression, predatory lending, racial proﬁling, and residential segregation to name but a few.

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28 RONALD J. HUSTEDDE
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As social justice workers, practitioners, academics, and activists function as public intellectuals who expose
and directly challenge the types of oppressive ideologies and practices that perpetuate injustice. They do this
in several different ways.
First, they raise awareness, educating students, policy makers, and community members about the causes
and consequences of (in)justice both formally through courses, papers, and reports and more informally
through participation in community and workplace forums, rallies, and events. In so doing they bring
otherwise disparate individuals and organizations together in a potentially transformative dialogue focused
on finding ways to minimize if not overcome barriers to greater equity and inclusiveness.
Second, they help to organize and mobilize political opposition to the legal and social institutions,
practices and processes, which undermine social injustice. This is exemplified in both the Civil Rights and
Welfare Rights movements of the 1960s, which challenged segregation, racial discrimination, and inequity
by means of nonviolent protest and political and social pressure to extend basic human and social rights.
More recently, the immigrants’ rights movement and the Human Rights Campaign have worked to organize
broad-based coalitions to pursue changes in the law in support of the rights of undocumented workers and
immigrant and LGBT families.
Third, social justice workers seek to give both individuals and groups that have been excluded and/or
marginalized greater voice, thereby helping to empower them as potential agents of change within their own
communities. This is demonstrated in the contemporary era through an explosion of movements and projects
aimed at improving social and economic conditions by fostering social innovation and participatory
governance. Long engaged in the process of catalyzing solidaristic enterprises rooted in the needs of local
communities, the cooperative movement is at the forefront of promoting economic self-sufficiency,
empowerment, and cultural integration—themes of particular interest to members of marginalized communities
(Gonzales and Phillips 2013). By sharing costs, spreading out risk, and promoting internal and external
mutuality, cooperatives allow small producers and socially and environmentally conscious consumers to
respond to the needs of the community while competing effectively in the capitalist marketplace (Briscoe and
Ward, 2005; Fairbairn, 2003). Guided by a clear set of values such as democratic control and concern for
community, which are enshrined in cooperative principles established by the International Cooperative
Association (ICA), both ideationally and pragmatically, cooperatives offer a promising structure for poverty
reduction (Bendick and Egan, 1995), the development of sustainable food systems (Ward, 2005) and
refugee resettlement (Gonzales et al., 2013). Examples of other types of models and projects linked to the
so-called social solidarity economy (Fonteneau et al., 2011) include tenant-managed public housing,
community-owned alternative energy production, participatory budgeting and a variety of other programs
that bring together elected officials, public agencies, and local residents in partnerships that democratize the
ownership and management of community assets.
In the areas of community and cooperative development, social justice organizations and movements draw
from various approaches and traditions to emphasize social inclusion, democratic participation, and a more
equitable distribution of both material and non-material goods. While various groups define social justice in
distinctive ways depending on the particular political and social traditions they draw from, promoting social
justice within the process of community development entails a recognition and support for human interconnection
and social solidarity in the pursuit of a better world (see Adams et al., 2007).
Vanna Gonzales, Ph.D.
Director, Certificate in Economic Justice, Faculty of Justice and Social Inquiry-School
of Social Transformation, Arizona State University, USA.

Sources
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

Adams, M., Bell, L.A., & Grifﬁn, P. (Eds.). (2007). Teaching for diversity and social justice (2nd ed.). New York:
Routledge.
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in low-opportunity communities. Journal of Community Practice, 2(1): 61–85.
Briscoe, R. & Ward, M. (2005). What co-ops have in common. In R. Briscoe & M. Ward (Eds.), Helping ourselves:
Success stories in co-operative business and social enterprise. Cork, Ireland: Oak Tree Press.

EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 3/5/2018 9:37 AM via UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU NATAL
AN: 882770 ; Pittman, Robert H., Phillips, Rhonda.; An Introduction to Community Development
Account: [Link]
SEVEN THEORIES FOR SEVEN COMMUNITY DEVELOPERS 29
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Davis, A. (2003). Are prisons obsolete? New York: Seven Stories Press.
Fairbairn, B. (2003). History of cooperatives. In C.D. Merrett & N. Walzer (Eds.), Cooperatives and local
development: Theory and applications for the 21st century (pp. 23–51). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Fonteneau, B., Neamtan, N., Wanyama, F., Morais, L.P., de Poorter, M., Borzaga, C., Galera, G., Fox, T., &
Ojong, N. (2011). Social and Solidarity Economy: Our common road towards Decent Work (2nd ed.). Turin,
Italy: International Training Center of the ILO.
Gonzales, Vanna, Forrest, N., & Balos, N. (2013). Refugee farmers and the social enterprise model in the American
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Gonzales, Vanna & Phillips, Rhonda (Eds.). (2013). Cooperatives and community development. Boca Raton, FL:
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Gordon, A. (2004). Theory and justice. In A. Gordon (Ed.), Keeping good time: Reﬂections on knowledge, power,
and people (pp. 99–105). Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers. [speech in 1994]
Gordon, A. (2008). Ghostly matters: Haunting and the sociological imagination. Minneapolis, MN: University of
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Geoffrey Nowell Smith. New York: International Publishers.
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3 Concerns about Power: Conﬂict Theory organizations and institutions of civil society and
to interpersonal relations.
Power is the third key issue for community devel- Wallerstein (1984) applied Marxist theory to
opment. Power is control or access to resources understand the expansion of capitalism to a
(land, labor, capital, and knowledge). Since globalized system which needs to continually
community development builds capacity, concerns expand its boundaries. “Political states,” such as
about power are pivotal. Insights into power tend Japan, the UK, the European Union, and the US,
to be found in political science or political soci- are among the core developed states based on
ology. More contemporary theorists have added higher-level skills and capitalization. These states
to the richness of the literature. In his later writings, dominate the peripheral areas such that weak
Foucault (1985) argued that where there is power states are economically dependent on the “core.”
there is resistance. He examines the struggles The low-technology states form a buffer zone to
against the power of men over women, adminis- prevent outright conﬂict between the core and the
tration over the ways people live, and of psychiatry periphery. Some have applied Wallerstein’s world
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

