Unit 1

(i) Definition and Meaning of Museum and Museology

Museology is understood as the science or study of museums, encompassing the theoretical

frameworks, principles, and practices related to their establishment, organization,
management, and development. [cite: 3] It delves into the multifaceted relationship
between humanity and its heritage, manifested through the collection, preservation,
interpretation, and exhibition of tangible and intangible cultural and natural objects. The
International Council of Museums (ICOM) 1946 a museum is a non- profit permanent
institution in the service of society and its development , open to the public , which
acquires , conserves , researches , communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible
heritage of the humanity and its environment for the purpose of education , study and
enjoyment. The International Council of Museums (ICOM) definitions are crucial for
comprehending the meaning, purpose, and the evolving roles of museums. [cite: 17] The
field of museology is inherently interdisciplinary, drawing upon various academic fields such
as history, archaeology, art history, anthropology, sociology, and conservation science, to
understand how museums function as cultural institutions and their societal impact. Beyond
mere definitions, museology critically examines the ethical responsibilities of museums,
including issues of provenance, repatriation, and the representation of diverse cultural
narratives. It is a dynamic field that constantly adapts to societal changes, technological
advancements, and evolving understandings of heritage, ensuring that museums remain
relevant and impactful institutions in the 21st century. The study of museology equips
students with the theoretical grounding to analyze museum practices and contribute to the
ongoing discourse about the role of cultural institutions in a globalized world.

(ii) History of Museums in India - Colonial to Post-Independence

The history of museums in India is deeply intertwined with its colonial past and subsequent
post-independence nation-building efforts. [cite: 13, 18] During the colonial period,
museums were often established by British administrators and scholars, primarily serving
the interests of the colonizers by classifying and cataloging Indian art, archaeology, and
natural history for study and display in Europe. [cite: 18] Works like Anand Burdhan's
Colonial Museum: An Inner History [cite: 21] provide insights into the motivations and
mechanisms behind these early institutions. These museums, such as the Indian Museum in
Calcutta (established in 1814 by the Asiatic Society of Bengal), were instruments of colonial
power, aiming to document and categorize the vast and diverse Indian subcontinent for
administrative control and academic study from a Eurocentric perspective. They often
showcased Indian artifacts as curiosities or ethnographic specimens, reinforcing colonial
hierarchies and narratives. The initial collections were frequently amassed through
expeditions, archaeological surveys, and sometimes even direct appropriation, reflecting the
power dynamics of the colonial enterprise. These institutions played a significant role in
shaping the perception of Indian culture and history, both within India and in the West.

With the advent of independence in 1947, many colonial museums underwent a significant
transformation, evolving into national museums. [cite: 18] This shift reflected a profound
change in purpose, moving from colonial documentation and display to serving as symbols
of national identity, heritage preservation, and public education for the newly independent
nation. [cite: 18] This transition involved a critical re-evaluation of collection policies,
exhibition narratives, and target audiences. Museums began to prioritize the representation
of India's rich and diverse cultural heritage from an Indian perspective, aiming to foster a
sense of national pride and unity. Authors like Tapati Guha-Thakurta, in Objects, Histories:
Institution of Art in Colonial India, [cite: 24] and Saloni Mathur, in India by Design: Colonial
History and Cultural Display, [cite: 25] critically examine how art and culture were
institutionalized and displayed during the colonial era, offering essential context for their
post-independence evolution. The historical trajectory of these institutions can be studied
through case studies of various national museums and their making within the broader
context of the museum movement in India, which saw a surge in new museum
establishments and a reorientation of existing ones towards national goals and public
engagement. This period also saw the challenges faced by these nascent institutions, as
highlighted by R. D. Choudhary in Museums of India and their Maladies [cite: 22], regarding
issues of infrastructure, funding, and professionalization.

Research-based Project (Any two): History of - National Museum/ Indian Museum/ Salar
Jung Museum/ Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalay

Students are encouraged to undertake research-based projects on the history of any two of
the following prominent Indian museums to understand their establishment, collection
development, role in colonial and post-colonial India, and their current significance:

 National Museum, New Delhi: As a premier cultural institution of India,

understanding its genesis and evolution is crucial to grasping India's post-
independence museological landscape. Established after independence, it was
conceived as a repository for India's national treasures, reflecting the diverse cultural
fabric of the nation. Research should cover its founding principles, key collections,
and its role in shaping national identity.

 Indian Museum, Kolkata: One of the oldest and largest multi-disciplinary museums
in India, its history offers insights into early colonial collecting practices and its
subsequent transformation. Established by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, it served as
a model for many later museums. Projects should explore its colonial origins, the
nature of its initial collections, and how it adapted to the post-independence era.

 Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad: Known for its vast and eclectic collection,
understanding its history reveals private patronage and its eventual public role. This
 museum originated from the private collection of the Salar Jung family. Shobhita
Punja's Treasures: Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad [cite: 43] can be a valuable
resource. Research should focus on the personality of its founder, the unique nature
of its collection, and its transition from a private collection to a public institution.

 Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalay (CSMVS), Mumbai: Formerly the

Prince of Wales Museum, its journey from a colonial institution to a modern Indian
museum provides a rich case study. Shobhita Punja's Treasure: Chhatrapati Shivaji
Maharaj Vastu Sanghralaya, Mumbai [cite: 44] offers specific insights. Projects
should investigate its establishment during the British Raj, the architectural
significance of its building, and its efforts to indigenize its narratives and engage with
the local community in the post-independence period.

These projects should delve into the institutional history, key figures involved, significant
collection acquisitions, and how each museum has responded to the changing political and
cultural landscape of India, including challenges and successes in redefining their purpose
and public engagement.

(iii) A Brief Introduction to New Museology

New Museology represents a significant paradigm shift in museological thought, emerging as

a critical response to traditional, object-centric approaches that often presented singular,
authoritative narratives. [cite: 20, 29] It emphasizes the museum's role as an active agent of
change and a dynamic space for dialogue, interaction, and community engagement, rather
than merely a static repository of objects. [cite: 10, 20] Peter Vergo's New Museology [cite:
29] is a seminal text that articulated many of these evolving ideas, advocating for a more
inclusive and socially relevant role for museums. This approach advocates for museums to
be more community-oriented, socially responsible, and actively engaged with contemporary
issues such as human rights, environmental sustainability, and social justice. It promotes
inclusivity by giving voice to marginalized communities, fostering multi-vocality in
interpretations, and encouraging the co-creation of meaning with diverse audiences, moving
away from a top-down approach to knowledge dissemination.

New Museology encourages museums to critically examine their own histories and
narratives, acknowledging diverse perspectives and often challenging colonial legacies,
exclusionary practices, and dominant cultural viewpoints. [cite: 20] Concepts like "living
ethnological exhibits," as explored by Saloni Mathur in her work on the case of 1886 [cite:
26], highlight the shift towards more dynamic, participatory, and ethically conscious forms of
display that engage with living cultures rather than merely presenting them as historical
artifacts. Authors like Usha Rani Tiwari and Aarti Pandey in नव संग्रहालय ववज्ञान [cite: 28] and
Shahida Munsuri in Museums, Museology and New Museology [cite: 36, 42] further
elaborate on these contemporary trends and their implications for museums in the Indian
context, discussing how Indian museums are adapting to these global shifts while retaining
their unique cultural identity. This new perspective sees museums not just as custodians of
the past, but as platforms for cultural negotiation, critical thinking, and understanding,
fostering active learning and engagement rather than passive reception of information. [cite:
10] It encourages museums to be more reflexive about their own power structures and their
role in shaping public memory and identity.

