MODULE - 4

Testing of hypotheses - Basic concepts - Procedure for hypotheses testing flow diagram
for hypotheses testing-Data analysis with Statistical Packages– Correlation and
Regression - Important parametric test
- Chi-square test- Analysis of variance and Covariance

INTRODUCTION TO HYPOTHESIS
Etymologically hypothesis is made up of two words, “hypo” (less than) and “thesis”, which mean
less than or less certain than a thesis. A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed
explanation for a phenomenon.
A hypothesis should
● Guides/gives direction to the study/investigation
● Defines Facts that are relevant and not relevant
● Suggests which form of research design is likely to be the most appropriate
● Provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of the findings
● Limits the research to specific area
● Offers explanations for the relationships between those variables that can be
empirically tested
It is very difficult, laborious and time consuming to make adequate discriminations in the
complex interplay of facts without hypothesis. It gives definite point and direction to the study,
prevents blind search and indiscriminate gathering of data and helps to delimit the field of inquiry.
Thus a hypothesis may be defined as
“A proposition or a set of proposition set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some
specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some
investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts”.
● A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables”.
(Kerlinger, 1956)
● “Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good hunches – assumed for use in devising
theory or planning experiments intended to be given a direct experimental test when
possible”. (Eric Rogers, 1966)
● “Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the expected relationship between an
independent and dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994)
● A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It
provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under investigation." (Leedy and
Ormrod, 2001).

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS
The major sources of the Hypothesis;
 Reading Material- Published books, Journals, Magazines, Seminar Reports,
 Principle of Theories – Rule of Law, Basic Structure etc.,
 Personal Experience, and
 Other Studies.

CHARACTERISTICS [FEATURES] OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics
1. Hypothesis should be clear and precise in order to reduce confusion.
  concepts should be clearly defined
 the definitions should be commonly accepted
 the definitions should be easily communicable
2. Hypothesis should be capable of being tested or verifiable.
3. Hypothesis should state relationship between variables.
 Variables in the hypothesis should be empirical realities
 If they are not it would not be possible to make the observation and
ultimately the test
4. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific.
 Place, situation and operation
5. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms.
6. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts. Based on the current
research literature and knowledge base.
7. Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time.
8. Hypothesis must explain the facts which most need explaining.
9. A hypothesis should be related to available techniques of research
 Either the techniques are already available or
 The researcher should be in a position to develop suitable techniques
10. The hypothesis should be related to a body of theory
 Hypothesis has to be supported by theoretical argumentation
 It should depend on the existing body of knowledge
In general, a hypothesis needs to be unambiguous, specific, quantifiable, testable and generalizable.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
The hypotheses are categorized in different ways
1. General Hypothesis
a. Universal Hypothesis
b. Existential Hypothesis
2. Statistical Hypothesis [Based on their formulation]
a. Null Hypothesis
b. Alternate Hypothesis [On the basis of direction]
 Directional and
 Non-directional Hypothesis
c. Research Hypothesis

BASIC CONCEPTS CONCERNING TESTING OF HYPOTHESES

Every hypothesis test requires the analyst to state a null and an alternative hypothesis. The
alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the alternative to the null hypothesis. The
hypotheses are stated in such a way that they are mutually exclusive. That is, if one is true, the
other must be false; and vice versa. The null hypothesis is generally termed as H 0 and the
alternative hypothesis as Ha.
A. Null Hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
The null hypothesis is a statement that:
 Nothing is happening.
 There is no relationship difference between two or more groups or factors.
 There is no difference (e.g., experimental vs. control group).
 The status quo is correct.
  Long-standing idea still holds true. The
researcher wishes to disapprove this hypothesis.
Ex.: “There is no relationship between smoking and lung cancer.” The
alternative hypothesis is a statement that:
 Something is happening.
 There is a relationship.
 There is a difference.
 The status quo is incorrect.
 Supports a challenging or new idea.
 Directional or Non Directional Hypothesis The
researcher wishes to prove this hypothesis.
Ex.: “There is a relationship between smoking and lung cancer.”
 If the hypothesis simply predicts that there will be a difference between the two
groups, then it is a non-directional hypothesis. It is non-directional because it
predicts that there will be a difference but does not specify how the groups will
differ. Ex.:“smoking leads to lungs cancer”
 If, however, the hypothesis uses so-called comparison terms, such as
“greater,”“less,”“better,” or “worse,” then it is a directional hypothesis. It is
directional because it predicts that there will be a difference between the two groups
and it specifies how the two groups will differ. Ex.:“Smoking will increase the
chances of lungs cancer in a person than a person who do not smoke.”
(b). the level of significance or p-value
 It signifies the probability of committing type I error α and generally taken as
equal to 5% (α = 0.05)
 This means that even after testing the hypothesis when decision is made, we may
still committing an error in rejecting null hypothesis
 Sometimes the value of α is taken as 0.01 but it is the discretion of the
investigator, depending upon the sensitivity of the study.
In case we take the significance level at 5 per cent, then this implies that H0 will be rejected
when the sampling result (i.e., observed evidence) has a less than 0.05 probability of occurring if
H0 is true.
In other words, the 5 per cent level of significance means that researcher is willing to take
as much as a 5 per cent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true. Thus
the significance level is the maximum value of the probability of rejecting H0 when it is true
and is usually determined in advance before testing the hypothesis.
(c) Decision rule or test of hypothesis
Given a null hypothesis H0 and an alternative hypothesis Ha. According to decision rule
we accept H0 (i.e., reject Ha) or reject H0 (i.e., accept Ha).
Ex.: If, a certain lot is good (there are very few defective items in it) against Ha or t the
lot is not good (there are too many defective items in it), then we must decide the
number of items to be tested and the criterion for accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis.
We might test 10 items in the lot and plan our decision saying that if there are none or only
1 defective item among the 10, we will accept H0 otherwise we will reject H0 (or accept Ha). This
sort of basis is known as decision rule.
 If the calculated test value is larger than the corresponding critical value (table
value), we reject the null hypothesis & conclude that the research hypothesis is
 supported
 If the table value is larger than the calculated value, the research hypothesis is not
supported.
(d) Type I and Type II errors
In case of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two types of errors we can make.
● The incorrect decision is to reject a true null hypothesis is known as Type I error
or error. Its probability is .
● The incorrect decision is to retain a false null hypothesis is known as Type II error
or β error. Its probability is ( ).
● Type II error, or beta (β) error, is the probability of retaining a null hypothesis that
is actually false
● When choosing a level of significance, there is an inherent tradeoff between these
two types of errors.
● Power of hypothesis test (1 - ) should be as high a value as possible.
● A good test of hypothesis ought to reject a null hypothesis when it is false.
Note: Type I and Type II errors cannot happen at the same time In a
tabular form the said two errors can be presented as follows:

e) Two-tailed and One-tailed tests One-Tailed Test (directional hypothesis)

a. The hypothesis uses so-called comparison terms, such as “greater than,” “less than”,
“better than”, or “worse than”, is known as directional hypothesis or One-Sided
alternative hypothesis. The Hypothesis Test is called “One-Sided Test” or “One-
Tailed Test”.
b. It is directional because it predicts that there will be a difference between the two
groups and it specifies how the two groups will differ.
c. One-tailed test to determine if there is a relationship between the variables in one
direction.
d. It is easier to reject the null with a one-tailed test than two-tailed test.

A two-tailed test (non directional hypothesis

a. The hypothesis simply predicts that there is a difference or "not equal" between
the two groups is known as non-directional hypothesis or “Two-Sided Hypothesis.
The Hypothesis Test is called “Two-Sided Hypothesis Test” or “Two-Tailed
Test”
b. It is non-directional because it predicts that there will be a difference but does not
specify how the groups will differ.
c. Two-tailed tests do this by dividing the 0.05 in two and putting half on each side of
the bell curve.
[The terminology "tail" is used because the extreme portions of distributions, where observations
lead to rejection of the null hypothesis, are small and often "tail off" toward zero as in the normal
distribution or "bell curve", pictured above right].
Symbolically, the two tailed test is appropriate when H0: µ
= µH0 and Ha: µ ≠ µH0 i.e., µ >
µH0 or µ < µH0.
Thus, in a two-tailed test, there are two rejection regions, one on each tail of the curve which can
be illustrated as under:

Mathematically we can state:

If the significance level is 5 per cent and the two-tailed test is to be applied, the probability of the
rejection area will be 0.05 (equally splitted on both tails of the curve as 0.025) and that of the
acceptance region will be 0.95 as shown in the above curve.
If we take µ= 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from 100 in either
direction, then we shall reject the null hypothesis; but if the sample mean does not deviate
significantly from m, in that case we shall accept the null hypothesis.
But there are situations when only one-tailed test is considered appropriate. A one- tailed
test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the population mean is either lower than
or higher than some hypothesised value. For instance, if our H 0: µ = µH0 and Ha: µ< µH0, then
we are interested in what is known as left-tailed test (wherein there is one rejection region only
on the left tail) which can be illustrated as below:

Acceptance and rejection regions in case of one tailed test (left-tail) with 5% significance
Mathematically we can state: Limit

If our µ= 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from100 in the lower direction, we
shall reject H0, otherwise we shall accept H0 at a certain level of significance. If the significance
level in the given case is kept at 5%, then the rejection region will be equal to
0.05 of area in the left tail as has been shown in the above curve.
In case our H0 µ = µHa and µ > µHa, we are then interested in what is known as one tailed
test (right tail) and the rejection region will be on the right tail of the curve as shown below:

If our µ= 100 and if our sample mean deviates significantly from 100 in the upward direction, we
shall reject H0, otherwise we shall accept the same. If in the given case the significance level is
kept at 5%, then the rejection region will be equal to 0.05 of area in the right-tail as has been
shown in the above curve.
It should always be remembered that accepting H0 on the basis of sample information does
not constitute the proof that H0 is true. We only mean that there is no statistical evidence to reject
it, but we are certainly not saying that H0 is true (although we behave as if H0 is true).

PROCEDURE FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING

The various steps involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:

I. Making a formal statement
1. The hypotheses should be clearly stated a formal statement of the null hypothesis
(H0) and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha) i.e., the nature of the research
problem. The hypotheses are stated in such a way that they are mutually exclusive.
That is, if one is true, the other must be false; and vice versa.

II. Selecting a significance level

The hypotheses are tested on a pre-determined level of significance and as such the same
should be specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose.
In statistical analysis, the acceptance or rejection of a hypothesis is based upon a level of
significance – the alpha (a) level. This is usually set at the 5% (0.05) a level, followed in
popularity by the 1% (0.01) a level. we usually designate these as p, i.e. p =0.05 or p = 0.01.
The factors that affect the level of significance are
a. The magnitude of the difference between sample means.
b. The size of the samples.
c. The variability of measurements within samples.
d. Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional. A directional hypothesis is
one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say, means.
In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in case of the purpose and nature of
enquiry.
III. Deciding the distribution to use
The choice generally remains between normal distribution and the t- distribution.
The rules for selecting the correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated
earlier in the context of estimation.
IV. Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value
Another step is to select a random sample(s) and compute an appropriate value from
the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other
words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.
V. Calculation of the probability
One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as
widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.
VI. Comparing the probability
Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the
specified value for a, the significance level.
If the calculated probability is equal to or smaller than a value in case of one- tailed
test (and a /2 in case of two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e., accept the
alternative hypothesis), but if the calculated probability is greater, then accept the null
hypothesis.
 In case we reject H0, we run a risk of (at most the level of significance) committing
an error of Type I, but
if we accept H0, then we run some risk (the size of which cannot be specified as
long as the H0 happens to be vague rather than specific) of committing an error of Type II.

FLOW DIAGRAM FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING

The above stated general procedure for hypothesis testing can also be depicted in the form of a
flowchart for better understanding as shown in Fig.
 MODULE-5
IPRs- INVENTION AND CREATIVITY

IPRs-Invention and Creativity-Intellectual Property-Importance and

Protection of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)-A brief summary of:
Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks, Industrial Designs- Integrated Circuits-
Geographical Indications-Establishment of WIPO-Application and
procedures.

