ESL 111

The Writing process…..

 Writing is a complex process, meaning…….
i) It is a learned craft
ii) It requires a lot of practice
iii) Suggestions on what constitutes good writing skills and
what constitutes a good essay will be discussed, iv) the
communication of complex ideas is a process--a process
that requires thinking and rethinking, working and reworking.

Writing a s a Communication
Skill  Written communication involves much
more detail  it is possible to transmit more detail
accurately in such a communication.
 It also has an element of PERMANENCY and a
written document can be reviewed by many
people who might be interested in receiving the
information communicated through reading it.
3

Writing as a Communication
Skill Through writing one is able to:
 share ideas,
 arouse feelings,
  persuade other people,
 convince people to discover and articulate
ideas in ways that only writing makes possible.
 People who can write well in whatever
language, have a powerful skill at their
command. They can record information, and if
they choose, transfer it to others, they can
persuade, criticise or entertain to great effect if
that is their purpose

Writing ….
 Effective writers have mastered many skills to arrive at
the point where they are both fluent and effective when
they write. They have:
 wide experience of the language being used in many
different fields
 They are familiar with the variety of purposes of the
written form
 They have read widely, have been observant, can write
effectively in their own language , can recognise good
features of good writing in English and be able to transfer
skills they have in their own language to English.
 5

Activity: Skills needed in a

Writing…..
 Skills concerned with the HOW of writing
– the Linguistic Skills – how we express
ourselves  Skills concerned with the
WHAT of writing – Discourse – concerned
with what we want to express.
(Discourse – formal treatment of a subject
 in speech or writing)

Differences between spoken and ritten English Here

is an example of each. Read them and list three differences you notice:
Spoken
Felipe : Well, where we going to find…….
Bento : I don’t know….
Felipe : them
Bento : maybe they’ll be waiting for us as the …er...er...you know…
Felipe : station?....
Bento : I don’t know, he, they, said that and it’s not the….
Felipe : no, I think they’ll probably be outside the ground…..
Bento : the ground? But that’s….
Felipe : I know…thousands of people but they got the
tickets…… Written
 Football or soccer is the most popular spectator sport in the world today. From
the most prestigious international clubs to small town team, every player shares
the same passion and the same dream: to play for their country, and in the final
of the World Cup, to outwit the defence with a series of perfect passes and score
the goal which decided the match. 7
List the differences you notice:

List the differences you notice:

(i) ………………………………………………..
(ii) ………………………………………………
(iii)………………………………………………

Look at the written text above, identify skills needed

in writing. (i) ……………………………………………………..
(ii) ……………………………………………………..
(iii) ……………………………………………………

8
Speaking and Writing - differences
 Speaking and writing are known as the PRODUCTIVE
SKILLS, in which as students are expected to produce
rather than receive language.
 Speaking tolerates many examples of informality, non
standard forms, the written language usually does not. 
Written communication involves much more detail  it
is possible to transmit more detail accurately in such a
communication.
 9

7C’s of Communication
1. Principle of clarity:
 The message prepared for communication should be clear. Clarity means
getting the meaning of messages accurately form the head of the sender into
head of the receiver. An ambiguous message will not be able to make effective
communication.
2. Principle of completeness :
 The subject matter of communication should be complete. It should not be
 partial or incomplete.
 A Complete message contains all necessary facts and information that the
readers or receivers need to understand.
 The receiver should get a clear idea about the subject matter. Incomplete
message create confusion or misinterpret or irritate the readers or receivers. 3.
Principle of correctness
 The facts and information provided in the message should be accurate and
correct languages. Any wrong information in the message may create
confusions. As a result, communication failure may occur.