Unit 1 (repeat)
(i) Definition and Meaning of Museum and Museology

The objective of this section is to provide a basic understanding of the museum as a

discipline and an institution. The syllabus advises using the definitions provided by the
International Council of Museums (ICOM) to understand the meaning, purpose, and
especially the changing roles of the museum.

 Core Purpose: The museum is fundamentally an institution for the preservation and
dissemination of knowledge. It acts as a resource center where physical objects—
artifacts, specimens, and artworks—are collected, preserved, and managed.

 A Contested Definition: The meaning and purpose of a museum are not static. Kavita
Singh's essay, "Material Fantasy," challenges the simple definition of the colonial
museum as a benign knowledge project. She contrasts the official, self-
congratulatory statements of museum directors with the more erratic and under-
funded reality of their institutions. The traditional view sees the museum as part of a
great "knowledge-producing project of the British empire," a tool for control. Singh
argues, however, that the gap between intention and accomplishment was
significant, shaped by improvisation and local responses.

 Evolving Roles and New Horizons: The book Museums and Museology: New
Horizons, a felicitation volume for Dr. Grace Morley, points toward a more modern
definition. Dr. Morley's work in India heralded a new era where museums were
reoriented to Indian conditions and took on a greater role in education and
community service. This forward-looking perspective emphasizes the museum as a
dynamic space for dialogue and interaction, not just a static repository.

(ii) History of Museums in India: Colonial to Post-Independence

This section explores the institutionalization of archaeology and culture through museums in
India, from their colonial beginnings to their post-independence transformation. The history
is complex, moving from a colonial "knowledge-power nexus" to a more nuanced story of
competing interests, failed plans, and indigenous agency. The works of scholars like Tapati
Guha-Thakurta, Saloni Mathur, and Madhuparna Roychowdhury are central to
understanding this history.

The Colonial Period

 The First Museums (Pre-1857): Foundlings of the Empire

o The very first museum of Indian material was the India Museum in London,
created by the East India Company to house scientific samples, manuscripts,
and military loot sent back by its officers. This institution embodied the
colonial project of "taking away" knowledge from the colony to empower the
metropole.

o Museums on Indian soil were not, in fact, intentionally conceived by the

colonial power. The first major museums in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay
were started by private, amateur scholarly societies. For example, the Indian
Museum in Calcutta was begun by the Asiatic Society.

o The colonial government was often reluctant to support these institutions,

which they viewed as foundlings thrust upon them for care. Their early
collections were not encyclopedic but "varied and even hotchpotch,"
containing everything from botanical samples to ethnographic curiosities.

 The Raj Era (Post-1857): Economic Tools and Archaeological Repositories

o Economic Museums: Following the 1851 Great Exhibition, where Indian crafts
were lauded for their design, a more coherent museum policy emerged. This
policy was primarily economic. Museums were established to collect samples
of raw materials and manufactured goods to stimulate a global trade in Indian
products. As one official noted, the museum was to fulfill a new function as a
"trade museum, or to put it more simply, a sample room". Saloni Mathur's
work, India by Design, explores this link between colonial display, commercial
interest, and the categorization of Indian culture.

o Archaeological Museums: The collection of antiquities was initially a

secondary concern. Early archaeologists "saved" monuments by transporting
them from their sites to museums, believing the Indian people were "bound
to plunder them". A major shift occurred under Lord Curzon (1899-1905),
who championed the philosophy of in-situ preservation. He established the
site museum as a Curzonian innovation, ensuring that objects remained close
to their original context. Madhuparna Roychowdhury's Displaying India's
Heritage details this museum movement connected to archaeology.

 Museums of the Princely States: Emulation and Competition

o Princely states emulated Victorian models of progress by building their own

museums. However, these were not always "derivative institutions".

o The Jaipur Museum, for example, was so well-built and funded by "royal
generosity" that Rudyard Kipling described it as a "rebuke to all other
museums in India".
 o The Baroda Museum under Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gaekwad III went further.
His purchase of a world-class collection of European masterpieces was a
competitive political act, exposing the "half-heartedness" of colonial
progressivism and turning the tables by making "European culture a specimen
in an Indian-controlled museum".

The Post-Independence Era

 The National Museum: The founding of the National Museum in New Delhi
symbolizes the cultural life of the new nation. Yet, its history is rooted in colonialism.

o It was built on the exact spot planned for a colonial Imperial Museum.

o Its founding collection was assembled from objects loaned by museums and
private collectors across India for the 1947-48 "Exhibition of The Art of India
and Pakistan" at the Royal Academy in London.

o Upon the objects' return, Prime Minister Nehru recommended they be

retained to form a permanent national collection. This decision, however,
caused "anger and resentment" among the original lenders, many of whom
successfully fought to have their objects returned, leaving the new museum
to build its collection from scratch. Tapati Guha-Thakurta, in her work,
provides a detailed account of this transition and "The Demands of
Independence."

For the research-based project, the syllabus recommends texts like Shobhita Punja's works
on the Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad and the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu
Sangrhalay, Mumbai, which offer detailed institutional histories.

(iii) A Brief Introduction to New Museology

This section introduces a critical evolution in museological thought, moving away from
traditional, object-centric models. The key texts suggested are Peter Vergo's New Museology
and Shahida Munsuri's Museums, Museology and New Museology.

 Core Concept: The syllabus describes New Museology as a concept explaining how
"new museums became an agent of change in the Museum world". It critiques the
museum as a monolithic authority and re-imagines it as a space for dialogue,
community engagement, and social action, rather than simply a place for the
preservation of objects.

 Challenging Authority: New Museology questions the power dynamics inherent in

the museum—who gets to interpret objects and whose history is told. Kavita Singh's
description of the "jubilantly resistant, ineducable public" in colonial museums
provides a historical antecedent to this idea. These audiences ignored the intended
 colonial lessons and used the museum space for their own social needs,
demonstrating a "robust immunity" to the museum's disciplinary power.

 Focus on Audience and Community: The movement prioritizes the visitor experience
and the museum's role within its community. Dr. Grace Morley's pioneering work in
India aligns with these principles. She created a full-fledged department of
educational services at the National Museum and started "Museum Camps" to foster
dialogue among professionals, reflecting a more open and inclusive approach to
museology. This shift highlights the museum's role as an "effective center for
dissemination of knowledge and information, and space for dialogue and
interaction".

 The Museum as a Forum: New Museology advocates for the museum to be a forum
for discussing ideas, including contemporary and controversial ones, rather than a
temple showcasing undisputed treasures. This aligns with the learning outcome of
understanding "new museums" and their function.

Unit 2
This unit delves into the core operational functions that define a museum's daily activities
and its long-term sustainability. It meticulously explores the processes of collection
management, documentation, conservation, and exhibition. Furthermore, this unit provides
a comprehensive overview of the diverse typologies of museums, highlighting their unique
characteristics, purposes, and contributions to society. By studying the nature of the
collection and the exhibition methods, students shall be able to identify the various museum
types.

2.1. Various Functions of a Museum

Museums perform a range of interconnected functions that are indispensable for their
operation and for fulfilling their mission as custodians of cultural and natural heritage. These
functions ensure that heritage is properly managed, preserved, interpreted, and made
accessible to the public. A comprehensive understanding of these functions is essential for
anyone involved in museology, as they form the backbone of museum practice. David Dean
and Gary Edson's Handbook for Museums [cite: 3] serves as an excellent practical guide to
these operational aspects.