over the mentally ill. He sees power as a feature of system theory to regional economics, with places
all human relations (Foucault, 1965, 1975, 1979, like Appalachia serving as a “periphery” to global
1980, 1985; Nash, 2000). Power has ﬂuidity in market forces. Mills (1959), one of the earliest
the sense that it can be reversed and exists in American conﬂict theorists, examined some of the
different degrees. Beyond conventional politics at key themes in post-World War II American politics.
the state level, Foucault’s focus extends to the He argued that a small handful of individuals from

major corporations, federal government, and the potential for conﬂict is not intended to be
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military were influencing major decisions. He exhaustive. Instead, it points to some of the major
believed this triumvirate shared similar interests and concerns that can guide community development
often acted in unison. Mills’ research on power and practice.
authority still influences theories on power and
politics today. However, Mills also had critics such
How Can Conflict Theory Serve as a Guide for
as Dahl (1971), who believed that power was
Community Development Practice?
more diffused among contending interest groups.
Galbraith (1971) asserted that technical bureau- Community organizers tend to more readily
crats behind the scenes had more power than those embrace conflict theory as a pivotal component of
in official positions. Neo-Marxists argued that Mills their work. However, it can be argued that
and Dahl focused too much on the role of individual community developers also need conflict theory if
actors. They believed that institutions permit the their goal is to build capacity. Power differences
exploitation of one class by another. They also are a reality of community life and need to be
posited that the state intervenes to correct the flaws considered as development occurs. Take the case
of capitalism and preserve the status quo, both of of an Appalachian community near a major state
which are in the institutions’ interests. forest. The state Department of Transportation
In summary, conflict theory suggests that conflict (DOT) wanted to build a highway through the
is an integral part of social life. There are conflicts state forest. They claimed it would lead to more
between economic classes, ethnic groups, young jobs and economic development. A group of local
and old, male and female, or among races. There citizens questioned this assumption. They believed
are conflicts among developed “core” countries the highway would pull businesses away from the
and regions and those that are less developed. It prosperous downtown area to the edge of town,
is argued these conflicts result because power, lead to sprawling development that would detract
wealth, and prestige are not available to everyone. from the quality of life, destroy a popular fishing
Some groups are excluded from dominant hole, and harm the integrity of the forest. The DOT
discourse. It is assumed that those who hold or refused to converse with the community; they
control desirable goods and services or who claimed the proposed highway’s economic
dominate culture will protect their own interests at benefits were irrefutable.
the expense of others. Conflict theorists such as Conflict theory served as a reference point for
Coser (1956), Dahrendorf (1959), and Simmel moving the community’s interests further. At first
(cited in Schellenberg, 1996) have looked at the glance, it appeared that the DOT was in charge of
integrative aspects of conflict and its value as a making the major decisions about the highway.
contributing force to order and stability. Conflict However, the community developer put conflict
can be constructive when it forces people with theory into practice. Community residents were
common interests to make gains to benefit them encouraged to analyze the power of the DOT as
all. Racial inequalities or other social problems well as its being their own political, technical,
would never be resolved to any degree without economic, and social power. Through its analysis,
conflict to disturb the status quo. Simmel discusses the group was expanded to include downtown
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how conﬂict can be resolved in a variety of ways businesspeople, hunters, and environmental and
including disappearance of the conﬂict, victory for religious groups. In this particular case, the
one of the parties, compromise, conciliation, and community decided it needed more technical
irreconcilability (Schellenberg 1996). power. They were able to secure the services
This theoretical framework that underlies both of university researchers, such as economists,
the power of one party over another and the foresters, sociologists, and planners, who had the

credentials to write an alternative impact assessment building solidarity (Collins 1988; Ritzer 1996;
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of the proposed highway. This report was widely Turner 1998). This leads to another theoretical
circulated by the community to the media and framework about shared meaning.
prominent state legislators. Gradually, external
support (power) emerged to help the community
and the DOT decided to postpone the project. 4 Concerns about Shared Meaning:
In a similar situation, the use of conflict theory Symbolic Interactionism
took another twist. The opponents of a DOT-
proposed road sought a mediator/facilitator to Shared meaning is the fourth key concern in
help them negotiate with the DOT and other stake- community development. If the field is committed
holders. They believed a neutral third party could to building or strengthening solidarity, then practi-
create a safe climate for discussion, and that tioners must be concerned about the meaning that
during such discussions power differences would people give to places, people, and events. Herbert
be minimized. In this particular case, their use of Blumer (1969) named the theory “symbolic inter-
conflict theory paid off because the dispute was actionism” because it emphasizes the symbolic
settled to everyone’s satisfaction. nature of human interaction rather than a
In summary, community developers need mechanical pattern of stimulus and interaction.
conflict theory because it helps them gain insight For symbolic interactionists, the meaning of a situ-
into why specific differences and competition ation is not fixed but is constructed by participants
have developed among groups and organizations as they anticipate the responses of others. Mead
in a community. It can help them to understand (1982) explored the importance of symbols, espe-
why some people are silent or have internalized cially language, in shaping the meaning of the
the values of elites even to their own disadvantage. one who makes the gesture as well as the one who
Practitioners and researchers can use Simmel’s receives it.
theory to see how people resolve their differences. Goffman (1959) argued that individuals “give”
Alternately, they can borrow from Marx and the and “give off” signs that provide information to
neo-Marxists to consider the sharp differences others on how to respond. There may be a “front”
between and among class economic interests, such as social status, clothing, gestures, or a
gender, race, and other concerns. physical setting. Individuals may conceal elements
Conflict theory can help communities under- of themselves that contradict general social values
stand the kind and extent of competing interests and present themselves to exemplify accredited
among groups. It also can shed light on the distri- values. Such encounters can be viewed as a form
bution of power, whether concentrated in the of drama in which the “audience” and “team
hands of a few or more broadly distributed. players” interact. In his last work, Goffman (1986)
Communities can also explore the use of conflict examined how individuals frame or interpret
to upset the status quo—whether through protests, events. His premise involves group or individual
economic boycotts, peaceful resistance, or other rules about what should be “pictured in the frame”
ranges of possibilities—especially if competing and what should be excluded. For example, a
groups or institutions refuse to change positions or community developer’s framework of a community
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