INVENTION AND CREATIVITY

An invention may be defined as the idea of making a new and useful article, method or
substance.
 Invention is the creation of something that has never been made before and is
recognized as the product of some unique insight.
 Creativity is the capability or act of conceiving something original or unusual.
 Innovation is the implementation of something new.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Intellectual Property (IP) refers to intellectual (original) creativity of a creator. IP are
inventions, literary and artistic works (books, music and paintings), technical or scientific
creation, designs, symbols, names and images.
1. Intellectual property is an asset of a person.
2. It is a legal concept which refers to creations of the mind for which exclusive rights
are recognized.
3. The owner has the right to prevent the unauthorized use or sale of the property.
4. It is intangible. It cannot be defined or identified by its own physical parameters. Thus
an intellectual property must be expressed in some discernible way for enabling it to
be protected.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPRs)

Definitions
 Intellectual property rights (IPRs) refers to the legal rights given to the inventor or
creator to protect their invention or creation for a certain period of time. Also, (IPRs)
enable them to reap commercial benefits from their creative efforts or reputation. Or
 IPR is a strong tool, to protect investments, time, money, effort invested by the
inventor/creator of an IP, since it grants the inventor/creator an exclusive right for a
certain period of time for use of his invention/creation. Or
 These legal rights confer an exclusive right to the inventor/creator or his assignee to
fully utilize his invention/creation for a given period of time.

IMPORTANCE AND PROTECTION OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

RIGHTS (IPRs)
Importance of IPR
The knowledge of intellectual property rights is must to a common man. The intellectual
property rights were essentially recognized and accepted all over the world. Under intellectual
property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets, such
as musical, literary and artistic works; discoveries and inventions; words, phrases, symbols
and designs. Intellectual property has economic value and is protected or protectable by law
intellectual property rights. Some of the reasons for accepting these rights are
 The objectives of Intellectual property rights are to grant incentive to the creator of a
work.
 IPRs play very important role in the progress and development of the society by
promoting healthy competition and encouraging industrial development and economic
growth.
 Under these rights, Intellectual property can be bought, sold, licensed or exchanged.
 IPR enhances technology advancement in the following ways:
(a) It provides a mechanism of handling infringement, piracy, and unauthorized use.
(b) It provides a pool of information to the general public since all forms of IP are
published except in case of trade secrets.
Protection of IPR
These IPR laws provided a protection to the owners under different categories and names like
Patents, Industrial designs, Copyrights, Trade-Marks etc.

TYPES OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

The common types of Intellectual property rights are: patents, copyright, trademarks,
industrial design, trademarks, trade secrets, geographical indicators and layout design for
Integrated Circuits and even ideas.
Intellectual property rights may be divided into two main categories: industrial property
rights and literary/artistic property rights.
1. Industrial property rights
 Industrial property rights concern creations which play an economic role in
production and distribution processes.
 Certain innovations such as inventions, medicines, new plant varieties or a new
design, which may be protected by patents, plant variety rights and design rights
respectively.
 Industrial property rights may also apply to distinctive signs such
as trademarks or geographical indications. While they are not true intellectual
property rights, trade names and legal names also benefit from certain kinds of
protection.
 Most industrial property rights are obtained after a formal procedure, generally
consisting of registration, while copyrights and related rights emerge automatically
at the time of creation.
2. Literary/Artistic property rights
 Literary and artistic property includes copyrights and related rights, including
music, literary works, paintings, sculptures, photographs, artistic interpretations,
radio broadcasts, etc.
Intellectual property rights (intellectual
rights)
Industrial property Literary/Artistic property
Patent rights Copyright
 Trademarks Related rights
Design rights Database rights
Plant variety rights
Geographical indications
Topographies of semiconductor products

A BRIEF SUMMARY OF PATENTS, COPYRIGHTS, TRADEMARKS, AND

INDUSTRIAL DESIGNS
IP protection can be sought for a variety of intellectual efforts including
A PATENT
“A patent is awarded for an invention which satisfies the criteria of global novelty, non-
obviousness and industrial or commercial application”.
“A patent is an exclusive right granted for an invention, which is a product or a process that
provides a new way of doing something, or offers a new technical solution to a problem”.
 Patent protection means that the invention cannot be commercially made, used,
distributed or sold without the patent owner's consent.
 A patent owner has the right to decide who may or may not use the patented invention
for the period in which the invention is protected.
 The patent owner may give permission to, or license, other parties to use the invention
on mutually agreed terms.
 He may also sell the right to the invention to someone else, who will then become the
new owner of the patent.
 A Patent is granted for a period of 20 years from the date of filing the application of
patent.
 Once a patent expires, the protection ends, and an invention enters the public domain,
that is, the owner no longer holds exclusive rights to the invention.
 No product patents were granted for drugs and food items.
 The Patents Act- 1970 -Amended in 1999, 2002 and 2005
 Patents Rules- 2003- Amended in 2005, 2006
Patent Administration in India: The Head Office is in Kolkata. Four branches: Kolkata,
Mumbai, Delhi and Chennai

COPYRIGHT
Copyright is a legal term describing the rights given to creators for their literary and artistic
works. A copyright holder has certain exclusive rights. These exclusive rights include:
 Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or
works.
 The works covered by copyright include literary works such as novels, poems, plays,
reference works, newspapers and computer programs; databases; films, musical
compositions, and choreography; artistic works such as paintings, drawings,
photographs and sculpture; architecture; and advertisements, maps and technical
drawings.
 The reproduction in various forms such as copying, printing, recording, public
performance or adaptation are prohibited under these rights.
  Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner
in which they are expressed.
 This right provides economic right to the creator that is the financial benefit for a period
lasting of fifty years after the creator's death.
 It is important to realize that copyrights do not protect ideas, only how they're expressed.

AN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern
or color, or combination of patterns and colors in three dimensional forms, containing aesthetic
value.
 It can be a two or three dimensional pattern, used to produce a product.
 Even the traditional craft items like hand-woven articles like carpets, cotton bed covers
can also be registered for protection as an Industrial design (Kannan, 2010). The design
has to be registered against imitation and unauthorized copying.
 The protection is provided for five years and it can be renewed for fifteen years.