2.1.1. Collection

Collection is arguably the most fundamental function of any museum, forming the very
essence of its existence. It involves the systematic and deliberate acquisition of objects,
specimens, or artifacts that are relevant to the museum's stated mission and scope. This
process is not arbitrary but is rigorously governed by a well-defined collection policy, which
acts as a guiding document outlining the criteria for acquisition. These criteria typically
include the type of objects the museum seeks to acquire, their historical, cultural, scientific,
or artistic significance, their verifiable provenance (history of ownership), their physical
condition, and crucial ethical considerations. Acquisitions can occur through various
legitimate means, such as direct purchase, generous donation, formal bequest, strategic
field collection (e.g., archaeological excavations, ethnographic fieldwork, scientific
expeditions), or formal transfer from other institutions. Each newly acquired item undergoes
a meticulous accessioning process, where it is formally recorded into the museum's
permanent collection, assigned a unique and immutable identification number, and legally
transferred into the museum's ownership. Modern collection practices place paramount
importance on ethical considerations, such as diligently avoiding illicitly trafficked artifacts,
ensuring transparent and documented provenance, and guaranteeing respectful handling of
sensitive materials like human remains or sacred objects. The collection, once acquired and
accessioned, provides the raw material for all subsequent museum activities, including in-
depth research, compelling exhibitions, and impactful educational programs.

2.1.2. Documentation (Manual, Digital, and Photographic)

Effective and thorough documentation is absolutely crucial for the long-term management,
intellectual control, and accessibility of museum collections. It creates a comprehensive and
retrievable record of each object, providing essential information for research, provenance
tracking, conservation planning, and exhibition development. Without robust
documentation, a collection loses much of its interpretative and research value.

 Manual Documentation: Historically, documentation in museums relied entirely on

manual methods. This involved the meticulous recording of object details in physical
registers, card catalogues, and paper files. Each object's unique accession number, a
detailed description, precise dimensions, material composition, current condition,
acquisition date, and source were painstakingly written by hand. While labor-
intensive and susceptible to wear and tear, these manual records form the historical
backbone of many older museum collections and are often still maintained for their
archival value and as a primary source of information. The importance of accurate
record-keeping has been a consistent theme in museological literature, as highlighted
by various handbooks on museum practices.

 Digital Documentation: With the advent of information technology, digital

documentation has become the standard practice in contemporary museums.
Museums now extensively utilize specialized Collection Management Systems (CMS)
or sophisticated databases to record, manage, and retrieve collection data. These
systems allow for highly efficient data entry, rapid retrieval, complex searching
capabilities, and comprehensive reporting. Digital records can include not only
detailed textual descriptions but also multiple fields for categorization (e.g., period,
culture, artist), a complete conservation history, exhibition history, and crucial links
to related digital assets such as high-resolution images, audio files, and video clips.
 Digital documentation significantly enhances accessibility for researchers globally,
streamlines inventory management, facilitates data sharing for collaborative projects,
and forms the foundation for a museum's online presence and digital outreach.

 Photographic Documentation: Photographic documentation is an indispensable and

integral part of object records, providing visual evidence that complements textual
data. High-quality photographs are taken of each object from various angles,
meticulously capturing its overall appearance, intricate details, current condition
(including any existing damage or repairs), and any unique distinguishing features.
This often includes both general views and specific close-ups, and may involve
specialized photographic techniques like macro photography for tiny details or raking
light photography to highlight surface textures or subtle damage. Photographic
records serve as vital visual references for accurate identification, precise condition
assessment, informed conservation treatment planning, and compelling public
outreach through publications and online platforms. The efficiency of digital
photography has revolutionized this process, allowing for immediate review, easy
storage, and seamless integration into digital databases, making visual
documentation more accessible and comprehensive than ever before.

2.1.3. Preventive Conservation

Preventive conservation is a proactive and strategic approach aimed at minimizing

deterioration and damage to museum objects by meticulously controlling their environment
and ensuring safe handling practices. Unlike remedial conservation, which focuses on
treating existing damage, preventive conservation is centered on anticipating and preventing
damage from occurring in the first place. This function is absolutely critical for ensuring the
long-term survival and integrity of collections for future generations. O.P. Aggarwal's
Essentials of Conservation and Museology [cite: 1] and S.N. Nair's Bio-Deterioration of
Museum Materials [cite: 7] are key texts that underscore the scientific principles and
practical applications of this vital function. Key aspects of preventive conservation include:

 Environmental Control: Maintaining stable and appropriate environmental

conditions is paramount. This involves precise control over temperature, relative
humidity, light levels (with particular attention to minimizing harmful UV radiation),
and airborne pollutants (such as dust, gases, and particulate matter). Specialized
HVAC systems, dehumidifiers, humidifiers, and light filters are meticulously employed
in both storage and exhibition areas to create optimal conditions for different types
of materials. Fluctuations in these parameters can cause irreversible damage to
sensitive objects.

 Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Comprehensive strategies are implemented to

prevent and control pests, including insects, rodents, and fungi, which can cause
significant and often irreparable damage to organic materials like textiles, paper,
 wood, and natural history specimens. IPM involves regular monitoring (e.g., sticky
traps), good housekeeping practices, proper storage design, and the use of non-toxic
or minimally toxic pest control methods, prioritizing prevention over chemical
intervention.

 Safe Handling and Storage: Establishing and adhering to proper handling procedures,
including the mandatory use of appropriate gloves (cotton or nitrile) and secure
support during movement, is essential to prevent physical damage such as breakage,
abrasion, or loss of fragments. Storage solutions are designed to protect objects from
physical harm, using acid-free boxes, archival quality materials, custom-fabricated
mounts, and stable shelving systems. Storage areas are also designed to protect
objects from vibration, shock, and unauthorized access, often incorporating
earthquake-resistant measures in vulnerable regions.

 Emergency Preparedness: Developing, regularly updating, and implementing

comprehensive plans for emergencies such as fire, flood, natural disasters
(earthquakes, storms), or civil unrest is a vital part of preventive conservation. These
plans detail procedures for protecting collections during an event, safe evacuation,
and systematic recovery efforts, ensuring that collections can be protected and
salvaged even in catastrophic circumstances.

 Security: Safeguarding collections from theft, vandalism, and unauthorized access is

a critical aspect of preventive conservation. This involves implementing robust
security systems, including surveillance cameras, alarm systems, controlled access
points, and the deployment of trained security personnel. The aim is to create a
secure environment that deters criminal activity and protects invaluable cultural
heritage.

2.1.4. Exhibition

Exhibition is the primary and most visible means by which museums communicate with their
audiences and share their collections, research, and knowledge. It involves the intricate
planning, creative design, and careful installation of displays that interpret objects and
narratives in an engaging, educational, and accessible manner. The exhibition development
process is highly complex and multidisciplinary, requiring close collaboration among
curators, exhibition designers, educators, conservators, lighting specialists, and technical
staff. Dwivedi's Museums and Museology: New Horizons [cite: 4] touches upon the
importance of exhibition as a key function.

 Conceptualization and Planning: This initial stage involves defining the exhibition's
overarching theme, identifying the target audience, formulating key messages, and
establishing clear learning objectives. Curators play a central role in selecting objects
from the collection that best convey the chosen narrative and support the
interpretive goals. This phase often involves extensive research and scholarly input.
  Design and Layout: Exhibition designers are responsible for translating the
conceptual plan into a tangible physical space. This includes creating the layout of
the exhibition galleries, designing display cases, planning lighting schemes,
developing graphic elements (text panels, maps, illustrations), and incorporating
interactive elements. The design aims to create an immersive and aesthetically
pleasing visitor experience while simultaneously ensuring the optimal safety and
conservation of the displayed objects.

