GENETICS (MIDTERMS)

DNA vs RNA

STRUCTURE OF DNA
- The Genetic Code is a code for the amino acid sequence of proteins. The code enables the organism to
form new offspring or produce new cells stored in the molecular structure, deoxyribonucleic acid,
better known as DNA.
- a collection of codons
- DNA is a polymer of monomers called nucleotides.
- THREE COMPONENTS OF NUCLEOTIDE:
➢ Pentose sugar – deoxyribose (C5H1004)
➢ Nitrogen Base
➢ Phosphate Group (H3PO4)

PENTOSE SUGAR- DEOXYRIBOSE (C5H10O4)

NITROGEN BASE
- There are two groups of bases:
● Pyrimidines - single rings each with six sides. e.g. cytosine (C) and thymine (T)
● Purines - double rings comprising a six-sided and five-sided ring. e.g. adenine (A) and
guanine (G)
PHOSPHATE GROUP (H3PO4)
 - The three components (pentose sugar, nitrogen base, and phosphate group) are combined by
condensation reaction to form a nucleotide.

- Or, adapted diagrammatically:

HOW ARE NUCLEOTIDES JOINED?

- Two nucleotides join to form a dinucleotide, by a condensation reaction between the phosphate group
of one nucleotide and the pentose sugar of the other.
- A Phosphodiester Bridge is formed between the 3 carbon atoms of one pentose sugar and 5 carbon
atoms of another sugar.
- This can be repeated a million times to produce a Polynucleotide (a long chain made up of
smaller units called nucleotides). The covalent bonds between neighboring nucleotides are strong
and so produce a stable structure. It is important that these polynucleotide chains do not break.

MOLECULAR MODEL OF DNA

- James Crick and Francis Watson proposed a molecular model of DNA in 1953. The following are
as follows:
➢ DNA was composed of two strands of polynucleotides
➢ The DNA was a double helix
➢ Each Polynucleotide chain ran in opposite directions, i.e. antiparallel
➢ The organic bases pointed inward 90 degrees to the phosphate-sugar backbone.
➢ A pyrimidine base was joined to a purine base by a hydrogen bond
➢ Cytosine always paired with guanine, and adenine always paired with thymine

- The width between the two backbones is constant and equal to the width of a base pair (purine
and pyrimidine)
- The sequence in one chain determines that in the other, the chains are said to be
COMPLEMENTARY.
● There are ten nucleotides to each complete twist of the helix.
● Dimension: 3.4nm (height), 10 base pairs, and 2.0nm width
STRUCTURE OF RNA
- RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded polymer of nucleotides where:

a. The pentose sugar is always ribose (C5H1005)

b. The nitrogen bases are in two groups:

➢ Pyrimidines - which are uracil (replacing thymine in DNA) and cytosine.
➢ Purines - which are adenine and guanine.
c. Phosphate Group (H3PO4)

FORMS OF RNA
➢ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- a large, produced in the
nucleus and is found in ribosomes. Also, the primary
component of ribosomes. rRNA is also the ribozyme that
carries out protein synthesis in ribosomes.
➢ Transfer RNA (tRNA)- a small, single-stranded
polynucleotide is produced in the nucleus. There are at
least twenty types of tRNA, each one carrying a different
amino acid. Also, a small RNA molecule that plays a key
role in protein synthesis
➢ Messenger RNA (mRNA)- a single-stranded, and made
up of thousands of nucleotides. A mirror copy (inversion)
of part of the DNA helix which synthesized it. It is also a
molecule that contains the instructions or recipe that
directs the cells to make a protein using its natural
machinery.
- The three components are joined by a condensation
reaction removing two molecules of water. Single nucleotides then form a polynucleotide by
condensation reactions between the phosphate groups of one nucleotide and the ribose sugar of
another.

REPLICATION OF DNA
- To ensure that the genetic code is passed onto each newly produced cell, the DNA needs
to replicate (produce an exact copy of itself)
- Meselsohn and Stahl, in 1958, using Crick and Watson’s research, proposed DNA
replicated by semi-conservative replication.
- An enzyme- DNA Polymerase- causes the DNA double helix to unzip along its hydrogen
bonds exposing the nucleotides. Free nucleotides (in the nucleoplasm complementary base)
pair with the nitrogen bases. The result is two identical strands of DNA. A s each strand
retains half of the original DNA material (one polynucleotide chain) it is called the semi -
conservative replication.
COMPARISON OF DNA AND RNA
COMPARISON DNA RNA
Full Name Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
Function DNA replicates and stores RNA converts the genetic
genetic information. It is a information contained within
blueprint for all genetic DNA to a format used to build
information contained within proteins, and then moves it to
an organism ribosomal protein factories.