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7C’s of Communication
4. Principle of conciseness
 A message should be as short as possible. Concise means saying to sender in a
fewest possible words.
5. Principle of concreteness:
 Concrete means exactness, specific, definite or vivid rather than vague or
general. Business communication uses words that form sharp and clear
meanings in the reader’s mind.
6. Principle of Consideration:
 Consideration means that the sender prepares every message keeping the
receiver in mind. Here the sender should consider the problems, desire,
circumstances, emotion, and probable reaction of the reader or receiver. 7.
Principle of courtesy:
 Courtesy means polite behavior or good manner. It involves being aware of the
perspective of others and their feelings. Writing or speaking in positive words
which will generate courtesy - Be sincere, tactful and thoughtful

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Activity – writing styles ( source and purpose)

 Style:
i) The way in which something is done
ii) The manner in which something is expressed iii) A
distinctive characteristic manner of expression in
words

e.g. (Poem, Letter, Lyric, Prose)

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riting styles
 "Style in writing" refers to the way an author
uses words — the author's word choice, sentence
structure, literary devices, and tone all contribute
to their unique style.
 It encompasses the author's individual voice,
their approach to storytelling, and their overall
expression of ideas.
 Style can vary widely between different writers
and genres, and it plays a crucial role in shaping
the reader's experience and understanding of
the text.
 A writer's style can be formal, informal,
descriptive, narrative, persuasive, poetic, or a
combination of these and other elements, and
 it often reflects their personality and creative

vision. 13

Writing Style
 There are many kinds of writing available to us
as readers.  We accept a variety of styles and
registers as successful writing, that is writing which
achieves what its author sets out to do.
 As readers we are intolerant of inadequate
writing or writing which does not meet the various
criteria we expect of effective writing.
NB. Good writing can lead to success, whereas weak writing may
cause the reader to judge the writer harshly.
(Registers - refer to variations in language that depend on the
context in which they are used. These variations can include
differences in vocabulary, syntax, and style based on factors such as
the social situation, the relationship between the speakers, the
purpose of communication, and the setting. Registers help
individuals adapt their language use to fit the specific
circumstances in which they are communicating, allowing for
more effective and appropriate interaction with others.

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Activity - Writing Style

 Read the following short texts, you will note a
wide variety of styles of writing.
In column A (Source) write its probable source, where the text is
likely taken from. For example;
 advertisement,
 fiction,
 thriller,
 critical review,
 problem page letter in a magazine,
 scientific textbook or journal,
 traditional folk tale,
 autobiography,
 newspaper article,
 adventure story,
 science fiction,
 medical journal etc.
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Activity - Writing Style
In column B (Purpose) add the writer’s main
purpose in writing this text, choosing from the
given list, for example; ▪ to persuade,
▪ to entertain,
▪ to evaluate,
▪ to record/document information,
▪ to transfer information,
▪ to ask for information,
▪ To inform.
▪ Sharing information
▪ Self expression

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Writing Style
Texts Source (A) Purpose (B) 1. Once upon a time, there was a
miller who, when he died, left to his
three sons all that he had; his mill;
his donkey; and his cat
A particular insidious drug
2.

extracted from the tree Datura

arborea is being exploited by the
criminal in Colombia. The tree is
still sending people out of their
minds. (Doff and Jones, 1997)
 Aromatherapy is a treatment
3.

method which uses essential oils

extracted from flowers, plants,
trees or spices. These are
massaged into the body, inhaled,
sprinkled in baths or in some
cases ingested. (Brewster, 1991)
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Writing Style
Texts Source (A) Purpose (B) 4 The boiling point of a liquid
depends on the surrounding
pressure. If the surrounding
pressure falls, the boiling point falls.
An increase in pressure raises the
boiling point (Ramsden,1994)
5 Nothing can give you information
more than a vivid colour screen –
and this one delivers is all. Its
brilliant 256 colour scheme makes
reading and identifying information
easy.
6 The effects of various
environmental factors
sedimentation and attachment
of faecal coliforms of water
hyacinths, Eichhornia crassipes,
were investigated in a pilot scale
water hyacinths pond. (Mayo and18

Writing Style
Texts Source (A) Purpose (B)

7. This was never a film destined to

win prestige prizes at film festivals,
 but despite many flaws, its not dull
by any means. (Radio Times:1999)

8. For answer, I pushed the colour

supplement across his desk. I
had ringed Nicola’s face with ink.
“She’s my daughter,” I said, “and I
want to find her”. (Cornwell
:1991).