 Interpretation: Interpretive strategies are developed to explain the significance of

objects and narratives to a diverse audience. This can include concise text panels,
detailed labels, engaging audio guides, immersive multimedia presentations (videos,
animations), and interactive digital exhibits. The goal is to make complex content
understandable, relevant, and stimulating for visitors of all ages and backgrounds,
fostering deeper engagement and learning.

 Installation and Maintenance: Once the design is finalized, objects are carefully
installed within their designated displays, often requiring custom-fabricated mounts
to ensure stability and proper presentation. Lighting is meticulously adjusted to
highlight features while minimizing any potential light-induced damage to sensitive
materials. Exhibitions require ongoing maintenance, including regular cleaning,
continuous environmental monitoring within display cases, and vigilant security
checks to ensure the safety and integrity of the displayed artifacts.

 Accessibility and Inclusivity: Modern exhibition practices increasingly prioritize

accessibility for visitors with disabilities, ensuring that physical spaces, interpretive
materials, and interactive elements are usable by everyone. Furthermore, there is a
strong emphasis on inclusivity, aiming to present diverse cultural perspectives,
acknowledge multiple voices, and ensure that the museum experience is welcoming
and relevant to a broad spectrum of visitors from various cultural backgrounds.

2.2. Types of Museums

Museums are incredibly diverse institutions, reflecting the vast array of human interests,
cultural expressions, and scientific endeavors. They can be broadly categorized based on
their primary collection focus, their governance structure, their size, or their overarching
purpose. Understanding these typologies is crucial for appreciating the specialized roles,
unique contributions, and distinct operational models of different museum institutions
worldwide. Shahida Munsuri's Museums, Museology and New Museology [cite: 6] provides
insights into the evolving landscape of museum types.

2.2.1. Art Museums/Galleries

These museums primarily collect, preserve, and exhibit works of art, spanning various
historical periods, artistic styles, and diverse media (e.g., painting, sculpture, drawing,
printmaking, photography, decorative arts, contemporary installations). They often focus on
specific art historical periods (e.g., Renaissance art, Impressionism, modern art),
geographical regions (e.g., European art, Indian art, East Asian art), or particular artistic
movements. Prominent examples include the National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA) in
Delhi, the Louvre in Paris, or the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Their core
purpose is to foster aesthetic appreciation, promote art historical research and scholarship,
and provide a vital platform for artistic expression, cultural dialogue, and the critical
understanding of visual culture. They often host temporary exhibitions to showcase new
acquisitions, contemporary art, or thematic explorations.

2.2.2. Natural History Museums

Dedicated to the natural world, these museums collect, preserve, and display specimens and
artifacts related to biology (including zoology, botany, and paleontology), geology,
mineralogy, and sometimes anthropology. Their extensive collections often include fossils of
ancient life forms, taxidermied animals, preserved botanical samples, rock and mineral
specimens, and ethnographic artifacts related to human interaction with the natural
environment. They play a crucial role in scientific research, environmental education, and
raising public awareness about biodiversity, ecological conservation, and the planet's
geological history. The National Museum of Natural History in Delhi (though currently
undergoing reconstruction) and the American Museum of Natural History in New York are
classic examples. They serve as vital resources for understanding the Earth's past and
present ecosystems.

2.2.3. Science and Technology Museums

These museums focus on scientific principles, technological advancements, and their

profound impact on human society and daily life. They are characterized by their emphasis
on interactive exhibits that allow visitors, particularly children and young adults, to
experiment, explore, and learn through direct, hands-on engagement. Their aim is to
promote scientific literacy, stimulate curiosity, inspire innovation, and demonstrate the
practical applications and societal implications of science and technology. The National
Science Centre in Delhi and the Exploratorium in San Francisco are excellent examples, often
featuring planetariums, innovation labs, and displays on physics, chemistry, engineering, and
space exploration.

2.2.4. History and Archaeology Museums

These institutions are dedicated to preserving and interpreting artifacts, documents, and
other forms of evidence related to human history, spanning from prehistoric times to the
contemporary era. They often specialize in specific historical periods, civilizations, or
geographical areas. Archaeological museums, a significant sub-category, specifically focus on
objects recovered from archaeological excavations, providing invaluable insights into past
cultures, societies, and daily lives. The National Museum in Delhi and the Red Fort
Archaeological Museum are prominent examples in India. Globally, institutions like the
British Museum or the Egyptian Museum in Cairo fall into this category. They contribute
significantly to historical understanding, the preservation of cultural memory, and the
academic study of human development and societal evolution.

2.2.5. Ethnography/Anthropology Museums

These museums collect, preserve, and interpret objects related to human cultures, social
structures, customs, and ways of life from around the world. Their collections often include
tools, clothing, ceremonial objects, musical instruments, and everyday artifacts from various
communities, both historical and contemporary. They aim to promote cross-cultural
understanding, celebrate the richness of human cultural diversity, and often address
complex issues of cultural heritage, identity, and post-colonial narratives. The Sanskriti
Kendra in Delhi, with its focus on Indian crafts and traditions, aligns with this type, as do
major institutions like the Museum of Ethnology in Leiden. They serve as platforms for
dialogue about cultural differences and similarities, fostering empathy and respect.

2.2.6. Specialized Museums

Beyond the broad disciplinary categories, there are numerous specialized museums that
focus on very specific themes, subjects, or types of collections. These institutions cater to
niche interests and offer in-depth knowledge on particular aspects of human achievement,
history, or culture. Examples include:

 Children's Museums: Designed specifically for children, with interactive, play-based

exhibits that encourage learning and exploration in a fun and engaging environment.

 Maritime Museums: Dedicated to the history of seafaring, shipbuilding, navigation,

naval warfare, and marine life.

 Textile Museums: Focusing on the history, artistry, and technology of textiles,

weaving, and fashion from different cultures and periods.

 Railway Museums: Preserving the history of railways, locomotives, and their impact
on industrial and social development.

 Craft Museums: Showcasing traditional crafts, artisanal skills, and folk art, often
emphasizing the cultural significance and techniques of creation, like the National
Craft Museum and Hastkala Academy in Delhi.

 Biographical Museums: Dedicated to the life, work, and legacy of a famous

individual, often housed in their former residences, such as the Gandhi Smriti
Museum in Delhi.

 Unique Concept Museums: These are highly specialized museums that explore
unconventional or very specific themes, offering unique perspectives on everyday
objects or abstract concepts. A notable example in India is the Sulabh International
 Museum of Toilets in Delhi, which offers a historical and sociological perspective on
sanitation.

These specialized museums, while focused, contribute significantly to the preservation of

specific aspects of human achievement and culture, enriching the broader museum
landscape and catering to diverse public interests.