negotiate. event might exclude ideas such as “citizens are

While conﬂict theory is an essential tool for apathetic.” It will probably include shared “rules”
capacity building, it should be noted that critics such as “participation is important.” The emphasis
claim it is limited because it ignores the less contro- is on the active, interpretive, and constructive
versial and more orderly parts of society and does capacities of individuals in the creation of social
not help in understanding the role of symbols in reality. It assumes that social life is possible

because people communicate through symbols. For example, take a case where some citizens
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For example, when the traffic light is red, it means have expressed an interest in preserving the
stop; when the thumb is up, it means everything is farmland adjacent to the city, and have asked a
fine. Flora et al. (2000) investigated how two community developer for assistance. If one
opposing community narratives moved through employed a symbolic interactionist perspective,
the stages of frustration, confrontation, negoti- one would ask them what the presence of farmland
ation, and reconciliation. Their case study could means to them. One would link them with farmers
be viewed as the employment of social interac- and others to see if there were different or
tionism. They concluded that, among the symbols competing meanings. Participants would be asked
that humans use, language seems to be the most how they developed their meaning of farmland. A
important because it allows people to commu- symbolic interactionist wouldn’t ignore the concept
nicate and construct their version of reality. of power. Participants would be asked questions
Symbolic interactionists contend that people as to whose concept of farmland dominates public
interpret the world through symbols but stand back policy. Through the employment of symbolic inter-
and think of themselves as objects. action theory, a sense of solidarity could gradually
For example, a group of Native Americans be established in a community.
view a mountain as a sacred place for prayer and A symbolic interactionist would identify groups
healing and react negatively when someone tries that deviate from the dominant meaning of some-
to develop or alter access to it. Developers, thing and would engage them with other groups
foresters, tourism leaders, and others are likely to in order to move the community toward solidarity.
have other meanings for the mountain. Different Symbolic interactionists would also use symbols
individuals or groups attach a different meaning to build capacity. For example, a community
to a particular event. These interpretations are might choose to preserve a historic structure
likely to be viewed by others as a form of deviance because they believed it was beautiful, or explain
which may be accepted, rejected, or fought over. its importance in a labor, class, racial, or gender
Social interactionists argue that one way people struggle or some other interests. A community
build meaning is by observing what other people developer could augment their meaning with
do, by imitating them, and following their data about the historical and architectural signif-
guidance. icance that external agents see in the structure.
Community capacity could be built in other ways
such as providing information about tax credits
How Can Symbolic Interactionism Serve as a Tool
for historic structures or how to locate grants
for Community Development Practice?
for preservation. Increasingly, community devel-
Symbolic interactionism is essential for community opment researchers and practitioners are asked
development because it provides insight into the to help citizens reflect and understand the
ways people develop a sense of shared meaning, meaning of their work. The symbolic interac-
an essential ingredient for solidarity. When a tionist concepts can be used to aid in collective
community developer helps a community develop evaluations. Essentially, it all boils down to what
a shared vision of their future, she is helping them it means and who gives it meaning.
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

build a sense of unity. A community-owned vision Symbolic interactionists probe into the factors
comes about through the interaction of people that help people understand what they say and do
and is related through pictorial, verbal, or musical by looking at the origins of symbolic meanings
symbols. A symbolic interactionist would be keen and how meanings persist. Symbolic interac-
on bringing people together to develop a shared tionists are interested in the circumstances in which
understanding. people question, challenge, criticize, or recon-

struct meanings. Critics argue that symbolic inter- Habermas argues that communicative action is
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actionists do not have an established systematic shaped at the seam of a system and lifeworld.
framework for predicting which meanings will be Systems involve macroeconomic and political
generated, for determining how meanings persist, forces that shape housing, employment, racial,
or for understanding how they change. For and class divisions in a particular community.
example, say a group of Mexican workers and a Local politics are also influenced by federal and
poultry-processing firm move into a poor rural state laws, national party politics, and regulations.
community that was historically dominated by Although the system is embedded in language, it
Anglo-Saxon Protestants. The events may trigger is self-producing. Power and markets can be rela-
cooperation, goodwill, ambivalence, anger, fear, tively detached from community, family, and group
or defensiveness. The cast of characters involved values. At the same time, there is the world of
in these events may be endless. What has really everyday life or the lifeworld. Habermas views the
happened and whose interpretation captures the lifeworld as constituted of language and culture:
reality of the situation? Symbolic interactionists
have limited methodologies for answering such The lifeworld, is, so to speak, the transcen-
questions. In spite of these limitations, it is hoped dental site where speaker and hearer meet,
that a strong case has been made as to why where they reciprocally raise claim that their
symbolic interactionism is an essential theory for utterances fit the world . . . and where they
community development practice. can criticize and confirm those validity claims,
settle their disagreements and arrive at agree-
ments.
5 Communication for Change: (1987: 126)
Communicative Action Theory
Habermas is concerned about the domination and
It is safe to assume that community development rationalization of the lifeworld, in which science
occurs within the context of democracy that is and technology are the modi operandi to address
deliberative and participatory. Public talk is not complex public issues. He believes that science
simply talk; it is essential for democratic partici- and technology maintain the illusion of being
pation. It is about thinking through public policy value-free and inherently rational. In practical
choices. Deliberation occurs when the public terms, citizens find it difficult to engage in dialogue
examines the impacts of potential choices and with “more rational” scientists, engineers, or
tries them on, just as one might try on clothing in political and corporate elites. The problem is
a department store before making a choice. In compounded when there is technical arrogance
such settings, public talk involves rich discussions or limited receptivity to local voices. For example,
among a variety of networks. From the community many local newspapers and television stations are
development perspective, participation occurs in corporately owned. It is therefore difficult to hear
a setting where a diversity of voices are heard in local voices, for they are filtered through more
order to explore problems, test solutions, and dominant perspectives. Habermas is concerned
make changes to policies when the community about the colonization of the lifeworld of culture
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