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A well written text has the

following  it will be legible
 it will be grammatical
 it will use accurate spelling and punctuation  it
will not be repetitive either structurally or lexically
(relating to Vocabulary in a language)
 its vocabulary will be appropriate.
 be written in a variety of styles
 20
We can analyse effective writing according to two different criteria, namely:

Effective writing can be analysed according to

two different criteria, namely:
i) whether the message is clear.
ii) whether the language is within the acceptable
limits of conventional usage.
 Therefore effective writing consists of:
 passing on a message or information
 expressing this information or message in
conventional language.
(Conventional – accepted usage or agreement)

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Effective Academic writing therefore..

In academic writing, one needs to effectively develop the:
 discourse skills (skills relating to conveying a message,
i.e. appropriate vocabulary, acceptable language) 
linguistic skills (skills relating to the mechanics of writing, i.e.
Punctuation, spelling, ).
 To write a good essay, you firstly need to have a clear
understanding of what the essay question is asking you to
do.
 Looking at the essay question in close detail, will help
you to identify the topic and ‘directive words’ (Dhann,
2001), which instruct you how to answer the question.
 Understanding the meaning of these directive words is a
vital first step in producing your essay.
 22

Effective Writing
 You may be a fountain of all knowledge in
your subject area, but if you misinterpret the
directive words/question words in your essay title,
your essay writing, could be completely irrelevant
and score poorly.
 Below are definitions of some of the more
typical words that you may come across in an
essay question.
(Review list of Cue Words – refer to circulated list) 23

Cue words
 "Cue words" are words or phrases that serve as signals in
a conversation, a piece of writing, or a presentation. These
words are used to indicate a shift in topic, a change in
direction, a cause-effect relationship, or to provide
emphasis on certain points.
 In writing, cue words help to guide the reader through
the text, signaling connections between ideas, transitions
between paragraphs, or the introduction of new
information. They can also indicate the structure of the text,
such as enumerating points, contrasting ideas, or providing
examples.

 Cue words can include transition words like "however,"

"therefore," "for example," "similarly," and "in conclusion,"
among others. They help to create coherence and clarity
in writing by showing the relationships between different
parts of the text.

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he purpose of academic writing
Writers should be clear why they are writing. The
most common reasons for writing include:
 to report on a piece of research the writer has
conducted  to answer a question the writer has
been given or chosen  to discuss a subject of
common interest and give the writer’s view
 to synthesise research done by others on a
 topic 25

Different features of writing

styles…. 1. Descriptive
 Descriptive approach in brief is one in which you have to list
important points.
 These essays usually simply describe or tell about something or
 someone else. It might also be about a process.
 Describing things helps the reader form a picture in their mind,
by using figurative language such as adjectives and adverbs,
where adjectives are used to describe nouns for example, people,
objects, places, animals.
 It might also be about a process.
 Describing things helps the reader form a picture in their mind,
by using figurative language such as adjectives and adverbs,

26

Understanding qs title – cue

words
 It is essential to understand what an essay title
is asking the writer to do.
 A plan can then be prepared, which should
ensure the question is answered fully,
 27

he planning process
 Planning is necessary with all academic writing..  The
process of planning should include these three steps: 
(a) Analyse the title wording and decide what is required.
 (b) Brainstorm the topic to focus your ideas.  (c)
Prepare an outline using your preferred method

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 nalysing essay titles
 Titles contain key words that tell the writer what to do. 
Note that titles often have two (or more) parts:  ‘What is
meant by a demand curve and why would we expect it to slope
downwards?’
 In this case ‘what’ is asking for a description and ‘why’ for
a reason or explanation.
 Match the key words on the left to the definitions on
the right.
 29

 “Crime and Punishment”- You are requested to prepare and

present a speech to your country’s National Council on
Crime Prevention. Write a speech on how effective your
country’s present system of punishment is and what
changes, if any, would you suggest
 30