Unit 2
The Functions of a Museum

 The functions of a museum are the pillars that support its role as a center for
preservation and the dissemination of knowledge. These processes are interconnected,
ensuring that the cultural and historical heritage embodied in objects is cared for,
understood, and made accessible. The suggested readings for this unit, such as O. P.
Aggarwal's Essentials of Conservation and Museology and David Dean's Handbook
for Museums, provide the comprehensive framework for these professional practices.
 The first and most fundamental function is collection. A museum’s collection policy
dictates its identity and scope. Historically, collection practices in India have been
deeply tied to political and economic ideologies. In the early colonial period,
collections were often "hotchpotch," amassed by scholarly societies with wide-
ranging interests. During the Raj, this gave way to a more systematic approach, with a
focus on creating an inventory of India's economic potential. Economic and Industrial
museums collected samples of raw materials and crafts, not for their aesthetic value
alone, but to "serve as an illustrated record of the accumulated knowledge of India"
for the purpose of trade and industry. Simultaneously, archaeologists were amassing
vast collections of antiquities by transporting them from excavation sites to central
museums, an act they justified as "saving" the objects from the local populace. This
history shows that collection is not a neutral act but is shaped by the intentions and
biases of the collectors, whether it be the commercial ambitions of the Raj, the
competitive cultural politics of the Baroda princely state collecting European art, or
the nation-building project that controversially formed the National Museum’s
founding collection.
 Once an object enters a museum, documentation becomes paramount. This function,
which the syllabus specifies includes manual, digital, and photographic methods, is
the scholarly backbone of museum work. The book Museums and Museology: New
Horizons dedicates a full section to Administration and Documentation, stressing that
it is as important as gallery work. Proper documentation involves recording every
detail of an object—its origin, material, dimensions, condition, and history—in a
permanent ledger or database. Photography plays a critical technical role in this
process. The Dwivedi book's list of illustrations provides specific examples of
professional photographic documentation, noting technical details and best practices
for avoiding glare and reflections, thereby creating an accurate visual record for
research and management. This meticulous record-keeping is essential for all
subsequent functions, including conservation, research, and exhibition.
 Preventive conservation is the scientific and ethical responsibility of a museum to
ensure the long-term survival of its collection. This function involves all measures
taken to prevent damage and minimize deterioration. The syllabus and the suggested
readings, such as S. N. Nair’s Bio-Deterioration of Museum Materials, highlight the
specialized knowledge required in this field. The work of Dr. Grace Morley in India
provides a powerful example of the deep commitment required for conservation. Her
colleagues recall her devotion to minute details, such as teaching the proper, gentle
technique for handling a fragile manuscript to avoid damage or how to safely
transport objects within the museum by wrapping them in tissue paper and using
padded trolleys. This function extends to managing the museum environment,
including light, humidity, and pest control, and ensuring proper storage solutions,
such as the methodical reorganization of the Central Asian Antiquities collection that
Dr. Morley initiated.
 Finally, exhibition is the most visible function of a museum, where it communicates
its research and collections to the public. It is through exhibition techniques that a
museum tells stories, provokes thought, and creates a space for dialogue. Dr. Morley's
greatest influence in India was arguably in this field; she introduced modern,
audience-focused display methods that were both aesthetically pleasing and relevant
to the Indian context. For instance, her use of inexpensive, locally sourced materials
like hessian cloth for backgrounds was a revolutionary and widely adopted technique
that put Indian museums on an international footing. A successful exhibition is not
merely a dense arrangement of objects but a carefully curated environment. As Kavita
Singh discusses, the colonial-era Economic museums would juxtapose raw ore with a
finished necklace to create a narrative about industry and resources. The ultimate goal
is to engage the visitor, though as Singh critically notes, the audience is not a passive
recipient. The "jubilantly resistant" public in colonial museums, who used the space
for their own social enjoyment rather than colonial education, demonstrates that the
meaning of an exhibition is ultimately co-created with its viewers.

(ii) Types of Museums

 The diversity of museums in India is vast, and their typology is largely determined by
the nature of their collections and their stated purpose. The syllabus requires students
to undertake practical visits to a range of institutions to understand this diversity
firsthand, from national institutions to highly specialized ones.
 Museums can be broadly categorized based on their subject matter. Archaeological
Museums are among the oldest in India, housing antiquities from ancient
civilizations. These range from large, encyclopedic institutions like the Indian
Museum to the Site Museums established by Lord Curzon at locations like Sarnath
and Sanchi, which were designed to keep artifacts in their original context. Art
Museums, or art galleries, focus on fine and decorative arts. The National Gallery of
Modern Art is a premier example, while the Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery
stands out for its unique collection of European masterpieces. In contrast, Crafts
Museums, such as the National Craft Museum and Hastkala Academy, are
dedicated to preserving and showcasing folk traditions and the skills of artisans.
 Other major categories include Science Museums like the National Science Centre,
which focus on interactive displays of science and technology, and Natural History
Museums, which are concerned with the natural world. There are also highly
specialized institutions that reflect the broad scope of modern museology. These
include Personalia Museums dedicated to a single individual, such as the Gandhi
 Smriti Museum, and unique Thematic Museums like the Rail Transport Museum
or the Delhi Sulabh International Museum of Toilets, which prove that any aspect
of human history and culture can be the subject of a museum. Finally, there are
overarching institutions like the National Museum, which have a broad mandate to
represent the history and cultural achievements of the entire nation, from prehistory to
the modern day.

Questions

Here are the detailed answers to your questions, keeping in mind the Delhi University SEC
syllabus for "Museum and Museology" and aiming for the requested word count.

Question 1: Critically analyse the development of the different phases of museums

during the colonial period.

The development of museums in India during the colonial period (roughly late 18th century
to 1947) was a complex phenomenon, deeply intertwined with the political, intellectual, and
economic imperatives of British rule. It was not a monolithic process but evolved through
distinct phases, each characterized by different motivations, types of collections, and
institutional structures. While these museums laid the groundwork for future institutions and
preserved much of India's heritage, their establishment and functioning were also fraught
with colonial biases, reflecting a power dynamic that often prioritized imperial interests over
indigenous perspectives.

Phase 1: The Age of "Cabinets of Curiosities" and Early Scholarly Initiatives (Late 18th
- Mid 19th Century)

This initial phase was largely driven by the curiosity of individual European officials,
scholars, and traders, alongside the burgeoning interest of learned societies in understanding
the vast, "exotic" subcontinent.

 Genesis with the Asiatic Society: The foundation of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in
Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1784 by Sir William Jones marked a pivotal moment. The
Society aimed to study the history, antiquities, arts, sciences, and literature of Asia. Its
members, primarily European orientalists and colonial administrators, began
accumulating a diverse range of objects – archaeological artefacts, zoological and
botanical specimens, geological samples, ethnographical items, and manuscripts. This
collection, initially housed informally, grew significantly, leading to the proposal for a
dedicated museum.
 The First Museum – The Indian Museum (1814): The Asiatic Society Museum,
established in 1814 in Calcutta, is considered the first modern museum in India and
one of the oldest in the Asia-Pacific region. Its initial purpose was to serve as a
repository for the Society's collections and to facilitate research. The collections were
eclectic, reflecting the broad intellectual pursuits of the Society. Dr. Nathaniel
Wallich, a Danish botanist, was appointed as its first superintendent. The museum's
 early focus was on natural history and antiquities, driven by a desire to catalogue and
understand the resources and history of the colonized land. This cataloguing impulse
was characteristic of the colonial project, seeking to order and thereby control the
unfamiliar.
 Emergence of Other Early Museums: Following Calcutta's lead, other small
museums began to appear, often linked to literary societies or government initiatives.
For instance, the Madras Literary Society (established 1812) played a role in founding
the Government Central Museum in Madras (now Chennai) in 1851, initially focused
on economic geology. Other early provincial museums included those in Bombay
(now Mumbai) and Trivandrum.
 Motivations and Characteristics:
o Scholarly Curiosity and Orientalism: There was a genuine, albeit often
paternalistic, interest among some Europeans in India's ancient past,
languages, and natural wealth. This was the era of early Indology.
o Economic Exploitation: Collections of raw materials, agricultural products,
and crafts (economic geology, botany, etc.) were also important, as they
provided information valuable for trade and resource extraction by the East
India Company and later the British Crown.
o Imperial Assertion: The very act of collecting, classifying, and displaying
Indian objects in a European-style institution was a subtle assertion of colonial
power and intellectual superiority. The narrative was controlled by the
colonizers.
o Limited Public Access: These early museums were primarily for scholars and
administrators, with limited access for the general Indian public. The concept
of a museum as a public educational institution was yet to fully develop.