finds flaws. Communities with robust democratic and language, a colonization that reduces people
networks can be viewed as communicatively inte- to the status of things. He also argues that tech-
grated (Friedland, 2001). This type of integration nical knowledge is not sufficient for democratic
involves the communicative activities that link indi- settings in which community developers work. It
viduals, networks, and institutions into a community must be balanced by hermeneutic knowledge
of place or interest. which he calls “practical interests.” Hermeneutics

deals with the interpretation of technical tuals. He and has been a powerful inﬂuence on
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knowledge and what it means for an individual, the formation of social democracies in Germany
his or her family, or community. It is action oriented and the rest of Europe. “Communicative action”
and involves mutual self-understanding. describes the seam where monetary and bureau-
The third dimension of knowledge is emanci- cratic structures meet the lifeworld. This emphasis
patory. It regards the liberation of the self-con- on reason, unfettered public discussion, and the
scious and transcends and synthesizes the other potential for common ground provide an essential
two dimensions of knowledge. While science and theory for community development practice in its
technology may help liberation, they can also concern for process.
suffocate it. Emancipatory knowledge incorpo-
rates both technical and hermeneutic knowledge
How Can Communicative Action Theory Guide
into a fresh perspective and outlook that leads to
Community Development Practice?
action.
In essence, Habermas’ theory of communicative By its very nature, community development involves
action is that it builds a linkage between the the participation of networks, groups, and indi-
“rational” system and the lifeworld. His commu- viduals whose voices are part of the lifeworld.
nicative action theory and political objective are While this lifeworld operates within the context of
based on free, open, and unlimited communi- technical, political, and market realities, it should
cation. It should be noted that Habermas grew up be noted that the principles of community devel-
in Nazi Germany and his focus on reason could opment entail participation of citizens in deﬁning
be viewed as a response to the unreason of the their own problems and dreams. If technicians or
Holocaust. At the same time, unlimited public talk political and corporate interests dominate discus-
could be seen as reaction to the curtailment of sions, citizen involvement and participation
intellectual freedom and public dialogue during becomes a mere afterthought. If technical know-
the Hitler years. Habermas’ insights about ledge is discarded or minimized, community devel-
communicative action theory, and his emphasis on opment efforts may not be successful. Habermas’
reason and unrestrained public talk are viewed by communicative action theory is guided by the inter-
some critics as utopian liberal ideals in which section of technical and corporate knowledge with
people talk their ideas to death. Others assert that local and practical knowledge. Combined, they
universal principles of justice and democracy can lead to a new kind of “emancipatory
have been replaced by relativistic and egocentric knowledge” that offers fresh ideas and action.
perspectives. They assert that “reason” is a There are many ways for community developers
rationale for the powerful to suppress others. to carry out Habermas’ communicative action
While Habermas emphasizes the potential to theory. For example, the National Issues Forums
reach common ground, his detractors claim that are held in many communities wherein individuals,
common ground is not possible and that there is networks, and groups explore public issues
nothing wrong with competition between groups. through the perspective of several public policy
They say he is merely moralizing and that commu- choices. Rather than choose sides, these forums
nicative action theory is a hodgepodge of ideas are designed for the participants to examine the
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

gathered from the Enlightenment, Karl Marx, Max applicability, strengths, limitations, and values of
Weber, and others. each choice. National Issues Forums are conscious
On the other hand, it should also be asserted acts of deliberation that make it easier for the
that Habermas is continually expanding his system and the lifeworld to interact.
perceptions and that, in spite of these criticisms, In another community development case, an
he is one of the world’s leading public intellec- Appalachian Cancer Network was developed by

homemakers and health-care professionals to deal because they could pursue these goods whether
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with high rates of breast and cervical cancer in that they were active or not. He believed that collective
region. The health-care leaders were tempted to tell behavior could be expected under two conditions:
the homemakers what to do. However, the (1) selective incentives—such as increased stature
community developers who guided this initiative in the community, tax breaks, or other beneﬁts—
did not begin with technical knowledge. They could increase the rewards of those engaging in
started with storytelling in which technical and lay collective action, and (2) the threat of sanctions
participants responded to the questions: Have you against those who fail to participate.
or a family member ever been touched by cancer In recent years, social scientists have explored
or another serious illness? If so, what happened? how four structural factors relate to individual
The stories that emerged told of triumph, heartache, participation in collective activities. One is prior
loss, and anger. The next set of questions was: contact with a group member because it is easier to
What do our stories have in common? What should recruit through interpersonal channels. A second is
we do, if anything, about our common issues? prior membership in organizations due to the like-
Eventually, the community development prin- lihood that those who are already active may join
ciples of full participation were carried out. The other groups and, conversely, isolated individuals
network acted in ways that brought out technical, may perceive joining as a type of risk. The second
practical, and emancipatory knowledge. That is, is a history of prior activism because those with
new ideas and action emerged from this initiative previous experience are more likely to reinforce
that would have been impossible if technicians or their identity through new forms of activism. The
lay leaders had acted independently. fourth factor is biographical availability, which
pulls people toward and away from social move-
ments. For example, full-time employment,
6 Motivation for Decision Making: Rational marriage, and family responsibilities may increase
Choice Theory the risks and costs of becoming involved.
Conversely, those who are free of personal
The rational economic man model was proposed constraints may be more likely to join. There is
by Alfred Marshall (1895). He believed that some empirical evidence that students and auton-
humans were interested in maximizing their utility, omous professionals may be more likely to join
happiness, or proﬁts. The rational man would inves- social movements (McAdam et al., 1988).
tigate each alternative and choose that which Critics of rational choice theory have argued that
would best suit his individual needs. While Marshall actors do not have equal access to information or
recognized that irrational decisions were made, he that information is distorted. Others assert that
believed that the overwhelming number of decision many people’s choices are limited by social,
makers would operate in a maximizing fashion political, and economic interests and values, which
and cancel out irrational actions. Marshall assumed limits their participation in rational choice making.
all the relevant information was available to the
economic man and that he could understand the
How Can Rational Choice Theory Serve as a Guide
consequences of his choices. The focus was on the
for Community Development Practice?
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