TRADEMARK [BRAND]
Trademarks relate to any mark, name, sign, design or logo. A trademark protects symbolic
information that relates to goods or services. A trademark prevents competitors from using
the same symbol. The trademark must be used in commerce.
 Trademarks can be bought, sold, and licensed.
 Trademarks protect the names and identifying marks of products and companies.
 It can be patented like invention and industrial designs.
 The trade mark can be a combination of words, letters, numbers, drawings, images,
symbols and even sounds.
 These are generally registered for seven years but they can be renewed indefinitely by
applying again.
 It helps consumers identify and purchase a product or service because of its nature
and quality, indicated by its unique trademark.
The system helps consumers to identify and purchase a product or service based on whether
its specific characteristics and quality – as indicated by its unique trademark – meet their
needs

What kinds of trademarks can be registered?

 Trademarks may be one or a combination of words, letters and numerals.
 They may consist of drawings, symbols or three dimensional signs, such as the shape
and packaging of goods.
 In some countries, non-traditional marks may be registered for distinguishing features
such as holograms, motion, color and non-visible signs (sound, smell or taste).

TRADE SECRET
A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern or compilation of
information which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable by which a business
can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers.
It may be confidential business information that provides an enterprise a
competitive edge.
 Trade secrets include sales methods, distribution methods, consumer profiles,
advertising strategies, lists of suppliers and clients and manufacturing processes.
A trade secret can be protected for an unlimited period of time but a substantial
element of secrecy must exist, so that, except by the use of improper means, there
would be difficulty in acquiring the information.
Advantages of trade secrets
 No need to register
 Not limited in time
 No disclosure
 Can protect unpatentable information

Disadvantages of trade secrets

 Costs of keeping it secret can be high
 Others may discover/invent it independently
 Others may patent it (if patentable)
 If the secret is embodied in a product it may be reverse engineered
 More difficult to enforce

GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATORS (GI)

A geographical indication (GI) is a name or sign used on certain products. A sign used on goods
that have a specific geographical location or origin (e.g. a town, region, or country). The use
of a GI may act as a certification that the product possesses certain qualities, is made according
to traditional methods, or enjoys a certain reputation, due to its geographical origin.
Geographical indicators are the signs used on goods that have a specific geographical origin.
 A GI indicates that a product comes from a certain place and has special qualities due
to that place of origin which could be a village or town, a region or a country.
 It is an exclusive right given to a particular community and thus the benefits of its
registration are shared by the all members of the community.
 It may be used by all producers or traders whose products originate from that place
and which share typical characteristics.
Ex.: Bordeaux (wine), Darjeeling (tea), Chanderi (sarees), Kullu shawls and
Tuscany (olive oil).
 Most commonly, a geographical indication consists of the name of the place of origin
of the goods – Ex.: Champagne.
 In some countries: can also be figurative element – Ex.: Eiffel tower.

Difference between a Trademark and a Geographical Indication

Trademark
 A trademark is a sign used by a company to distinguish its goods and services from
those produced by others.
 It gives its owner the right to prevent others from using the trademark.
 A GI informs consumers that a product comes from a certain place and has special
qualities due to that place of origin.

Geographical Indication
A GI may be used by all producers or traders whose products originate from that place and
which share typical characteristics.
 A GI must be protected in its country of origin.

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
 Semiconductor Integrated Circuit is a product, having transistors and other circuitry
elements, which are inseparably formed on a semiconductor material or an insulating
material.
 The initial term of registration is for 10 years; thereafter it may be renewed from time
to time.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT LAYOUT

WHAT IS A LAYOUT-DESIGN OF AN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
Integrated circuit layout, also known IC layout, IC mask layout, or mask design. A layout-
design of an integrated circuit is the three-dimensional character of the elements and
interconnections of an integrated circuit.
 An integrated circuit (IC) is an electronic circuit in which the elements of the circuit
are integrated into a medium, and which functions as a unit.
 Currently the medium used to create this unit is a solid semiconductor such as silicon.
The circuit is integrated into the piece of silicon, commonly called a "chip" or a "silicon
chip".
 The terms "integrated circuit", "semiconductor" and "silicon chip" are used
synonymously as commercial ICs are usually fabricated from silicon semiconductors.
1. Term of protection
The law that protects layout-designs of integrated circuits is the Layout-designs of
Integrated Circuits Act 2000.
A layout-design shall be protected under this Act for a period of ten years from the
date the layout-design is first commercial exploitation anywhere in the world. A layout-
design is eligible for protection automatically upon fulfillment of the following conditions:
 It is original, i.e. the result of its creator's own intellectual effort and not commonplace
among creators and manufacturers of integrated circuit;
 It has been fixed in a material form or incorporated into an integrated circuit;
The right holder of the layout-design is a qualified person.
 The creator;
 The person who commission if the layout-design is created in pursuance of a
commission;
The employer if the layout-design is created by an employee in the course of his employment.

2. Rights of right holder

A right holder of a protected layout-design has the following rights:
 Reproduce and to authorize the reproduction of his protected layout-design;
 To commercially exploit and to authorize the commercial exploitation* of :
o His protected layout-design;
o An integrated circuit in which the layout-design is incorporated; or
o An article that contains an integrated circuit in which the layout-design is
incorporated.
*Commercial exploitation includes selling, letting for hire, or otherwise distributing
by way of trade, and importation for these purposes.

ADMINISTRATION OF IPRs
Patents, Designs and Trademarks and geographical indications are administered by the
Controller General.
1. It is under the control of the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion, Ministry
of Commerce and Industry.
2. Copyright is under the charge of the Ministry of Human Resource Development.
3. The Act on Layout-Design of Integrated Circuits is administered by the Ministry of
Telecommunication and Information Technology.
4. Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority, Ministry of Agriculture
administers the Act on Plant Variety.

WORLD INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ORGANISATION (WIPO)

Establishment of WIPO-application and procedures
Word Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) is an International Organisation, responsible
for the promotion of the protection of intellectual property throughout the world. (WIPO) was
established in 1970 as an agency of the United Nations. Since then the term really began to be
used in the United States. The inventors and authors are therefore recognized and rewarded
for their ingenuity.
India is a member state of World Intellectual Property
Organisation (WIPO).