Critical Analysis of Phase 1: The early museums, while preserving some artefacts, were
largely "cabinets of curiosities" from an Indian perspective, where objects were often
decontextualized and reinterpreted through a Western lens. The selection of objects, their
classification, and display methods reflected European scientific and aesthetic paradigms.
There was little to no involvement of Indian scholars or communities in the conceptualization
or management of these institutions in the very early years. The narrative presented was
predominantly colonial, focusing on aspects of India that were of interest or utility to the
British.

Phase 2: Imperial Consolidation and the Rise of Provincial and Specialized Museums
(Mid 19th - Late 19th Century)

Following the Indian Mutiny of 1857 and the transfer of power from the East India Company
to the British Crown in 1858, the colonial administration became more systematic. This phase
saw a more organized approach to museum development, often linked to imperial displays
and the administrative machinery.

 Influence of the Great Exhibition (1851): The Great Exhibition in London had a
profound impact, showcasing industrial products and "curiosities" from across the
Empire, including India. This spurred the idea of permanent exhibitions and museums
as tools for trade, education, and imperial prestige.
 Establishment of Provincial Museums: The Crown administration encouraged the
establishment of provincial museums in major administrative centers like Lahore
(1864), Lucknow (1863), Nagpur (1863), Mathura (1874, focused on local
 archaeological finds), Jaipur (Albert Hall Museum, 1887, initiated by the local
Maharaja but heavily influenced by British officials like Thomas Holbein Hendley),
and others. These museums often had a mix of archaeological artefacts, natural
history specimens, and local crafts.
 Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and its Influence: The formal establishment
of the ASI in 1861 under Alexander Cunningham gave a significant impetus to
archaeological exploration and collection. Though site museums came later, the
antiquities unearthed by the ASI often found their way into existing or newly
established museums, strengthening their archaeological collections.
 Focus on Art, Craft, and Industry: There was an increased interest in Indian arts
and crafts, partly driven by the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain and partly by the
desire to find new markets and designs for British industries or to "improve" Indian
crafts for export. Museums like the Albert Hall Museum in Jaipur, with its emphasis
on local crafts, exemplify this trend. Industrial and art schools were often associated
with these museums.
 Imperial Grandeur and Public Instruction (Colonial Version): Museums became
symbols of imperial stability and enlightenment. They were seen as tools for
"educating" the Indian populace, albeit with a curriculum that reinforced colonial
hierarchies and narratives. Queen Victoria's Proclamation and the subsequent efforts
to project a benevolent image of British rule found expression in these cultural
institutions.
 Victoria Memorial Hall (Conceptualized late 19th/early 20th Century): Though
completed later, the Victoria Memorial Hall in Calcutta, conceived by Lord Curzon,
stands as a prime example of a museum built to explicitly glorify the British Empire
in India.

Critical Analysis of Phase 2: While museum development became more organized, it was
still largely a top-down process dictated by colonial administrators and experts. The
classification systems (e.g., the Linnaean system for natural history, typological arrangements
for crafts) were imported. The "civilizing mission" often underpinning these institutions
meant that Indian culture was presented as something ancient and static, or in need of
"improvement" through Western intervention. Indian agency in interpreting their own
heritage within these spaces remained minimal. The emphasis on economic products and
crafts, while documenting important traditions, was also tied to colonial economic interests.
The grandeur of museum buildings often aimed to impress and assert imperial dominance.

Phase 3: Curzonian Reforms, Archaeological Focus, and the Rise of Site Museums
(Early 20th Century - 1947)

This period was significantly shaped by Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India (1899-1905), who
took a keen personal interest in preserving India's archaeological heritage.

 Curzon’s Antiquarianism and Legislative Measures: Curzon was instrumental in

the enactment of the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904, which provided
for the protection of historical monuments and antiquities. He also revitalized the
Archaeological Survey of India, appointing John Marshall as its Director-General in
1902.
 Development of Site Museums: A key development under Marshall was the
establishment of site museums. The philosophy was to keep excavated antiquities as
close as possible to their original context, allowing for better understanding and
 appreciation. Notable site museums were established at Sarnath (1904), Agra (1906),
Chamba (1908), Delhi Fort (1909), Bijapur (1912), Nalanda (1917), and Sanchi
(1919), among others. These were primarily archaeological museums.
 Systematic Exploration and Collection: The ASI under Marshall undertook
extensive excavations at major historical sites like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Taxila,
Sanchi, and Sarnath. The vast quantities of artefacts recovered significantly enriched
museum collections across India, including the central Imperial Museum (Indian
Museum) and provincial museums.
 Growing Professionalism (Albeit Colonial): There was a move towards more
systematic cataloguing, conservation, and display techniques, influenced by
developments in museology in Europe. However, the interpretation remained largely
within the colonial framework, emphasizing historical narratives that often
legitimized British rule (e.g., by highlighting periods of pre-British disunity or
decline).
 Indian Participation and Nationalist Stirrings: As the nationalist movement gained
momentum, there was a growing awareness among Indians about their cultural
heritage and the need to reclaim its narrative. While direct control of major museums
remained with the British or British-influenced princely states, Indian scholars and
public figures began to engage more actively with the discourse around heritage and
its representation. Some princely states also established their own museums,
sometimes with a greater, though not entirely independent, local perspective.
 Museums as Repositories for "Salvage" Ethnography: Ethnographic collections
continued to grow, often driven by the anthropological theories of the time, which
viewed certain indigenous cultures as "disappearing." This "salvage" paradigm, while
preserving some material culture, was rooted in colonial power structures and often
resulted in the misrepresentation or stereotyping of communities.

Critical Analysis of Phase 3: Curzon's initiatives were undoubtedly significant in preserving

a vast amount of India's archaeological heritage that might otherwise have been lost or
illicitly exported. The establishment of site museums was a progressive step in museological
practice. However, the overarching narrative and control remained colonial. Archaeological
interpretations often focused on timelines and typologies that fit Western historical
frameworks, sometimes downplaying indigenous contributions or alternative interpretations.
The Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, while protective, also gave the colonial state
immense power over India's heritage. The process of excavation and collection, though more
systematic, was still an act of appropriation by the colonial power, with artefacts often seen
as imperial trophies or subjects of European scholarly investigation rather than as living
heritage of the Indian people. The larger share of prestigious finds, like many from the Indus
Valley Civilization, were initially held by the ASI or sent to British museums, reinforcing the
idea of colonial ownership of heritage.

Overarching Colonial Imprint:

Throughout these phases, several critical aspects of colonial influence remained:

1. Epistemological Framework: The very definition of what constituted a "museum,"

what was worthy of collection, how it should be classified, and how it should be
displayed was based on Western models. This often led to the decontextualization of
objects from their original cultural, ritual, or functional settings.
 2. Power Dynamics: Museums were instruments of colonial governance, reinforcing the
image of the British as preservers and interpreters of Indian culture, while
simultaneously asserting their authority. The colonized were primarily objects of
study rather than active participants in the narration of their own history.
3. Selective Representation: Colonial museums often emphasized India's ancient past
(sometimes to contrast it with a perceived "decadent" present) or its exotic and
marketable crafts, while contemporary Indian life and intellectual achievements
(especially those challenging colonial rule) were largely ignored or downplayed.
4. Extraction and Decontextualization: Many valuable artefacts were removed from
India to museums in Britain and other Western countries, a practice that began in this
era and whose legacy continues to be debated. Even within India, objects were
removed from their local contexts to centralized colonial museums.
5. Limited Accessibility and Elitism: Despite some rhetoric about public instruction,
museums often remained elite spaces, more accessible and welcoming to Europeans
and the Westernized Indian elite than to the masses.