Structure DNA consists of two strands, RNA converts the genetic

arranged in a double helix. information contained within
These strands are made up of DNA to a format used to build
subunits called nucleotides. proteins, and then moves it to
Each nucleotide contains a ribosomal protein factories.
phosphate, a 5-carbon sugar RNA only has one strand, but
molecule and a nitrogenous like DNA, is made up of
base. nucleotides. RNA strands are
shorter than DNA strands.
RNA sometimes forms a
secondary double helix
structure, but only
intermittently.

Length DNA is a much longer RNA molecules are variable

polymer than RNA. A in length, but much shorter
chromosome, for example, is a than long DNA polymers. A
single, long DNA molecule, large RNA molecule might
which would be several only be a few thousand base
centimetres in length when pairs long.
unravelled.

Sugar The sugar in DNA is RNA contains ribose sugar

deoxyribose, which contains molecules, without the
one less hydroxyl group than hydroxyl modifications of
RNA's ribose. deoxyribose.

Bases The bases in DNA are RNA shares Adenine ('A'),

Adenine ('A'), Thymine ('T'), Guanine ('G') and Cytosine
Guanine ('G') and Cytosine ('C') with DNA, but contains
('C'). Uracil ('U') rather than
Thymine.

Base Pairs Adenine and Thymine pair (A- Adenine and Uracil pair (A-
T) U)
Cytosine and Guanine pair (C- Cytosine and Guanine pair
G) (C-G)

Location DNA is found in the nucleus, RNA forms in the nucleolus,

with a small amount of DNA and then moves to specialized
also present in mitochondria. regions of the cytoplasm
depending on the type of RNA
formed.

Reactivity Due to its deoxyribose sugar, RNA, containing a ribose

 which contains one less sugar, is more reactive than
oxygen-containing hydroxyl DNA and is not stable in
group, DNA is a more stable alkaline conditions. RNA's
molecule than RNA, which is larger helical grooves mean
useful for a molecule which itis more easily subject to
has the task of keeping genetic attack by enzymes
information safe.

Ultraviolet (UV) Sensitivity DNA is vulnerable to damage RNA is more resistant to

by RNA is more resistant to damage from UV light than
ultraviolet light. DNA.

KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

- What are the key differences between DNA and RNA?
- FUNCTION:
➢ DNA encodes all genetic information, and is the blueprint from which all biological life is created.
And that’s only in the short-term. In the long-term, DNA is a storage device, a biological flash drive
that allows the blueprint of life to be passed between generations.
➢ RNA functions as the reader that decodes this flash drive. This reading process is multi-step and there
are specialized RNAs for each of these steps. Below, we look in more detail at the three most
important types of RNA.

- What are the three types of RNA?

- Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies portions of genetic code, a process called transcription, and
transports these copies to ribosomes, which are the cellular factories that facilitate the production of
proteins from this code.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) is responsible for bringing amino acids, basic protein building blocks, to
these protein factories, in response to the coded instructions introduced by the mRNA. This protein-
building process is called translation.
- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of the ribosome factory itself without which protein
production would not occur.
GRIFFITH’S EXPERIMENT

FREDERICK GRIFFITH
- British Medical Officer or British Bacteriologist in 1928
- Performed an experiment on Bacterium, Streptococcus Pneumonia, and Diplococcus Pneumonia.
These can cause pneumonia in humans and other mammals.
STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIA
- Has two (2) strains: Smooth Strain (S Strain) and Rough Strain (R Strain)

SMOOTH STRAIN (S Strain)

- It has a polysaccharide coat
- Virulent, Pathogenic, Encapsulated

ROUGH STRAIN (R Strain)

- Non-virulent, non-pathogenic, non-encapsulated

● Griffith conducted four experiments on these bacteria

FOUR EXPERIMENTS, these strains were injected into the body of the mice;
● Rough Strain
● Smooth Strain
● Heat Killed Smooth Strain
● Combination: Rough, and Heat Killed Smooth Strains