Match the key words on the left to the definitions on the

definitions on the Right
31
 Match the key words on the left to the definitions on the definitions on
the Right
1. Analyse : Explain a topic briefly and clearly
2. Assess : Deal with a complex subject by reducing it to
(Evaluate) the main elements
3. Describe : Divide into sections and discuss each critically 4. Discuss :
Break down into the various parts and their relationships 5. Examine :
Make a proposal and support it
(Explore)
6. Illustrate : Look at various aspects of a topic, compare benefits and
drawbacks
7.Outline: Give a detailed account of something
( Trace)
8. State : Give a simple, basic account of the main points of a topic 9.
Suggest : Give examples
10. Summarise: Decide the value or worth of a subject

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Underline the key words in the following titles and consider what they
areasking you to do.
1. How and why has the market for international tourism
segmented since the middle of the twentieth century? What
are the economic and social forces that have driven this
process?
2. Describe some of the reasons why patients do not always take
their medication as directed.
3. How can psychology contribute to the reduction of bullying
behaviour in schools?
4. Is there a move towards subjectivity in criminal law?
Should there be?
5. Discuss the response of buildings and soil to earthquakes,
indicating what measures can be used to ensure structural
stability.

33

ue wors
6. How can schools make better use of IT
(information technology)? Illustrate your answer
with examples. 7. Outline the main difficulties in
combating malaria. Suggest possible strategies for
more effective anti-malaria campaigns. 8. What is
‘donor fatigue’ in international aid and how can it be
overcome?

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Brainstorming -points
Q1. International tourism – segmentation of market
How and why:
• Package holidays made foreign holidays popular •
Internet allows travellers to plan own holidays • In
60s jet aircraft permit faster travel – long and short
haul holidays
• In 90s budget airlines lower costs – short breaks
Economic and political forces:
• Rising disposable incomes permit more spending
on travel • Developing countries see tourism as
route to growth • Older, retired people spend more
on travel
Social forces:
35

An Outline
 An outline should help the writer to answer the
question as effectively as possible. Care at this
stage will save wasted effort later.
 The more detail you include in your outline, the
easier the writing process will be.
 There is no fixed pattern for an outline;
example: 36

An Outline example
 Describe the typical social, cultural and
environmental impacts experienced by tourist
destinations in developing countries.’
The outline might be a list:
(i) Social impacts
• increase in variety of jobs available
• price inflation
• new range of business opportunities
(ii) Cultural impacts
• new patterns of dress and behaviour may cause
problems • market for traditional crafts and/or
rituals grows

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Example
(iii) Environmental impacts
• increased pressure on limited resources, e.g. water
• loss of natural habitat to building projects
• provision of new infrastructure, e.g. roads
38

An alternative is a mind
map:
 39

Finding key & relevant points

Effective note-making
Notes are for your personal use so you should create your own style. (a)
You must use your own words and not copy phrases from the original
to avoid the risk of plagiarism. The quantity of notes you make depends
on your task: you may only need a few points, or a lot of detail.
(b) Always record the source of your notes, to save time when you have to write
the list of references.
(c) Notes are written quickly, so keep them simple. Do not write sentences. Leave
out articles (a/ the) and prepositions (of/ to).
(d) If you write lists, it is important to have clear headings (underlined) and
numbering systems (a, b, c, or 1, 2, 3,) to organise the information. Do not crowd
your notes.
(e) Use symbols (+, >, = ) to save time.
(f) Use abbreviations (e.g. = for example). You need to make up your own
abbreviations for your subject area. But do not abbreviate too much, or you may
find your notes hard to understand in the future!
 40

Structure of an Essay
Introduction
 There is no standard pattern for an introduction, since
much depends on the type of research you are
conducting and the length of your work - a common
framework is as follows:
 State the purpose or aim of your writing.
 Definition of key terms, if needed. (‘Evaluate the
experience of e learning for students in higher education.’ -
Certain words or phrases in the title may need clarifying
because they are not widely understood: There are a
range of definitions of this term, but in this paper
‘e-learning’ refers to any type of learning situation where
content is delivered via the internet.)
  The aim of your research must be clearly stated so the
reader knows  what you are trying to do: The purpose of
this study was to examine students’ experience of
e-learning in a higher education context. ▪ Relevant
background information.
 Review of work by other writers on the topic.