individual rather than the collective. Rational choice

theory has several embellishments and spinoffs Community developers know that while people
from various social scientists. For example, Mancur may have altruistic concerns, they also have their
Olson (1965) explored whether rational calcu- own needs and make choices about how to invest
lation would lead a few individuals to pursue their time. There have been many creative
collective action as a way to obtain public goods responses to rational choice theory. For example,

the Cooperative Extension Service Master essential concepts for building community
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Gardener Program offers free horticultural training capacity. The fluid contemporary theories of social
but participants must volunteer hours back to the capital, communicative action, and the classical
community in order to receive the training. Lead- theory of symbolic interactionism are important for
ership programs have popped up in many commu- creating or strengthening solidarity. There are
nities where participants gain the advantage of obvious tensions inherent in these theories. The
expanding their network and knowledge bases. dualism of macro versus micro characterizes much
Their positive experience in meeting and working of the theoretical thinking in sociology. Sharing
with others in collective settings leads to a greater the same goal of picturing social reality, these
openness and involvement. schools choose to proceed from opposite direc-
When applied to community development, tions. The macro-thinkers attempt to draw a holistic
rational choice theory is concerned with finding picture and lay down the works of society, whereas
appropriate rewards and minimizing risks to indi- the micro-theorists hope to arrive at the same
viduals who become involved in community initia- results by scrutinizing what happens “in” and
tives. Such rewards might be as simple as free “between” individual people. Neither approach is
babysitting services or an awards and recognition entirely successful in producing a complete and
banquet. Both examples would facilitate people’s exhaustive picture for community development
choices to invest their time or money in community practice. In a more recent development, efforts
development efforts. In other situations, there is a have been made at a “microtranslation,” which
tendency toward misinformation, misunder- seeks to visualize social reality as composed of
standing, competing sets of data, or different inter- individuals interacting with one another to form
pretations of the same data. Any or all of these “larger interaction ritual chains” (Collins 1988).
make it difficult to reach common ground and However, recent theory also recognizes that
establish solidarity. In such cases, community devel- social agency itself, pointed out above as a key
opers can find new ways to gather data, interpret concern for community development, needs to be
information, or glean new information from mutually theoretically addressed. This must be done in a
respected third party sources. It should be asserted way that transcends both the established orienta-
that in many settings universities are no longer tions in modern social theory and the whole
viewed as neutral or objective. They may be macro–micro split. In his structuration theory,
perceived as instruments of the state, the corporate Anthony Giddens (1984, 1989) offers a
sector, or a particular political or economic interest. perspective that is more fluid and process oriented.
One of the limitations of rational choice theory is He introduces a third dimension, or an “in-be-
that it can be implemented by technicians, the tween” level of analysis, which is neither macro
corporate sector, and bureaucracies in ways that nor micro. It has to do with cultural traditions,
can overwhelm and silence citizens who may not beliefs, and societal norms, and how actors draw
understand such knowledge. Habermas’ theory of upon those in their behavior (Collins 1988: 399).
communicative action can provide a counter- For Giddens, those normative patterns of society
balance to such shortcomings. exist “outside of time and space” (Collins, 1988:
398–399), meaning they are neither properties of
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the empirical social system nor of the individual

7 Integration of Disparate Concerns and actors. Their actuality consists in the moments
Paradigms: Giddens’ Structuration Theory when individuals’ behaviors rise to that level of
society’s traditions and norms. People also draw
The classical theories of structural functionalism, and act upon thought patterns or cultural “molds”;
conﬂict theory, and rational choice theory are for example, the classical notion of reciprocity—

getting one thing in return for something else. Giddens’ concept of modalities is the link between
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Cultural traditions and patterns become modalities macro- and micro-theories. Modalities are part of
by virtue of placing them on Giddens’ analytical the analytical scheme in a particular place. For
scheme. They represent a third level, that between example, individualism in the United States is a
individualistic behavior and the macro-structures. strong modality and can keep citizens from united
Even though the reality of modalities may be only action. The notion of the common good is another
momentary, when people actually rise to them in American modality which can be used to transform
their behavior, then the social process and the role a divided community into one with a greater sense
of culture and normative patterns can be better of solidarity. Modalities can be used to influence
visualized. “Actors draw upon the modalities of the macro or micro level of social change. There
structuration in reproduction of systems of inter- are several substantive analyses looking at cultural
action” (Giddens, 1984: 28). Social structure is patterns and systems of ideas and how they
upheld and existing divisions of society carry on mediate the social process. In these analyses,
through these “mental molds.” social processing and the dynamics of social
The laying out of society on the six above- transformation are at least partly carried out on
mentioned levels—social capital theory, function- the level of modalities. Gaventa (1980) examines
alism, conflict, symbolic interactionism, commu- the modalities of Appalachia with a focus on
nicative action theory, and rational choice rebellion and quiescence. He analyzes how
theory—reflects a fluid process in which all levels power is used in the region to prevent or implement
interact. Individuals represent the agency whereby decisions. The use of force and threat of sanctions
interaction among different levels take place. are discussed along with less intrusive aspects
Coming back to the community development such as attitudes that are infused into the dominant
profession and its key concerns, Giddens’ model culture by elites and internalized by non-elites. For
is perhaps best suited to grasp how social agency example, there are perspectives such as “you
is exercised and solidarity established amid and can’t change anything around here” or “you don’t
often against the existing structural divisions of have to be poor if you want to really work.”
society. Behavior is neither haphazard nor merely Gaventa argues that there are other modalities in
a reflection of the existing social structure and its which Appalachian culture has resisted the pene-
divisions. Modalities represent the levels in which tration of dominant social values. Those with less
people establish solidarity by following the power can develop their own resources for
symbolic norms and patterns of their cultures and analyzing issues and can explore their grievances
traditions. openly. He views the “myth of American
Similarly, new rules of behavior also occur democracy” as another modality that can set the
through the medium of modalities, in this instance stage for greater openness and transparency in
their creative redefinition. This is how the existing local government.
divisions can be overcome and new bonds Staniszkis (1984) provides further insights
between people forged. For this to take place, about modalities through her ideas about how
genuine social creativity is necessary. This means workers’ solidarity emerged in Poland. She saw
that people come up with solutions and ideas that the working class under the communist regime as
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