FIRST EXPERIMENT (Rough Strain)

● A rough strain bacterium was injected and the mice survived.
● The mice didn’t suffer from pneumonia.
● Reason/s: R Strain does not have a polysaccharide coat around it and the human/body system of
the mice destroyed R Strain

SECOND EXPERIMENT (S Strain)

● A smooth strain bacterium was injected and the mice died.
● The mice suffered first from pneumonia and died right after.
● Reason/s: Since S Strain has a polysaccharide capsule/coat, it didn’t get destroyed by the mice’s
human/body system.

THIRD EXPERIMENT (Heat Killed S Strain)

● A heat killed S Strain was injected and the mice survived.
● Reason/s: Due to heating, S Strain lost its polysaccharide coat

FOURTH EXPERIMENT (Combination: Heat Killed S strain and R Strain)

● The mixture of heat killed S Strain and R Strain was injected and the mice died.
● The mice suffered first from pneumonia and died right after.
● From the blood of the dead mice, Griffith recovered a large number of live Smooth Strain.

CONCLUSION:
Griffith showed that the change was Genetic. He suggested that genetic material from Heat Killed Smooth
Strain had somehow changed the living Rough Strain Bacterium into Smooth Strain Bacterium.
Griffith concluded that the Rough Strain Bacterium must have taken up to what he called the Transforming
Principle from Heat Killed Smooth Strain Bacterium which allows the Rough Strain Bacterium to get
transformed into Smooth Coated Bacterium and become virulent (means: poisonous or toxic

GRIFFITH’S EXPERIMENT SUMMARY

In 1928, British medical officer Frederick Griffith conducted a pivotal experiment on the bacterium
Streptococcus pneumoniae, which causes pneumonia in humans and other mammals. His research highlighted
the existence of two distinct strains of this bacterium: the virulent smooth strain (S strain) and the non-virulent
rough strain (R strain). The S strain is characterized by its polysaccharide coat, which protects it from the
host’s immune system, while the R strain lacks this coat and is thus easily destroyed by the immune response.
Griffith’s series of four experiments led to groundbreaking conclusions about genetic transformation. He
demonstrated that when the heat-killed S strain was mixed with live R strain, the R strain could be transformed
into the virulent S strain. This suggested that genetic material from the dead S strain had been taken up by the
live R strain, fundamentally altering its characteristics. Griffith’s work laid the foundation for further research
into DNA and genetic inheritance, introducing the concept of the “transforming principle” that would later be
identified as DNA.

Highlights
• 🔬 Frederick Griffith’s Experiment: Conducted in 1928, this experiment involved two strains of
Streptococcus pneumoniae.
• 🦠 Two Strains of Bacteria: Griffith identified the virulent S strain with a polysaccharide coat and
the non-virulent R strain without it.
• 💉 Mice Survival with R Strain: Mice injected with the R strain survived due to the absence of a
protective coat, which allowed their immune system to eliminate the bacteria.
• 🧪 S Strain’s Deadly Impact: Mice injected with the live S strain developed pneumonia and died,
demonstrating the S strain’s pathogenicity.
• 🔥 Heat-Killed S Strain: When Griffith injected mice with heat-killed S strain, they survived,
indicating that heat inactivated its virulence.
• ⚗️ Transformation Observation: The mixture of heat-killed S strain and live R strain resulted in the
death of mice, revealing genetic transformation.
• 📈 Genetic Material Discovery: Griffith concluded that the R strain had taken up genetic material
from the S strain, leading to its transformation into a pathogenic form.

