5: REPRODUCTION

IN FLOWERING
PLANTS
Asexual (Vegetative) Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction where new
plants are produced without seeds. This process involves the
use of vegetative parts of the plant, such as stems, leaves, and
roots.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
- Stem cutting

- Leaf propagation

- Division

- Layering

- Text: "There are several types of asexual reproduction,

including stem cutting, leaf propagation, division, and
layering."
Stem Cutting
• Stem cutting is a popular method of asexual reproduction. It
 involves taking a section of stem from the parent plant and
rooting it in a new location.
- Take a section of stem from the parent plant

- Remove lower leaves and prepare the cut end

- Plant the cutting in a rooting medium

- Provide adequate light, temperature, and moisture

Leaf Propagation
• Leaf propagation is another method of asexual reproduction.
 It involves using a healthy leaf from the parent plant to
produce a new plant.
- Select a healthy leaf from the parent plant

- Remove the petiole (stem) and prepare the leaf for

rooting - Plant the leaf in a rooting medium

- Provide adequate light, temperature, and moisture

Plant Division
• Division is a method of asexual reproduction that
involves separating the roots of a mature plant and
replanting the separated sections
- Dig up the entire plant and gently separate the roots -

Replant the separated sections in a new location - Water

thoroughly and provide adequate light and temperature

Layering
• Layering is a method of asexual reproduction that
involves bending a stem of the parent plant down to the
ground and securing it with a rock or wire
- Bend a stem of the parent plant down to the

ground - Secure the stem with a rock or U-shaped

wire - Cover the buried portion of the stem with soil

- Roots will develop on the buried portion of the

stem

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

- Rapid production of new plants

- Preservation of desirable traits

- No need for pollination or fertilization

- Reduced genetic variation

Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction
- Limited genetic variation

- Increased susceptibility to disease

- Dependence on a single parent plant

- Reduced adaptability to changing environments
Sexual Reproduction: Angiosperm Life Cycle
Sexual reproduction in angiosperms involves the production
of seeds through the fusion of male and female gametes."
Angiosperm Life Cycle
- Seed germination

- Seedling growth

- Flowering and pollination

- Fertilization and seed

development - Seed dispersal and

germination
Flower Structure
- Sepals (protective

structures) - Petals (attractive

structures)

- Stamens (male reproductive

structures) - Pistils (female reproductive

structures)

Pollination
Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred from
the anther to the stigma, allowing for fertilization to occur.
Self-Pollination vs Cross-Pollination
• Self-pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the
anther to the stigma of the same plant.

• Cross-pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from

the anther of one plant to the stigma of another plant
Pollination Vectors
- Insects (bees, butterflies,

moths) - Birds

- Bats

- Wind

- Water

Fertilization

• Fertilization occurs when the

male gamete (pollen) fuses
 with the female gamete
(egg cell) to form a zygote.

Seed Development
• Seed development involves the growth and differentiation of
the embryo, endosperm, and seed coat

- Embryo development

- Endosperm development

- Seed coat development

Fertilization and Seed Formation
• Fertilization is the process by which male and female
gametes fuse to form a zygote, leading to seed formation.
• Double Fertilization
• Double fertilization is a unique process in angiosperms, where
two male gametes fuse with two female gametes to form a
zygote and endosperm.
Embryo Development
• Embryo development involves the growth and differentiation
of the zygote into a mature embryo
- Zygote formation

- Cell division and growth

- Embryo differentiation

- Embryo maturation
Endosperm Development
• Endosperm development involves the growth and
differentiation of the endosperm tissue, which provides
nutrients to the developing embryo.
- Fusion of male gamete with polar nuclei

- Endosperm cell division and growth

- Endosperm differentiation and maturation

Seed Development
• Seed development involves the growth and differentiation of
the embryo, endosperm, and seed coat
- Embryo and endosperm growth

- Seed coat formation

- Seed maturation and drying

Seed Structure
- Embryo

- Endosperm

- Seed coat
- Hilum (seed scar)

Seed Dispersal
- Wind dispersal

- Water dispersal

- Animal dispersal -

Explosive dispersal
Kinds of Seeds
• Seeds are the reproductive structures of plants, and they come
in different types. In this presentation, we will explore the
different kinds of seeds
Endospermous Seeds
- Seeds that have an endosperm, a tissue that provides nutrients
to the developing embryo

- e.g. corn, wheat, rice

-Endospermous seeds have an endosperm that provides

nutrients to the developing embryo. Examples of
endospermous seeds include corn, wheat, and rice.
Non
Endospermou
s Seeds

Seeds that do not have

an endosperm, and the
embryo is the main
storage tissue
- beans, peas, peanuts

Apomixis
A type of asexual reproduction that
involves the formation of seeds
without fertilization
- Examples: dandelions,
hawkweeds, citrus

Types of Apomixis

- Agamospermy (formation of seeds without fertilization)

- Apogamy (formation of seeds without fertilization, but with

the involvement of a male gamete)

- Polyembryony (formation of multiple embryos from a

single fertilized egg cell)
Advantages of Apomixis
 - Increased reproductive efficiency

- Reduced genetic variation

- Ability to reproduce in the absence of pollinators

Disadvantages of Apomixis
- Reduced genetic diversity

- Increased susceptibility to disease - Limited

adaptability to changing environments

Types of Fruits
Classification and Characteristics

- Fruits are the mature ovary of a plant, containing seeds. They

can be classified into different types based on their structure
and development.