simultaneously draw on the common reference a uniﬁed bloc, both in a positive hegemonic way
point of their cultural traditions and transcend and negatively, as subject to the party’s control
those traditions to establish new bonds and and manipulation. Solidarity and its charismatic
patterns of solidarity. Modalities serve not only as leader Lech Walesa transformed these modalities
the rules for the reproduction of the social system, with references to workers’ common identity, as
but for its transformation (Turner, 1998: 494). opposed to their identity with the Communist party

apparatus. To further create a sense of solidarity self-image. In her work on the change in workers’
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and unity in opposition to the Communist party collective identity, Staniszkis’ consistent attention
and the system, Walesa incorporated Polish to symbolic meanings and their interplay with the
workers’ strong Christian identiﬁcation into social structure aptly demonstrates how modalities
helping deﬁne their new self-understanding and can be transformed.

BOX 2.3 POWER

Ah, the age-old struggle, trials, and tribulations of those with power and those without, those that should have
it and those who create it or take it. Within communities, power struggles and the lack of power confound
efforts. Paulo Freire, an advocate of critical pedagogy and author of Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970)
had major inﬂuence on those working in community development, education and related ﬁelds. He proposed
that people can either be passive or engage as active participants. In his words:

No pedagogy which is truly liberating can remain distant from the oppressed by treating them as
unfortunates and by presenting for their emulation models from among the oppressors. The oppressed
must be their own example in the struggle for their redemption.
(Freire, 1970: 54)

The power to link knowledge to action so people can actively engage to change their societies is essential
for community development.
More recent scholars such as Margaret Ledwith have continued to approach issues of power, community
activism and theory within the context of community development approaches. She encourages community
developers to reengage with the critical pedagogy of Freire to help address challenging issues in today’s
societies. See Ledwith’s Community Development: A Critical Approach, 2nd ed. (2011) Bristol, UK: Policy Press.
The Editors

Analytically, Giddens’ structuration theory stands for analytical purposes (Turner, 1998: 17) much
as a middle ground between the micro- and the like Giddens did. Although Weber never attempted
macro-theories as well as the issue of agency an analytical model of society along micro-
and solidarity. Giddens’ structuration theory theoretical lines, some observers have catego-
suggests that the micro-theories associated with rized Weber as a micro-theorist because of his
symbolic interactionism can inﬂuence cultural subjective interpretation of behavior and its
and traditional norms and patterns (modalities) meaning to the actor. Others argue that Weber is
and vice versa. While the symbolic interactionists a strong macro-theorist, for his intentions may lie
tend to ignore structure, Giddens’ mid-level closer to Giddens’ perspective. This was espe-
theory about modalities is a crucial link among cially obvious in his attempts to explain the rise of
symbolic interactionism, rational choice theory, modern capitalism through the interplay of social
social capital, the micro–macro conﬂict, commu- structural conditions and the religious beliefs of
nicative action, and structural functionalist Protestantism. He followed similar analyses for
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

theories (Giddens, 1984). non-Western societies in his volumes on the soci-

Max Weber’s social action theory was origi- ology of religion. What Giddens delineated in
nally cast at an “in-between level.” If his theory theory Weber actually performed in his works,
was not explicit, his intentions were at least bridging the macro and the micro dimensions in
implicit. Weber attempted to view society as a his attention to society’s traditions and norms. He
ﬂuid process, dissecting it into various components observed how people, independent of the

macro-structural forces of society, transform these a road through a nearby state forest (see above:
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traditions and norms by interpreting and reinter- “How Can Conflict Theory Serve as a Guide for
preting them. Similarly, Gaventa and Staniszkis Community Development Practice?”), the group
demonstrated how one can connect communities believed they were overpowered by the
or groups to structure them in a way that is not Department of Transportation (DOT) that wanted
fixed or mechanical. to build the road. The community found it difficult
In contrast to debates on whether structure to argue against the DOT report, which contained
shapes action to determine social phenomena or sophisticated economic, social, and natural
the reverse, Giddens believes that structure exists in resource information. Here is what the community
and through the activities of human agents. He development practitioner did. First, the practi-
views it as a form of “dualism” in which neither can tioner asked community residents to identify the
exist without the other. When humans express them- strengths of their local traditions—particularly
selves as actors and monitor the ongoing flow of storytelling and the arts—as a venue for building
activities, they contribute to structure and their own solidarity regarding the integrity of the forest.
agency. He contends that social systems are often Together, the community and the practitioner
the results of human action’s unanticipated outcome. examined the modalities of storytelling and the
Giddens views time and space as crucial variables. arts to see if they could use the media to make an
Many interactions are face to face, and hence are impact on the public and local legislators. The
rooted in the same space and time. However, with community’s strong respect for the local Cooper-
the advent of new technologies, there can be inter- ative Extension Service was identified as another
action across different times and spaces. Community modality to mobilize the broader information
developers are likely to feel some kinship with resources of the land grant university. Without
Giddens because he has a dynamic rather than spending much money, the community developer
static concept of the world. He recognizes the was able to draw upon the services of profes-
interplay of humans and structure in shaping and sional economists, sociologists, foresters, and
being shaped. Critics are likely to argue that he has others. These professionals developed an alter-
oversubscribed to the concept of the power of native to the DOT report that was widely dissemi-
human agency. The space of this chapter limits a nated. Storytelling, the local arts, and links with
response to those critiques and a fuller exploration the local Extension Service influenced broader
of Giddens’ theoretical insights. structures and led to fewer power imbalances.
Eventually, the DOT decided to permanently
“postpone” the development of the road. Because
How Can Giddens’ Structuration Theory Guide
the community developer understood the power of
Community Development Practice?
modalities (local cultural traditions and patterns),
Structuration theory provides many theoretical the community was able to develop a sense of
insights (Ritzer, 1996: 433) for those engaged in shared meaning. This led to greater influence on
community development because it links disparate structure and resolved the conflict.
macro-theories about structure and conflict with How do Giddens’ structuration theory and the
micro-theories about individual and group concept of modalities relate to some of the theories
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