Key Insights
• 🧬 Genetic Transformation: Griffith’s experiments were pivotal in demonstrating the concept of
genetic transformation, where one strain of bacteria could take on characteristics of another. This
observation paved the way for modern genetics, illustrating that genetic information can be transferred
between organisms, which is foundational to our understanding of heredity and genetic modification.
• 🔍 Importance of the Polysaccharide Coat: The protective polysaccharide coat of the S strain was
crucial for its virulence. This insight emphasized the role of physical structures in pathogen defense
against host immune responses, influencing future research on bacterial virulence factors and vaccine
development.
• 🐭 Animal Model in Research: Using mice as a model organism allowed Griffith to study bacterial
infections in a living system, demonstrating the effectiveness of animal models in biomedical research.
This approach has since become a standard in evaluating the pathogenicity of various microorganisms.
• 🔥 Impact of Heat on Bacteria: The heat treatment of the S strain showcased how physical agents
could alter the biological properties of pathogens. This finding underscored the significance of
understanding the effects of temperature and other environmental factors on the survival and virulence
of bacteria.
• 📊 Pathogenic Mechanisms: Griffith’s work highlighted the mechanisms by which bacteria can
become virulent. The transformation of the R strain into the S strain implied that bacteria could acquire
pathogenic traits, leading to a deeper understanding of infectious diseases and their management.
 • 🧪 Foundation for Molecular Biology: The concept of the “transforming principle” set the stage for
subsequent discoveries in molecular biology, including the identification of DNA as the genetic
material. Griffith’s findings motivated scientists like Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty to further
investigate the nature of this transforming substance.
• 🌍 Broader Implications in Genetics: The implications of Griffith’s experiment extend beyond
microbiology into various fields, including genetics and biotechnology. Understanding how genetic
information can be transferred has applications in genetic engineering, gene therapy, and vaccine
development, transforming the landscape of modern medicine.

Frederick Griffith’s experiments have had a lasting impact on biology, particularly in the fields of genetics
and microbiology. His work illustrated the principles of genetic transformation and pathogen virulence, setting
the stage for future advancements in understanding the mechanisms of heredity, disease, and the molecular
basis of life. The exploration of these concepts continues to influence scientific research and medical practices,
underlining the significance of Griffith’s contributions to the life sciences.

AVERY, MACLEOD, AND MCCARTY EXPERIMENT

- Their experiment is connected with Griffith’s experiment and identification of the Transforming
Principle. They identified the Nature of the Transforming Principle.
● In 1928, Griffith worked on two strains of S. pneumoniae.
● Griffith's results showed that the virulent strain could somehow convert, or transform, the nonvirulent
strain into a virulent form.
● Furthermore, the transformation was heritable-i.e., able to be passed on to succeeding generations
of bacteria.
● However, Griffith didn't conclude anything about the nature or biochemical properties of the
transforming principle.
● After Griffith's report of transformation, Oswald Avery (the one who demonstrated that DNA is a
genetic material), along with many other scientists, set out to determine the chemical nature of the
substance that allowed transformation to occur.
● In 1944, Oswald Avery and his colleagues Maclyn McCarty and Colin Macleod carried out several
experiments and reported that the transforming substance of the genetic material of the cell was DNA.

MacLean carried out several experiments and reported that the transforming substance the genetic material of
the cell was DNA

CONCLUSION
● This experiment proved that when the DNA of the S strain bacteria was destroyed, they lost
the ability to transform the R strain bacteria into live S strain ones.
● When other components, such as the polysaccharide coat, lipid, RNA or protein were
destroyed, transformation still took place.
 ● Hence, it was proved that the transforming substance of the genetic material of the cell was DNA.

AVERY, MACLEOD, AND MCCARTY’S EXPERIMENT SUMMARY

In this lecture, the presenter discusses pivotal experiments conducted by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and
Maclyn McCarty in 1944, which identified DNA as the transforming principle in bacteria. The foundation for
this research was laid by Frederick Griffith’s experiments in 1928, where he discovered that a virulent strain
of Streptococcus pneumoniae could transform a non-virulent strain into a virulent one. While Griffith
introduced the concept of a “transforming principle,” he did not determine its biochemical nature. Avery and
his colleagues aimed to elucidate this unknown substance through a series of systematic experiments. They
meticulously removed proteins, RNA, and other components from a heat-killed virulent strain, ultimately
demonstrating that only the destruction of DNA inhibited the transformation of non-virulent bacteria into
virulent ones. This groundbreaking discovery provided the first substantial evidence that DNA serves as the
genetic material in organisms, although the initial reception was met with skepticism. The subsequent
confirmation by Hershey and Chase further solidified DNA’s role as the genetic material.