Simple Fruits

Fruits that develop from a

single ovary in a single
flower

- Examples: tomato, orange,

 grape

Compound
(Multiple)
Fruits
Fruits that develop
from multiple ovaries
in a single flower or
from multiple flowers

- Examples: pineapple,
fig, raspberry

False
Fruits
Fruits that develop
from tissues other
than the ovary

- Examples:
strawberry, apple,
pear

True
Fruits
Fruits that develop
from the ovary of a
flower
 - Examples:
tomato, orange,
grape

Placentation

Placentation refers to the

arrangement of ovules
within the ovary

Types of
Placentation
- Axile placentation
(e.g. tomato, eggplant) - Free-central

placentation (e.g. primrose, violet) - Parietal

placentation (e.g. mustard, cabbage) -

Marginal placentation (e.g. pea, bean)

Parietal placentation

• Parietal placentation is a type of placentation where ovules develop on the

inner walls of a unilocular (one-chambered) ovary, or on the periphery,
often forming a false septum.
• Axile placentation is a type of placenta structure in an ovary with the
•
ovules forming at the angles where the septa join the central placenta.
Free-central placentation refers to a type of ovule arrangement in a single

chambered ovary where ovules are attached to a central column, which is

not connected to the ovary wall by any septa (partitions).
• Marginal placentation describes a type of ovule arrangement in a
flower's ovary where the ovules are attached along the inner wall,
forming a ridge or margin, and are arranged in two rows
Fruits and Seed Dispersal
Fruits play a crucial role in seed dispersal, and different types
of fruits have evolved various mechanisms to disperse their
seeds.
Explosive
Mechanisms
- Mechanisms that use
sudden release of
energy to disperse
seeds"

- Examples: sandbox
tree, touch-me-not

Wind
Dispersal
Dispersal of seeds
through the air by wind

- Examples:
 dandelion,
cottonwood
Animal
Dispersal

Dispersal of seeds
through the
consumption and
excretion of fruits by
animals

- Examples: birds,
bats, monkeys
Water
Dispersal
Dispersal of seeds
through water

- Examples:
coconut,
mangrove

Adaptations for Dispersal

- Fruit size and shape

- Seed size and shape

- Fruit colour and texture

- Seed coat characteristics
Importance of Seed Dispersal

- Ensures genetic diversity

- Allows for colonization of new areas -

Enhances survival and growth of

seedlings

6: SEEDS AND SEED GERMINATION

Seed Coat
The outermost layer of
the seed, providing
protection and
defense against
pathogens
Endosperm
 - A tissue that
provides nutrients to
the
developing embryo"

Embryo

- The immature
plant within the
seed,
consisting of the
radicle, hypocotyl, and
cotyledons
Radicle

The primary root of the

embryo, responsible
for absorbing water
and nutrients
Hypocotyl

The stem of the embryo,

connecting the radicle
to the cotyledons
Cotyledons
The seed leaves of the embryo,
responsible for photosynthesis
and nutrient storage

Types of Seed

Germination Epigeal and

Hypogeal Germination

Epigeal
Germination
Type of germination
where the cotyledons
emerge from the soil
surface

- Examples: beans,
peas, tomatoes

Hypogeal
Germinatio
n
Type of germination
where the cotyledons
remain below the soil
surface

- Examples: corn,
wheat, oats
Comparison of
Epigeal and
Hypogeal
Germination
- Epigeal germination:

- Cotyledons emerge from

soil surface

- Seedling develops first set

of leaves above ground

- Hypogeal germination:

- Cotyledons remain below

soil surface

- Seedling develops first set

of leaves underground

The Physiology of Seed Germination

Environmental Factors Required for Germination
- Seed germination is a complex process that involves the
 activation of metabolic pathways, the breakdown of seed
dormancy, and the emergence of a seedling
Environmental Factors Required for Germination

Water - Essential for seed germination, as it rehydrates the seed

and triggers metabolic processes

Oxygen - Necessary for aerobic respiration, which provides energy

for germination

Temperature - Optimal temperature range varies among species,

but generally falls between 20-30°C“

Light or Darkness - Some seeds require light to germinate, while

others require darkness
Seed Dormancy
A state of reduced metabolic activity, which can be broken
by environmental factors

Hormonal Regulation - Hormones such as gibberellins and

abscisic acid play a crucial role in regulating seed germination
Chemical Composition and Metabolism
of Food Reserves in Seeds
Understanding the Role of Food Reserves in Seed Germination
and Seedling Growth
• -Seeds contain food reserves that provide energy and nutrients
for germination and seedling growth. Understanding the
chemical composition and metabolism of these food reserves is
essential for appreciating the complex processes involved in
seed germination and seedling establishment.
Types of Food Reserves
- Carbohydrates (starch,

sugars) - Proteins (globulins,

albumins) - Lipids (oils, fats)

Carbohydrate Metabolism
- Starch breakdown to sugars

- Sugar metabolism to provide energy

- Role of enzymes in carbohydrate metabolism\

Carbohydrate metabolism involves the breakdown of starch

to sugars, which are then metabolized to provide energy for
germination and seedling growth
Protein Metabolism
- Protein breakdown to amino acids
- Amino acid metabolism to provide energy and building blocks
for growth

- Role of enzymes in protein metabolism\

Protein metabolism involves the breakdown of proteins to

amino acids, which are then metabolized to provide energy
and building blocks for growth
Lipid Metabolism
- Lipid breakdown to fatty acids

- Fatty acid metabolism to provide energy

 - Role of enzymes in lipid metabolism

Lipid metabolism involves the breakdown of lipids to fatty acids,

which are then metabolized to provide energy for germination
and seedling growth
Regulation of Food Reserve Metabolism
- Hormonal regulation (e.g. gibberellins, abscisic

acid) - Environmental factors (e.g. light,

temperature, water) - Genetic regulation

The metabolism of food reserves in seeds is regulated by a
combination of hormonal, environmental, and genetic
factors.

7: PLANT-WATER AND
MINERAL RELATIONS AND
TRANSLOCATION