OBJECTIVES AND MAIN ACTIVITIES OF WIPO

 WIPO is the United Nations specialised agency that coordinates international treaties
regarding intellectual property rights.

 Its 184 member states comprise over 90% of the countries of the world includes experts
in diverse areas of IP law and practice, as well as specialists in public policy, economics,
administration, and IT.
 . Member states participate in WIPO to negotiate treaties and set policy on intellectual
property matters such as patents, copyrights and trademarks.
 WIPO was established in 1967 by the WIPO Convention, which states that WIPO’s
objective was to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world
(WIPO, 1967, Article 3).
 By providing a stable environment for marketing products protected by intellectual
property, it also oils the wheels of international trade.
 Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, WIPO currently administers 24 treaties and
facilitates the negotiation of several proposed treaties covering copyrights, patents and
trademarks
 WIPO Led by a Director-General, Mr. Francis Gurry since October 1, 2008. He was
reappointed in May 2014 for a second six-year term, which runs through September
2020. WIPO has a staff of some 1238 from 116 countries.
 April 26, WIPO joints IP Offices and organizations around the world in celebrating
 World IP Day.
 Francis Gurry has led WIPO as Director General since October 1, 2008. He was
reappointed in May 2014 for a second six-year term, which runs through September
2020.
 Under his leadership, WIPO is addressing major challenges. These include managing
the stress on the international patent and copyright systems produced by rapid
technological change, by globalization and increased demand; reducing the
knowledge gap between developed and developing countries; and ensuring that the
intellectual property (IP) system serves its fundamental purpose of encouraging
creativity and innovation in all countries.
 To equip WIPO to meet these evolving challenges, Francis Gurry has led a
comprehensive program of organizational change, realigning WIPO’s programs,
resources and structures with re-defined strategic goals.

ACTIVITIES BY UNIT
WIPO's organizational structure is based on seven Sectors, each headed by a Deputy Director
General (DDG) or Assistant Director General (ADG), under the overall leadership of the
Director General.
Each Sector comprises several units, usually called Divisions or Departments (shown below),
and led by Directors. These are responsible for delivering the programs and activities
approved by member states in the Program and Budget.

PROCUREMENT
WIPO procures goods and services from suppliers around the globe. Methods of solicitation
may be formal or informal, based on the WIPO Financial Regulations and Rules and the WIPO
General Procurement Principles. Our major objective is to obtain the best value for money
through a transparent and fair procurement process.

MEMBER STATES
WIPO’s member states determine the direction, budget and activities of the Organization
through the decision-making bodies. We currently have 188 member states. To become a
member, a state must deposit an instrument of ratification or accession with the Director
General.
The WIPO provides that membership is open to any state that is:
 A member of the Paris Union for the Protection of Industrial Property, or member of
the Berne Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works; or
 A member of the United Nations, or of any of the United Nations' Specialized Agencies,
or of the International Atomic Energy Agency, or that is a party to the Statute of the
International; or
 Invited by the WIPO General Assembly to become a member state of the Organization.
Director General Francis Gurry

INTERNSHIP AND A FELLOWSHIP PROGRAM

WIPO runs a Summer Internship program. The objective is to provide an opportunity for
senior students and young professionals to acquire a working knowledge of intellectual
property and to be exposed to the work of the Organization, including its treaty-making,
international registration, research and publication activities.
The WIPO Internship Program is open to
1. students of intellectual property or other branches of law,
2. young professionals with an intellectual property background,
3. graduates in other related fields of interest to WIPO.
Ex.: Science and technology, finance, human resources, economics,
communications, IT, international relations, etc., from any region in the world.
Interns under this scheme are recruited for an initial period of three months, which
may be extended to a maximum of six months. Requirements are:
 Age 21 years to 32 years
 Graduate or post-graduate student at the time of application
 Fluent English or French and working knowledge of the other language
 Proficient computer skills (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and other relevant IT
programs)
 A demonstrable track record of achievement, supported by copies of diplomas or
certificates from university and other specialized institutions.
WIPO, 34, chemin des Colombettes, 1211
Geneva 20,
Switzerland.
Fax: (4122) 338 98 20;
e-mail: [email protected]
Link http://www.wipo.int/hr/en/

EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
How to Apply
All applications for employment opportunities at WIPO must now be made via the WIPO's e-
Recruitment system.
 Access WIPO's e-Recruitment system
WIPO's e-Recruitment system offers the following advantages for applicants:
 On-line system for submitting applications
 Create a personal account for future visits
 Return to view or update personal information at any time
 Ability to apply to multiple vacancy notices
 Upload additional information (i.e. cover letter, CV, photo, publications and
other relevant documents)
 Monitor the status of already submitted applications
 Receive automated e-mail correspondence regarding the selection process
Online Application Procedures
Any individual interested in Professional and Higher Categories, General Service or
Internship Opportunities at WIPO should submit his/her application through the WIPO's e-
Recruitment system and follow the below procedures:
 View WIPO’s current list of vacancy notices
 Select the vacancy notice for which you would like to apply
 If you are a first time applicant, you will be required to create a new personal account
 All registered applicants must log in as Returning Applicants and complete the
mandatory details in the personal history sections
  After the personal history sections are completed, applicants will be able to apply to a
specific vacancy
 All applications must be submitted before the vacancy notice closing deadline
 Applications will be acknowledged automatically. Applicants will be informed
throughout the recruitment process
 All inquiries regarding the online application process should be addressed
to [email protected]
All selected candidates must sign the WIPO Internship Agreement before beginning their
internship.
The forms may be obtained from our website at the following address: www.wipo.int
or
The Human Resources Engagement and Development Section, WIPO,
34, chemin des Colombettes,
1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland.
Fax: + 41 22 338 98 20;
e-mail: [email protected]

KEY MEMBERS/PARTICIPANTS AND DECISION-MAKING STRUCTURES

WIPO is made up of 184 member states and operates on a “one country, one vote” basis.
1. It is governed by a General Assembly, which convenes each autumn and oversees the
activities of the organisation, including its budget, while a number of issue-specific
committees work on the substantive issues
2. The revenues generated from patent and trademark fees enable WIPO to support a staff
of approximately 1,000 people, which is rather large by UN standards.
3. The agency operates through individual member states meeting in committees,
assemblies, and working groups, which are coordinated by the WIPO Secretariat.
4. Most member states appoint career civil servants from their capitals to participate in
meetings and negotiations.
5. WIPO committees work according to a consensus-based decision-making structure,
which generally means no action, is taken unless all member states agree.
6. WIPO’s strategic direction and activities are decided by the member states, but in
practice, the WIPO Secretariat, based in Geneva, is given enormous power to influence
and direct the work and objectives of the organisation under the WIPO Convention.