Highlights
Griffith’s Transformation Experiment: In 1928, Griffith discovered that a virulent strain of Streptococcus
pneumoniae could transform a non-virulent strain.
Avery’s Breakthrough: In 1944, Avery and colleagues identified DNA as the transforming substance,
establishing it as the genetic material.
Experimental Methodology: Avery’s experiments involved systematically removing proteins, RNA, and
other components to isolate DNA’s role in transformation.
Significance of DNA: The experiments provided the first strong evidence that DNA is the carrier of genetic
information in cells.
❗ Initial Skepticism: Despite the groundbreaking findings, the scientific community initially received the
discovery with mixed feelings of enthusiasm and skepticism.
Hershey and Chase Confirmation: The subsequent experiments by Hershey and Chase confirmed that
DNA is indeed the genetic material.
Legacy of the Experiments: These experiments laid the foundation for modern genetics, influencing how
we understand DNA’s role in heredity and biological functions.

Key Insights
Experimental Design Matters: The meticulous design of Avery’s experiments highlights the importance
of controlled conditions in scientific inquiry. By eliminating other potential transforming substances, Avery
and his team narrowed down the possibilities to DNA, showcasing how systematic experimentation can lead
to groundbreaking discoveries.
Griffith’s Legacy: Frederick Griffith’s initial experiments set the stage for future research in molecular
biology. His observation of bacterial transformation was a significant leap in understanding genetic transfer,
illustrating how early experiments can catalyze extensive research paths.
Skepticism in Science: The mixed reception of Avery’s findings reflects a common theme in scientific
discovery—new ideas often face scrutiny and skepticism before becoming accepted. This highlights the need
for further verification and replication in science, as seen with the subsequent confirmation by Hershey and
Chase.
The Role of DNA: The conclusion that DNA is the genetic material was revolutionary, shifting the
scientific perspective from proteins being the primary carriers of genetic information to recognizing DNA’s
fundamental role. This insight paved the way for advancements in genetics and molecular biology.
Impact on Future Research: The identification of DNA as the genetic material has profound implications
for various fields, including genetics, biotechnology, and medicine. It opened avenues for genetic engineering,
DNA sequencing, and understanding hereditary diseases.
Interdisciplinary Influence: Avery’s experiments not only impacted microbiology but also had far-
reaching effects on genetics, biochemistry, and molecular biology. This interplay among scientific disciplines
emphasizes the collaborative nature of scientific advancement.
Ethical Considerations: The focus on DNA as the genetic material also brings forth ethical discussions
regarding genetic manipulation and biotechnology. As our understanding of DNA deepens, the responsibility
associated with its manipulation becomes increasingly significant, necessitating careful consideration of
ethical implications in scientific practices.

In summary, the experiments carried out by Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty were monumental in establishing
DNA as the hereditary material, reshaping the landscape of biological sciences. Through a combination of
rigorous experimentation and subsequent validation, these findings have laid the groundwork for our current
understanding of genetics, influencing countless applications in research, medicine, and biotechnology. Their
legacy is a testament to the power of scientific inquiry and the ongoing quest to understand the complexities
of life at a molecular level.

HERSHEY AND CHASE EXPERIMENT

● Griffith in 1928, proved that DNA is a genetic material but many biologist was not convinced.
● In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase proved that DNA is the genetic material and not protein.

BACTERIOPHAGES
- also known as “phages”
- these viruses cannot infect human cells
- the selected viruses that infect bacteria

● When a virus infects bacteria, it inserts genetic

material into the bacteria.
● Hershey and Chase found out that genetic
material (DNA) is passed from a virus into the
bacteria, they utilized Radioactive Sulphur
for 35S and Radioactive Phosphuros for
32P.

RADIOACTIVE SULPHUR
- Contains radioactive protein since protein contains sulphur

RADIOACTIVE PHOSPHORUS
- Contains radioactive DNA since DNA contains phosphorus

Radioactive viruses were allowed to infect E. Coli

bacteria (a group of bacteria that usually lives in
your gut without hurting you), after infection there
will be blending and centrifugation to separate the
mixture of the viruses and bacteria.
Bacteria that were infected with viruses with radioactive
sulphur were not radioactive.
Radioactive sulphur was associated with proteins, this
indicates that protein from the virus did not enter the
bacteria.
Bacteria that were infected with viruses with radioactive
DNA were radioactive.
CONCLUSIONS:
- This indicates that DNA was a material that passed from the viruses to the bacteria. In other words,
radioactivity for phosphorus and sulphur was tested only on radioactive phosphorus and was found
inside the bacteria indicating that DNA is the genetic material.