behavior such as social capital, rational choice, discussed earlier, particularly the classical theories
and symbols or symbolic interactionism. Giddens’ of structural functionalism, conﬂict theory, rational
concept of modalities is essential for community choice theory, and symbolic interactionism?
development practice. When one looks at functionalism through a
Revisiting the case of the Appalachian Giddens lens, one sees how structures shape and
community group that opposed the construction of can be shaped by modalities. From a Giddens

perspective, community change agents are not useful for community developers because of the
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

powerless when faced with powerful structures. potent role of symbolic norms and cultural patterns
Cultural patterns can be transformed to influence (modalities) in creating new structures, influencing
or break down structural constraints that inhibit power differences, and infusing individual
solidarity and capacity building. Giddens’ struc- behavior with a sense of solidarity.
turation theory illuminates conflict theory because
it suggests that communities can influence power
imbalances through cultural norms and patterns. It Conclusion
also suggests that external power can shape
behavior. Community development is often thought of as
Based on a Giddens perspective, the micro- intention to build solidarity and agency (capacity
theories associated with symbolic interactionism building). Theory is essential for community devel-
and making rational choices can influence cultural opment practice because it provides explanations of
and traditional norms and patterns (modalities) and individual and group behavior. It also provides
vice versa. While the symbolic interactions and frameworks so that community developers may
rational choice theorists tend to ignore structure, comprehend and explain events. There are seven
Giddens’ mid-level theory about modalities is a theories that should be part of a community devel-
crucial link among symbolic interactionism, rational opment canon, or knowledge: (1) social capital; (2)
choice making, the macro “conflict” theory, and structural functionalism; (3) conflict; (4) symbolic
structural functionalism. The fluid theories asso- interactionism; (5) communicative action; (6) rational
ciated with Habermas’ communicative action and choice; and (7) structuration theory. Each theory
social capital can be viewed as mid-level theories, should be explored along with its limitations and
as part of structuration theory. They also address applicability for community development practice.
the intersection of modalities and structure. This chapter is about reaching across the
However, there are several limitations to conceptual divide between theory and action. It
Giddens’ theories. His writing is analytical and should stimulate dialogue and further discussion
abstract to the point of being vague and imprecise. on essential theory for community development
He rarely gives concrete examples, which can be practice. The classical theories of structural func-
frustrating to those community developers who are tionalism, conflict, symbolic interactionism, and
more empirically grounded. Giddens’ analysis is rational choice can be balanced by the more fluid
also difficult because it involves constant movement and synthesizing theories of social capital, commu-
among the levels of modalities, societal institu- nicative action, and structuration. These theo-
tions, and the actions of individuals. In spite of retical camps may be linked in novel ways to help
these limitations, structuration theory is especially community developers become more effective.

CASE STUDY: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND INTERNATIONAL

Arguably, one of the most pressing international issues of this and future generations is the relationship
between Islamic and Western countries, as evidenced by the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and the ongoing
conflict between the Israelis and Palestinians. One scholar believes that community development could serve
as a valuable tool to improve Islamic–Western relations and help ease conflicts across the globe. In a series
of articles, Jason Ben-Meir states his belief that participatory, grass-roots community development in conflict
areas will empower local residents and encourage them to reject religious extremism, engage in community

EBSCO : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 3/5/2018 9:37 AM via UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU NATAL
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Account: [Link]
SEVEN THEORIES FOR SEVEN COMMUNITY DEVELOPERS 41
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and nation building and appreciate the foreign aid efforts of Western countries. Ben-Meir is President of the
High Atlas Foundation, a U.S. nonproﬁt organization that assists community development in Morocco.
According to Ben-Meir, the billions spent in foreign aid reconstruction in Iraq and Afghanistan typically
channeled through third-party contractors and national governments often fosters resentment toward Western
countries because input from the communities where the projects take place is not obtained and local
residents feel they are not in control of rebuilding their own economic and social life. Ben-Meir argues that
sustained development and genuine reconstruction require funding local projects designed by the entire
community. The community’s priorities would be established by facilitated interactive dialogue where all local
residents have a right to express their opinions and collective priorities are developed in a true inclusive and
participatory community development process. He believes this will encourage community residents to
actively support local rebuilding and economic development efforts. As they feel empowered, develop hope
for the future, and see tangible signs of progress of their own design, they will be less likely to embrace
extremism born of frustration and alienation. Ben-Meir also believes that successful community and economic
development outcomes fostered by this approach will engender goodwill toward Western countries funding
these local projects and helping with the community development capacity-building process. Furthermore,
progress will be sustainable, since citizens in communities throughout turbulent regions will have learned
community- and nation-building skills and local infrastructure will be improved.
In the case of Iraq, Ben-Meir believes the national government should:

• Train local schoolteachers and other community members in group facilitation methods and begin the
community development process in all communities with inclusive, participatory meetings to establish
local priorities.
• Create community reconstruction planning and training centers in all communities to help implement local
priorities and redevelopment projects. The centers would also provide further training in facilitation,
conﬂict management, modern agricultural techniques, health care, and other development topics.