FUNDING FOR WIPO

WIPO is a largely self-financed organization, generating more than 90 percent of its annual
budget through its widely used international registration and filing systems, as well as through
its publications and arbitration and mediation services. The remaining funds come from
contributions by Member States.
***********
 INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING
Interpretation and report writing - Techniques of interpretation - Structure
and components of scientific reports - Different steps in the preparation -
Layout, structure and language of the report - Illustrations and tables - Types
of report - Technical reports and thesis

MEANING OF INTERPRETATION
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after an analytical
and/or experimental study. In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings.
“An interpretation is concerned with relationships within the
collected data, partially overlapping analysis. Interpretation also
extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of
other research, theory and hypotheses.”
Thus, an interpretation is
i. The device through which the factors that seem to explain what has been observed
by researcher in the course of the study can be better understood.
ii. Also provides a theoretical conception which can serve as a guide for further
researches.

WHY INTERPRETATION?
Interpretation is essential for the usefulness and utility of research findings lie in proper
interpretation. It is being considered a basic component of research process because of the
following reasons:
1. It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract principle
that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with those of
other studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the
concrete world of events. Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on. This way
the continuity in research can be maintained.
2. Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as a
guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and
stimulates the quest for more knowledge.
3. Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are what
they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research findings.
4. The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the
transition from exploratory to experimental research. Since an exploratory study does
not have a hypothesis to start with, the findings of such a study have to be interpreted
on a post-factum basis in which case the interpretation is technically described as ‘post
factum’ interpretation.

TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION
“Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and
experience”.
Interpretation often involves the following steps:
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and
 he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must
try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified
research findings.
2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.
3. Consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of
research results.
4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization.

RESEARCH REPORT/ SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING

Research report is an oral or a written presentation of important and useful aspects of the
research work done. The report is also known as thesis or dissertation. Report must be
attractive in appearance, neat and clean, whether typed or printed.
The writing of report is an integral part of the research process.
 Scientific writing, a thesis or a paper, is intended to present clearly the purpose
and outcome of a specific research investigation.
 It is the last but a major part of the research study.
 A report helps the researcher get feedback from other researchers and experts
working in the same field.
 It also evaluates the success and originality of the researcher’s work. Without
a report, a research study is incomplete and of no use.
 A report essentially conveys the outcome of a research work to interested
persons.
 Brilliant work and most striking findings are of little value if they are not
effectively communicated to the scientific world.
 Sometimes delaying a publication of a result one would lose his claim.
All this explains the significance of writing research report.

NEED OF RESEARCH REPORT

Writing a research report is very challenging task for the
researcher. A good research report requires sufficient-experience
and insight about his research activities.
A research report is needed due to the following reasons:
• The research must be reported in full and its results should be subjected to a criticism
and verification.
• The research work is done for the benefit of human being; therefore, it must be
communicable to the general public for the practical use.
• The research should be considered to be the culminating act for reflective thinking. It
encourages other persons to take up some problem for further investigation.
• The research report requires the creative thinking of a researcher to review the related
studies and discussing the result of the study and also suggest some new problems for
further studies.
• The research report is also necessary for giving shape and form to the investigation
and solidifying it.
• It is needed for providing a clear picture of research method, sample and techniques
used in conducting the research work.
• The research report is meant for popularizing the new contributions in the discipline.

DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT

“Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking,
accurate inductive work”.
The usual steps involved in writing report are
1. Logical analysis of the subject matter
It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject.
There are two ways in which to develop a subject.
A. Logically
 The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and
associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis.
 Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple
possible to the most complex structures.
B. Chronologically.
 Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence.
 The directions for doing or making something usually follow the
chronological order.

2. Preparation of the final outline

It is the next step in writing the research report
“Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed”.
They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points
to be stressed in the report.”

3. Preparation of the rough draft

This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline.
In this stage a researcher can write
(1) What has been done in the research study,
(2) Procedure, method, theory and technique applied,
(3) Technical difficulties faced and how they were overcame,
(4) Broad findings and
(5) Concluding remarks.
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft
This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing.
 Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft.
 The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece
of writing.
 While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in
logical development or presentation.
 The researcher should also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented,
has unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a
 definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering
cement and loose brick.”
 In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough
draft he has been consistent or not.
 He should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.

5. Preparation of the final bibliography

Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography.
 The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list
of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done.
 It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted.
 The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into
two parts;
 the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and
 the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper
articles.
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.
Example
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.
For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under:
1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.
Example
Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows”, The
Banker, London, September, 1971, p. 995.

6. Writing the final draft

This constitutes the last step.
 The final draft should be written
in a concise and objective style and
in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”,
“there may be”, and the like ones.
While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract
terminology and technical jargon.

 Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated

in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the
research findings to others.
  A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain
interest and must show originality.
 It must be remembered that every report
should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem
must contribute to the solution of a problem
must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.

STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF SCIENTIFIC REPORTS

INTRODUCTION
 Statement of the problem
 Objective(s) of the research
 Statement of the research question(s)
 Statement of the hypotheses
 Research background/context

LITERATURE REVIEW
Orientation: comprehensive or selective?
Have a plan; outline it
Set the context of your research
Show relatedness to your research
Review key points in your words; quote little
Summarize to conclude this mini-essay

PLAN OF RESEARCH
 Study/experimental design
 Selection of cases/participants (sampling)
 Setting
 Data collection procedures and instruments
 Data analysis
 Outline or detailed description?
PRESENTATION OF DATA AND DATA ANALYSIS
"A picture is worth…"
INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF THE DATA (FINDINGS; WHAT
IT ALL MEANS)
CONCLUSION
 Summary of the report
 Limitations of the study
 Future research needs

LAYOUT, STRUCTURE AND LANGUAGE OF THE REPORT [GENERAL FORMAT

OF RESEARCH REPORT]
A written format of a research work is known as thesis or research report. All such works
may differ considerably in scope of treatment and details of presentation. Even then all types
of research reports are expected to follow a general uniform, common pattern of format, style
and structure. The general format of research report is evolved and it has become a tradition
in academic area.
“A comprehensive layout of the research report should
comprise preliminary pages, the main text and the end matter”.
A research report or thesis is an organized format of research work done. It is viewed in three
major categories:
A. Preliminaries,
B. Textual Body, and
C. References.
Each category has been outlined further as follows:
A. Preliminary Section
Preliminary pages include title of the report, acknowledgment, certificate page and
table of contents.
1. Title page
The title should be accurate, concise and clearly printed in capital letters. This
is the first page of a thesis or a dissertation. It includes:
(a) Title of thesis.
(b) Name of the candidate.
(c) Purpose or relationship of the thesis to the course or degree requirement.
(d) College and/or department in which the candidate has been admitted for
the degree.
(e) Name of the university to which it is submitted.
(f) Month and year of submission or acceptance.
2. Preface or acknowledgements
Acknowledgments are written to thank those who have helped the researcher
during their course of investigation.
a) Acknowledgment should be brief, simple, modest and given only to
substantial assistance provided by the Guide, Head of the Department,
Staff of the Department, Agencies which provided financial support,
Collaborators and Institutions where part of the work has been carried out,
members of the researcher’s family, librarian, friends, clerical helpers and
god are normally considered superfluous.
b) The preface should not be too long with too many details about the
research work or its organization..
c) The word PREFACE or ACKNOWLEDGEMENT should be typed in
capital letters. It should be written in an impressive way.
d) Declaration in the certificate page by the scholar.
e) A good abstract is concise, readable, and quantitative. It should contain a
very short statement of the problem, methodology and procedures adapted
in the work and results of the study in a very condensed form.
3. Table of content
Table of contents gives title of the chapters, section headings, title of appendices
and their page numbers.
a) This section lists all the main chapter headings and sub-heading with the
appropriate page numbers against each.
b) The list of tables, list of figures, abstract or synopsis and their respective
 pages in small Roman numbers i, ii, iii, iv, v, etc. and followed at the end
by appendices, and Indexes.
c) Contents should neither be too detailed nor should too sketchy.
d) The table of contents serves an important purpose in providing an outline
of the contents of the report.
e) The capitalized title ‘Contents’ should be the central heading of the page
and the capitalized word ‘CHAPTER’ and ‘PAGE’
f) The numbers of chapters and pages respectively on the left and right
margins.
4. List of figures and Illustrations.
The charts, graphs or any other illustrations are used in the thesis.
a) A list of figures on a separate page should be prepared
b) All the preliminary pages should be numbered with lower-case roman
numbers
B. Main Body of Report or Textual Body
The main text provides the complete details of the research work and results. The
main text of the report/ thesis should have the following sections
1. Introduction or Theoretical Frame Work
The introductory part should cover the following aspects:
(a) A clear statement of the research problem or field of research
(b) Objectives of the study
(c) Hypotheses to be tested
(d) Significance of the problem
(e) Assumptions and delimitations.
(g) Definitions of Important terms used.
2. Review of related literature
a) Review chapter presents the comprehensive development of the problem
background.
b) It indicates what has already been studied by others, which has a bearing
upon the present study.
c) It is devoted to the development of the problem statement or the object of
the inquiry.
d) It is utilized to retain a direct relevancy to the study in hand. It is the
balancing chapter of the research report.
3. Design or Methodology
(a) Method and procedure used
(b) Tools of research or sources of data
(c) Techniques of data collection
(d) Description of techniques used.
4. Data Collection, Analysis and Interpretation of Data
(a) Analysis of data
(b) Tables and interpretation
(c) Figures and interpretation.
5. Conclusions
It requires the creative and reflective aspect of the researcher.
(a) Discussion of results [Research Summary]
 (b) Main Findings and inferences
(c) Implication of the findings and limitations
(d) Suggestions for further studies.
C. Reference Section
1. Bibliography
References or bibliographies are a list of the printed sources utilized in the research
work.
Note:
a) Books, monographs, documents and reports, periodicals and journals, essay and
articles, unpublished thesis and material and newspapers.
b) Each reference should contain the name(s) of author(s), title of the paper, journal
name, starting page number, end page number and year of publication.
c) In the case of a book source, its author(s), title, publishers’s name, place of
publication, year of publication and edition and total number of pages should
be given
Ex: K. Murali, Sudeshna Sinha and W.L. Ditto, Int. J. Bifur. and Chaos 13 (2003) 2669–
2672.
2. Appendix/Appendices
The purpose of the appendix is to provide a place for those report items which do not fit
in the research report proper because they are either too detailed or are too specialized.
3. Index or glossary (if any).
Include a glossary if the report includes a lot of specialised vocabulary or acronyms
which may not be familiar to the reader.
When a research report is published in index, must be given.
a) The index includes authors and subjects and topics or words in alphabetical order.
b) The glossary includes the meanings or definitions of some words and terms ‘used
in the research report.
c) Some notations symbols or abbreviations should be explained what actually they
mean or indicate in the study.

1. The report is to be prepared and written in past tense and present-prefect tense because
it is reported usually after completion of the work.
2. The scientific language is used rather than literary language.
 The British-English pattern is followed in writing a research report.
 The spellings of the words are employed of the British English.
TYPES OF REPORTS
1. For instance, business firms prefer reports in the letter form, just one or two pages in
length.
2. Banks, insurance organisations and financial institutions are generally fond of the short
balance-sheet type of tabulation for their annual reports to their customers and
shareholders.
3. Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their investigations in the form of algebraic
notations.
4. Chemists report their results in symbols and formulae.
5. Students of literature usually write long reports presenting the critical analysis of
some writer or period or the like with a liberal use of quotations from the works of the
 author under discussion.
6. In the field of education and psychology, the favourite form is the report on the results
of experimentation accompanied by the detailed statistical tabulations.
7. Clinical psychologists and social pathologists frequently find it necessary to make use
of the case-history form.
8. News items in the daily papers are also forms of report writing. They represent firsthand
on-the scene accounts of the events described or compilations of interviews with persons
who were on the scene.
9. Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the author’s
intentions, his success or failure in achieving his aims, his language, his style,
scholarship, bias or his point of view. Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short
report.
10. The reports prepared by governmental bureaus, special commissions, and similar other
organisations are generally very comprehensive reports on the issues involved. Such
reports are usually considered as important research products.