HERSHEY AND CHASE EXPERIMENT SUMMARY

The transcript discusses a seminal experiment conducted by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in 1952, which
provided key evidence regarding the genetic material of viruses and its role in bacterial infection. The
experiment utilized radioactive isotopes to differentiate between DNA and protein as the genetic material. By
tagging the DNA of a bacteriophage (a virus that infects bacteria) with radioactive phosphorus and the protein
coat with radioactive sulfur, the researchers were able to track which component entered the bacterial cells
during infection. The results showed that only the DNA entered the bacteria, while the protein remained
outside, thereby confirming that DNA is the carrier of genetic information. This groundbreaking finding
solidified the understanding of DNA’s role in heredity and molecular biology, as it highlighted that it is not
merely the protein but the nucleic acids that are responsible for transmitting genetic information.

Highlights
Hershey-Chase Experiment: The 1952 experiment demonstrated that DNA, not protein, is the genetic
material in viruses.
Radioactive Isotopes: Use of radioactive phosphorus and sulfur was key to tracking DNA and proteins in
the experiment.
Bacteriophage: The study involved T2 bacteriophage, a virus that infects Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria.
Results: Only the DNA entered the bacterial cells, proving it as the genetic material.
Molecular Biology: The findings were critical in establishing the foundation for modern molecular biology
and genetics.
Impact on Genetics: The experiment laid groundwork for future research into DNA structure and function.
Scientific Consensus: The Hershey-Chase experiment is often cited as a turning point in the understanding
of molecular genetics.
Key Insights
Clarification of Genetic Material: The Hershey-Chase experiment clarified the long-standing debate about
whether DNA or protein was the genetic material in viruses. By using radioactively labeled isotopes, the
researchers were able to definitively show that DNA was responsible for carrying genetic information, which
was a revolutionary finding at the time.

Experimental Design: The design of the experiment was meticulous and innovative. By using two different
radioactive labels (sulfur for proteins and phosphorus for DNA), Hershey and Chase were able to track the
components of the bacteriophage independently. This careful separation allowed for conclusive evidence to
be gathered and is a prime example of how experimental design can influence scientific outcomes.

Foundation for Molecular Genetics: The experiment set the stage for the field of molecular genetics. It
demonstrated the importance of DNA, leading to further research that would ultimately unravel the structure
of DNA, including Watson and Crick’s double helix model. This research has had profound implications for
biology, medicine, and genetics.

Bacteriophage’s Role in Science: The use of bacteriophages as a model organism was crucial.
Bacteriophages are simple yet effective for studying genetic material because they can easily infect bacteria
and their life cycles can be observed under laboratory conditions. This model has continued to be important
in various areas of genetic research.

Historical Context: The findings came at a time when the understanding of genetics was still in its infancy.
Prior to the Hershey-Chase experiment, many scientists believed proteins were the primary carriers of genetic
information. The breakthrough shifted the scientific community’s perspective and helped to establish DNA as
the central molecule of life.

Applications Beyond Bacteria: The implications of the Hershey-Chase findings extend beyond
bacteriophages and E. coli. The confirmation that DNA serves as genetic material has been foundational for
understanding heredity in all living organisms, including plants and animals. This understanding has paved
the way for advances in biotechnology, genetic engineering, and medical research.

Legacy of the Experiment: The Hershey-Chase experiment is often featured in educational curricula as a
classic example of how scientific inquiry can lead to paradigm shifts in understanding. Its legacy continues to
influence modern genetics and molecular biology, emphasizing the importance of experimental evidence in
scientific discovery.

In conclusion, the Hershey-Chase experiment is a landmark study in the field of genetics that confirmed DNA
as the genetic material in viruses. Its ingenious use of radioactive isotopes and careful experimental design
provided pivotal insights that have shaped our understanding of molecular biology, highlighting the
fundamental role of DNA in heredity and the functioning of all living organisms. The experiment’s findings
have had a lasting impact on scientific research, education, and the broader field of genetics, underscoring the
importance of rigorous testing and evidence in the pursuit of knowledge.