In conclusion, the development of museums during the colonial period in India was a double-
edged sword. It led to the establishment of institutions that preserved significant aspects of
India's tangible heritage and laid the foundation for the modern museum network. However,
this development was inextricably linked to the colonial project, serving its administrative,
economic, and ideological aims. The narratives produced, the collections prioritized, and the
modes of operation were largely defined by the colonizers, often marginalizing indigenous
knowledge systems and perspectives. A critical understanding of this period is essential for
contemporary Indian museology as it seeks to decolonize its practices and narratives, making
museums more representative and inclusive spaces for all Indians. The DU syllabus rightly
emphasizes this historical trajectory as foundational to understanding the current state and
future direction of museums in India.

Question 2: Examine the relationship between archaeology and museum in the period of
your study.

The relationship between archaeology and museums is symbiotic and foundational,

particularly evident when examining their intertwined development from the colonial era
through to contemporary times in India, a period typically covered in a Museum and
Museology course. Archaeology, as the discipline that systematically unearths and interprets
the material remains of past human life and activities, provides the very substance for a
significant segment of museum collections. Museums, in turn, serve as the primary
repositories, research centers, and public interfaces for archaeological discoveries. This
relationship has evolved, reflecting changes in theoretical approaches, national identities, and
the perceived role of heritage in society.

The "Period of Your Study": A Broad Interpretation

For a Skill Enhancement Course in Museum and Museology, the "period of your study"
likely encompasses:

1. The Colonial Genesis: The birth and early development of both archaeology and
museums in India under British rule.
2. Post-Independence Nation-Building: The role of archaeology and museums in
forging a national identity and reclaiming heritage.
 3. Contemporary Developments and Challenges: Modern archaeological practices,
new museological thinking, and the evolving functions of museums in the 21st
century.

I. The Colonial Genesis: Archaeology Fuelling Museum Collections (Late 18th - Mid
20th Century)

During the colonial period in India, the relationship between archaeology and museums was
largely one of archaeology feeding the museum.

 Early Discoveries and the Asiatic Society: As discussed previously, the Asiatic
Society of Bengal (founded 1784) was a hotbed for antiquarian pursuits. Members
collected sculptures, coins, inscriptions, and other artefacts encountered during
surveys or administrative duties. The establishment of the Asiatic Society Museum
(later the Indian Museum, Calcutta, 1814) was a direct consequence of the need to
house these rapidly accumulating archaeological finds alongside natural history
specimens. Archaeology provided the "curiosities" and evidence of India's ancient
past that fascinated colonial scholars.
 Systematic Exploration and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI):
o The formal establishment of the ASI in 1861 under Alexander Cunningham
marked a significant intensification of archaeological activity. Cunningham's
extensive tours and excavations led to the discovery and collection of a vast
number of artefacts. These objects became the nucleus for many provincial
museums (e.g., Lahore, Mathura) or were sent to the Indian Museum.
o The primary aim of colonial archaeology was often survey, excavation, and
collection, with museums serving as the designated endpoints for these
objects. The focus was on building a corpus of material evidence, often to
reconstruct dynastic histories or understand ancient trade routes, which were
of interest to the imperial administration.
 Site Museums – A Closer Link: The early 20th century, particularly under John
Marshall (Director-General of ASI from 1902), saw the pioneering development of
site museums (e.g., Sarnath, Nalanda, Sanchi, Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Taxila). This
was a crucial evolution in the archaeology-museum relationship:
o Contextual Preservation: The explicit aim was to keep movable antiquities
in close proximity to the sites from which they were excavated. This
recognized the importance of context for understanding archaeological finds.
The museum became an extension of the archaeological site itself.
o Research and Study: Site museums facilitated on-location research for
archaeologists and scholars.
o Early Public Engagement at Sites: They also provided a basic interpretive
experience for visitors to these ancient centers.
 Museums as Centers for Classification and Display of Archaeological Material:
Colonial-era museums adopted Western systems of classification (e.g., by material,
dynasty, or supposed artistic style) for archaeological artefacts. Display methods,
often dense and typological, reflected the scientific and ordering impulses of the time.
The narrative, however, was largely controlled by colonial archaeologists and
curators, fitting Indian history into frameworks that often served imperial interests
(e.g., highlighting ancient achievements to contrast with a perceived later decline, or
emphasizing external influences).
  Archaeology for Imperial Knowledge and Control: The knowledge generated
through archaeology and showcased in museums contributed to the colonial project of
understanding and thereby governing the subcontinent. Mapping ancient sites,
understanding historical trajectories, and even collecting data on resources were all
valuable to the empire.

Critical Perspective on the Colonial Relationship: The relationship was hierarchical.

Archaeology was the active "discoverer," and museums were often passive recipients or
showcases managed by the same colonial scholarly elite. While instrumental in preserving
artefacts, this system also led to the decontextualization of many objects moved to distant
museums, and the interpretation was almost exclusively through a Western, colonial lens.
The "period of your study" in a critical museology course would emphasize how
archaeological finds were used to construct particular narratives about India's past that suited
colonial ideologies.

II. Post-Independence Era: Archaeology, Museums, and Nation-Building (Mid 20th -

Late 20th Century)

After India's independence in 1947, both archaeology and museums took on new roles,
heavily influenced by the project of nation-building and the need to establish a distinct
national cultural identity.

 Archaeology as a Source of National Pride: Archaeological discoveries, especially

those from the Indus Valley Civilization and other early periods, were emphasized to
showcase the antiquity and achievements of Indian civilization, countering colonial
narratives of India lacking a glorious, indigenous past. The ASI continued its work
with a renewed national focus.
 Museums as Temples of Modern India: Museums, particularly the newly
established National Museum in New Delhi (1949), were envisioned as institutions
that would narrate the story of India to its citizens and the world. Archaeological
artefacts formed the backbone of these narratives, tracing a continuous civilizational
history.
o The National Museum: Its collections heavily rely on archaeological finds
from the Harappan galleries to Mauryan, Sunga, Kushana, Gupta, and
medieval sculptures. These are presented to instil a sense of shared heritage
and national pride.
 Continuity and Expansion of Site Museums: The ASI expanded its network of site
museums, further strengthening the link between excavated sites and their
interpretation. This continued the tradition of keeping artefacts close to their origin.
 University Departments and Research: The growth of archaeology departments in
Indian universities led to more diverse research and excavations. These institutions
often developed their own departmental museums or contributed to state and local
museums, broadening the base of archaeological collection and interpretation beyond
the ASI.
 Legislative Frameworks: The Indian government enacted laws like The Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (1958) and The Antiquities
and Art Treasures Act (1972) to protect and regulate archaeological heritage and the
movement of artefacts, impacting how museums acquire and manage archaeological
collections.
  Shift in Narrative (Attempted): While still influenced by earlier frameworks, there
was a conscious effort to interpret archaeological finds from an Indian perspective,
highlighting indigenous developments and contributions. However, the colonial-era
institutional structures and some interpretive biases often proved resilient.