TECHNICAL REPORT
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
1. the methods employed,
2. assumptions made in the course of the study,
3. the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and
supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study:
Description of the
a) general objectives of study,
b) formulation of the problem in operational terms,
c) the working hypothesis,
d) the type of analysis and
e) data required, etc.
3. Methods employed:
Specific methods used in the study and their limitations.
For instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample
size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data:
a) Discussion of data collected their sources, characteristics and limitations.
b) If secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully
assessed.
c) In case of a survey, the manner in which data were collected should be fully
described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings:
 The analysis of data and presentation of the findings of the study with
supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated.
 This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over
several chapters.
6. Conclusions:
A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from the results
be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices:
Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematical
derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical
report; the order of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the
technical reports.
This, in other words, means that the presentation may vary in different reports;
even the different sections outlined above will not always be the same, nor will
all these sections appear in any particular report.
It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple
presentation and ready availability of the findings remain an important
consideration and as such the liberal use of charts and diagrams is considered
desirable.
B. POPULAR REPORT
The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness.
 The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical,
particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams.
 Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon
now and then is another characteristic feature of the popular report.
Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications. We
give below a general outline of a popular report.
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings
of most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the
findings of the study is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arises is presented along
with the specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and
techniques used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is
given in this part of the report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the
study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of
illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is
presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the
report is entirely meant for general public.
There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The
only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy
implications from the operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of all sorts to
the extent possible.
 Ph.D. THESIS REPORT
Research results may be published in many ways. These are some of the more traditional
ones:
1. A journal article
2. A conference paper
3. An article in a trade or scholarly periodical
4. A thesis
5. A research report
6. A research monograph
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length and
the form are largely dictated by the problems at hand.
A research paper is a report published in a journal or magazine or conference
proceedings.
A Ph.D. thesis is a report of the entire work done by a researcher to a university or an
Institution for the award of the degree of doctor of philosophy.
1. The central element of a Ph.D. education is the doctoral thesis, that is, the Ph.D. thesis.
2. It is an apprenticeship in how to do research and forms the unique part of Ph.D. degree
course.
3. A Ph.D. dissertation is a lengthy, original and substantial document.
4. It should contain original contributions.
5. Essentially, the role of a Ph.D. dissertation is to demonstrate the research person’s
original thinking and contribution to the topic of research.
6. It should also clearly point out the research competence of the researcher in his research
field.
For preparing the Ph.D. thesis report one should not simply copy word by word from
his research articles. Even if the content of the thesis is the work reported in his
research publications, the student should reword the material without changing the
meaning; give much more details, explanations, suggestions and possibly a better
reorganization of the content.
Wherever possible, the results should be presented in the form of figures, illustrations
and tables. They can make the report quite attractive. Tables should be as precise as
possible.
All the figures should clearly specify the variables of the axes, units used and other
necessary information.
a) Figure caption should not be a reproduction of sentences of the text. It must
clearly state what it is.
b) Figures should be clearly explained in the text.
c) Data should be fitted to an appropriate mathematical expression.
Nowadays, sophisticated softwares are available for curve fitting. After making a
curve fit or plotting a set of data, proper explanation for observed variation of the data
should be given.
A set of data measurement without any analysis and discussion is of no use. Arguments
may be conveniently presented as a series of numbered or bulleted points, rather than as
one chunk in a crowded paragraph. Mention further unexplored areas, which future
researchers may conquer.
Extreme care must be taken in typesetting mathematical equations, variables and
parameters involved in the study.
a) Italic or Greek letters or mathematical symbols can be used for variables and
parameters. For example, x or X should not be used as a variable name. The
correct usage is x or X (or typeset in italics).
b) All the equations should be centered and numbered.
c) Vectors should be clearly specified by an arrow over the name or by bold face
name. Equations should not be repeated.
Jokes or funs should not find a place in the report. Use “correct” or “incorrect” to
refer to the results of others. Don’t use the words “bad”, “terrible” and “stupid”. Avoid
use of “today”, “modern times”, “soon”, “seems”, “in terms of”, “based on”, “lots of”,
“type of”, “something like”, “just about”, “number of”, “probably”, “obviously”, “along
with”, “you”, “I”, “hopefully” and “may”. There is no need to mention the circumstances
in which the results are obtained.
Errors in the spelling or technical or general words show in the poor light an otherwise
worthy thesis that tells a vital story.
Correct all typographical errors. Use correct grammar. Sometimes a good report is
discredited because of these errors even though the report is methodologically sound.
Make the report look professional: use only one type of paper; use only one printer,
use good binder, and be neat.

QUESTIONS
a. What do you understand by research report or thesis? Indicate its need and
importance in the research work.
b. Indicate the general format of research report and mention its specific category of
each major section of report.
c. Write a brief note on the ‘task of interpretation’ in the context of research
methodology.
d. “Interpretation is a fundamental component of research process”, explain. Why
so?
e. Describe the precautions that the researcher should take while interpreting his
findings.
f. “Interpretation is an art of drawing inferences, depending upon the skill of the
researcher”. Elucidate the given statement explaining the technique of
interpretation.
g. “It is only through interpretation the researcher can expose the relations and
processes that underlie his findings”. Explain, giving examples.
h. Explain the significance of a research report and narrate the various steps involved
in writing such a report.
i. Describe, in brief, the layout of a research report, covering all relevant points.
j. Mention the different types of report, particularly pointing out the difference
between a technical report and a popular report.
i. What points will you keep in mind while preparing a research report?
Explain.
ii. What are the different forms in which a research work may be reported?
Describe.
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