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Introduction
 Try to interest the reader in your introduction to the essay.  The
introduction states or implies the order of the discussion yet to follow.
 It should be brief relative to the rest of the essay.
 Do not include unnecessary background information, especially if the
professor is already conversant with the material on which you are
writing.
 The essay has to make a good impression, informing the reader what is
 to come and encouraging him or her to read further (but without
rendering the succeeding paragraphs repetitious).
 If the introduction is tedious or fails to make the rest of the essay sound
interesting, the reader will not wish to continue.
 If the essay sounds not interesting, the reader will not wish to continue.

N/B Introductions are usually no more than about 10 per cent of the total
length of the assignment. For example, in a 2,000 word essay the
introduction would be about 200 words.
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Introduction - example
1. The purpose of this paper is to investigate changes in the
incidence of extreme warm and cold temperatures over
the globe since 1870. 2. This study will focus on mergers in
the media business between 1990 and 2005, since with
more recent examples an accurate assessment of the
 consequences cannot yet be made
3. ‘Social cohesion’ is usually defined in reference to
common aims and objectives, social order, social solidarity
and the sense of place attachment
4. The purpose of this study was to examine students’
experience of e learning in a higher education context.
5. The paper is structured as follows. The first section
presents an analysis of the relevant research, focusing on
the current limited knowledge regarding the student
experience. The second part . . .

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Structure of your paper -Example

Essay title example ‘Can everyone benefit from higher education?’ 1.
Definition: Higher education (HE) = university education 2. Background:
Increasing demand for HE worldwide puts pressure on national budgets
> many states seek to shift costs to students. In most countries degree =
key to better jobs and
opportunities
3. Purpose: To decide if access to HE should be restricted or open to all,
given costs involved
4. Method/Outline: Discussion of following points:
(i) HE is expensive, so who will pay?
(ii) Increasing numbers = lower quality
(iii) Is it fair for all taxpayers to support students who will earn high
salaries?
(iv) How to keep HE open to clever students from poor backgrounds?

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The Body of the Essay
 This supports the purpose of the essay with sufficient relevant
details,  sustains the reader’s interest ,
 follows the order of the discussion stated or implied in the introduction.
 You should write this section as if it were an unfolding discussion,
advancing one major idea at a time.
 Try to make each paragraph state a main idea at a time which is
developed by supporting discussion and examples and followed by
the next logical point.
 The important thing at this stage is to ensure that you construct
paragraphs that are unified -one topic per paragraph, each topic
suitably and sufficiently supported.
 If your outline has been carefully thought out, the sequence of
paragraphs will make logical sense.
 45

Conclusion
 Conclusions tend to be shorter and more diverse
than introductions.
 Some articles may have a ‘summary’ or
‘concluding remarks’.  Student papers should
generally have a final section that summarises the
arguments and makes it clear to the reader that the
original question has been answered
 46

hich of the following are generally acceptable in conclusions? (a) A

statement showing how your aim has been achieved. (b) A
discussion of the implications of your research. (c) Some new
information on the topic not mentioned before. (d) A short
review of the main points of your study. (e) Some suggestions
for further research.
(f) The limitations of your study.
(g) Comparison with the results of similar studies.
(h) A quotation that appears to sum up your
work.

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Conclusion
 This is where you summarize, evaluate, restate for
emphasis, reaffirm the purpose either directly or
indirectly.
 Gives a sense of completion to the essay.
 Make the conclusion as interesting as possible.
 Avoid the temptation of introducing new issues or
unanswered questions in the conclusion.
 You can provide a quotation that effectively sums up
your position or significantly affects the readers’
awareness.
 You can use a conclusion to evaluate effects or to
describe and analyze results.
 What you say in your conclusion should match what
you said when you introduced the essay:
 it should be a restatement (but not a mere
repetition) of your thesis, ideally in a way that shows
more fully and clearly what you have been arguing. 48