Encouraging community development and funding local priority projects will also help alleviate the Israeli–
Palestinian conflict, according to Ben-Meir. He points out that the Palestinian economy is almost totally
dependent on Israel’s, and when political tensions rise, economic links and flows of people and goods are
severely restricted causing a huge hardship on the Palestinians. He argues that Israel and the West can
generate tremendous goodwill and help make the Palestinian people economically self-reliant by promoting
the community development process and investing in projects designed and managed by local residents.
Whether or not the community development can help achieve these lofty goals is an open question, but
there is no doubt that its principles of conflict resolution, group decision making, inclusiveness, and fairness
are certainly relevant to international affairs and foreign policy. Community development is germane to
countries all over the world and its principles transcend geopolitical boundaries.
The Editors

Sources
Ben-Meir, J. (2004) “Create a new era of Islamic–Western relations by supporting community development,”
International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 24(12): 25–41.
Ben-Meir, J. (2005) “Iraq’s Reconstruction: A community responsibility,” The Humanist, 65(3): 6.
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

Keywords

Solidarity, agency building, structure, power, shared meaning, social capital theory, structural function-
alism, conﬂict theory, social action.

Review Questions Chaskin, R.J., Brown, P., Venkatesh, S., and Vidal, A.
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

(2001) Building Community Capacity, Hawthorne,

1 What are the seven concerns of community NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
development discussed? Christenson, J. and Robinson, J. (eds.) (1989)
Community Development in Perspective, Iowa
2 How are the seven theories of community devel-
City, IA: University of Iowa Press.
opment related to the concerns?
Collins, R. (1988) Theoretical Sociology, New York:
3 What can be learned from theory for community Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
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application. New York: The Free Press.
4 How can theory serve to support a “call to Dahl, R.A. (1971) Polyarchy: Participation and
action” for communities, and can you think of Opposition, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
an example where this could help address a Dahrendorf, R. (1959) Class and Class Conflict in
community issue? Industrial Society, Stanford, CA: Stanford
5 Look around your own community. What theory University Press.
could you identify to help explain a situation Flora, C.B., Flora, J.L., and Tapp, R.J. (2000) “Meat,
meth and Mexicans: Community responses to
impacting community development process or
increasing ethnic diversity,” Journal of the
outcomes that you observe?
Community Development Society, 31(2): 277–299.
Foucault, M. (1965) Madness and Civilization: A
History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, New
Note York: Vintage.
Foucault, M. (1975) The Birth of the Clinic: An Arche-
1 This book chapter is an expansion of the article: ology of Medical Perception, New York: Vintage.
Hustedde, R.J. & Ganowicz, J. (2002). “The basics: Foucault, M. (1979) Discipline and Punish: The Birth
What’s essential about theory for community devel- of Prison, New York: Vintage.
opment practice?” Journal of the Community Devel- Foucault, M. (1980) The History of Sexuality, Volume
opment Society, 33(1): 1–19. The editor of the 1, An Introduction, New York: Vintage.
journal granted permission to duplicate and inte- Foucault, M. (1985) The History of Sexuality, Volume
grate parts of the article into this chapter. 2, The Use of Pleasure, New York: Pantheon.
Friedland, L.A. (2001) “Communication, community
and democracy,” Communication Research,
28(4): 358–391.
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Perspective and Method, New York: Prentice Hall.

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and Community Development, Thousand Oaks, Institutional Framework of Economic Devel-
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Mead, G.H. (1982) The Individual and the Social Staniszkis, J. (1984) Poland’s Self-Limiting Revo-
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Weber, M. (1947) The Theory of Social and Watch a classic video—Robert Redford’s The Milagro
All rights reserved. May not be reproduced in any form without permission from the publisher, except fair uses permitted under U.S. or applicable copyright law.

Economic Organization, trans. A.M. Henderson Beanfield War (1988)—and see if you can discern
and T. Parsons, New York: Oxford University Press. which theories could help both understand and
guide action in this case.
Explore how “political” a community development
Connections issue can become. When the City Market project (a
nonprofit member-owned food cooperative) was
Explore change in communities in the context of being developed in Burlington, Vermont, things got
theory and practice. See the Aspen Institute’s a little crazy. See the Public Broadcasting Service
Community Change: Theories, Practice, and documentary, People Like US: Social Class in
Evidence, available at: [Link]/ America, at [Link]/peoplelikeus.film/index.
sites/default/files/content/docs/rcc/COMMUNITY html. Happily, issues were resolved and the cooper-
[Link] ative is now a valued community partner and place.
Copyright @ 2014. Routledge.

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2025 Chapter 2 On Theories

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2 Seven Theories for Seven

Introduction: Why Theory? The starting point is to offer a deﬁnition of

BOX 2.1 THEORY TO INFORM ACTION

development model. Chaskin et al. (2001) focused expand their missions.

Q Table 2.1 Concerns and Related Theories

Concern Related theory

1 Relationships Social capital theory

3 Power Conﬂict theory

action. Community developers intuitively build on because memberships in organizations such as

tural and ecological tourism. The Kentucky Entre- estate developers.

How Can Structural Functionalism Guide

BOX 2.2 SOCIAL JUSTICE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN A CHANGING WORLD

negotiate. event might exclude ideas such as “citizens are

individual rather than the collective. Rational choice

the empirical social system nor of the individual

BOX 2.3 POWER

theories (Giddens, 1984). non-Western societies in his volumes on the soci-

CASE STUDY: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND INTERNATIONAL

(2001) Building Community Capacity, Hawthorne,

Perspective and Method, New York: Prentice Hall.

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