Critical Perspective on the Post-Independence Relationship: The archaeology-museum

link remained strong, now serving nationalist goals. Museums became crucial in
disseminating a particular vision of India's past. However, challenges included:

 Resource Constraints: Many museums struggled with funding for proper storage,
conservation, and modern display of archaeological collections.
 Over-reliance on "Masterpieces": The narrative often focused on elite artefacts or
"golden ages," sometimes neglecting the archaeology of everyday life or marginalized
communities.
 Slow Adoption of New Museological Ideas: Traditional, didactic modes of display
often persisted, with limited community engagement or multi-vocality in interpreting
archaeological heritage.

III. Contemporary Developments and Challenges (Late 20th Century - Present)

The relationship between archaeology and museums is currently being reshaped by new
theoretical trends in both fields, technological advancements, and a growing emphasis on
community engagement.

 New Archaeology and Post-Processual Archaeology's Influence:

o Archaeology itself has moved beyond mere artefact collection and dynastic
histories. Processual archaeology emphasized scientific methods and
understanding cultural processes, while post-processual archaeology stressed
the importance of interpretation, context, multivocality, and the social
construction of the past.
o These shifts mean that museums are now expected to engage with more
complex archaeological narratives – not just displaying objects but explaining
how archaeologists arrive at their interpretations, discussing debates within the
field, and acknowledging the subjective elements of historical reconstruction.
 The Rise of "New Museology":
o This movement critiques the traditional museum as an elite, authoritative
institution. It calls for museums to be more community-oriented, inclusive,
and dialogic.
o In relation to archaeological collections, this means:
 Community Archaeology and Collaborative Curation: Involving
local communities (including descendant communities where relevant)
in the interpretation and display of archaeological heritage that pertains
to them.
 Addressing Difficult Heritage: Tackling controversial aspects of the
past revealed by archaeology, including histories of conflict or social
inequality.
 Ethical Considerations: Debates around the repatriation of artefacts
(both internationally and within India to source communities), the
display of human remains, and the ownership of cultural heritage have
become prominent.
  Technological Advancements:
o Digital Archaeology: GIS, remote sensing, 3D modeling of sites and artefacts
are transforming archaeological practice.
o Museums and Technology: Virtual reconstructions of archaeological sites,
interactive displays, digital archives of collections, and online exhibitions are
making archaeological heritage more accessible and engaging. This allows
museums to present archaeological information in dynamic ways beyond static
displays of objects.
 Archaeology Beyond Excavation: Modern archaeology involves more non-invasive
techniques, landscape archaeology, and heritage management. Museums are
increasingly involved in interpreting not just excavated objects but entire
archaeological landscapes and the importance of their conservation.
 Challenges:
o Illicit Trafficking: The ongoing threat of looting of archaeological sites and
illicit trafficking of antiquities poses a major challenge, and museums are on
the frontline of ensuring ethical acquisition and sometimes aiding in
repatriation.
o Developmental Pressures: Archaeological sites and potential discoveries are
often threatened by urban expansion and infrastructure projects. Museums can
play a role in advocacy and public awareness for site preservation.
o Integrating Scientific Data: Museums need to find effective ways to
communicate complex scientific data from archaeometry (dating techniques,
material analysis) to the public.
o De-colonizing Interpretation: A continuing challenge is to critically re-
examine colonial-era interpretations of archaeological material and to develop
more nuanced, inclusive, and decolonized narratives. The DU syllabus
emphasis on "New Museology" directly feeds into this.

The Indispensable Link:

In summary, the relationship between archaeology and museums, from the colonial period to
the present, is fundamental and evolving. Archaeology provides the raw material evidence of
the past, while museums provide the spaces for its preservation, research, interpretation, and
public dissemination.

 Archaeology's Contribution to Museums: Supplies primary evidence of human

history, forms core collections, drives research, and offers narratives of origin and
development.
 Museum's Contribution to Archaeology: Preserves and conserves fragile artefacts,
provides long-term storage and research facilities, makes findings accessible to the
public and other researchers, educates the public about archaeological methods and
discoveries, and advocates for heritage preservation.

The "period of your study" reveals a transition from a colonial model where archaeology
served imperial knowledge systems and museums were its showcases, to a post-colonial
phase where both were harnessed for nation-building, and finally to a contemporary scenario
where this relationship is being re-negotiated under the influence of critical archaeological
theories and new museological paradigms that emphasize ethics, community, and
multivocality. For students of Museology, understanding this dynamic and often contested
relationship is crucial for appreciating how knowledge about the past is constructed and
presented, and for shaping the future role of museums in engaging with archaeological
heritage.

Question 3: Describe the collection and history of any National Museum.

For this question, I will focus on the National Museum, New Delhi, as it is a premier
institution in India, explicitly mentioned in the DU SEC syllabus (Source 1.2) for a research-
based project and museum visit, and detailed information is available from sources like the
Ministry of Culture and the museum's own website (Sources 4.1, 4.2).

The National Museum, New Delhi: A Repository of Indian and Global Heritage

The National Museum in New Delhi stands as India's preeminent museum, a custodian of the
nation's diverse and extensive cultural heritage, spanning over five millennia. Its
establishment in the post-independence era was a landmark event, symbolizing the young
nation's commitment to preserving, celebrating, and understanding its rich past. The
museum's vast and varied collections, coupled with its evolving history, reflect India's
journey and its engagement with its own identity and the wider world.

History of the National Museum, New Delhi

The genesis of the National Museum is linked to a significant international exhibition and a
nascent desire for a central institution to house India's artistic and cultural treasures.

1. The Gwyer Committee and the London Exhibition (1946-1948):

o The blueprint for establishing a National Museum in Delhi was first prepared
by the Maurice Gwyer Committee in May 1946. Sir Maurice Gwyer, then
Chief Justice of India and Vice-Chancellor of Delhi University, envisioned an
institution that would showcase the breadth of Indian art and culture.
o A crucial catalyst was an exhibition of Indian art and antiquities, comprising
selected artefacts from various museums across India, organized by the Royal
Academy in London with the cooperation of the Governments of India and
Britain. This exhibition, held at Burlington House, London, during the winter
months of 1947-48, was a tremendous success, showcasing Indian heritage on
an international stage during a pivotal moment of transition.
2. The Rashtrapati Bhavan Exhibition and Inauguration (1949):
o Following its London showing, it was decided to display the same magnificent
collection in Delhi before the exhibits were returned to their respective lending
museums. This exhibition was organized in the staterooms of the Rashtrapati
Bhavan (the President's official residence) in New Delhi in 1949.
o The overwhelming public and critical acclaim for this exhibition solidified the
idea that this collection should form the nucleus of a permanent National
Museum. Many participating state governments, museum authorities, and
private donors generously agreed to gift or provide long-term loans of their
artefacts for this purpose.
o Consequently, the National Museum, New Delhi, was formally inaugurated
in the Rashtrapati Bhavan on August 15, 1949, by Shri C.
Rajagopalachari, the then Governor-General of India. This date, coinciding
with India's Independence Day, was highly symbolic.
3. Planning and Construction of the Present Building (1955-1960 onwards):
 o
The collection soon outgrew the space available in the Rashtrapati Bhavan. A
dedicated, modern museum building was planned at its current location on
Janpath, a prominent avenue in New Delhi.
o The foundation stone for the new building was laid by Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, on May 12, 1955. Nehru envisioned
the museum not just as a storehouse of antiquities but as an active center for
education and cultural enlightenment.
o The first phase of the impressive new museum building was formally
inaugurated by Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the then Vice-President of India,
on December 18, 1960.
o The museum continued to expand, with a second phase of the building
completed in 1989, adding more gallery space and facilities.
4. Administrative Control and Development:
o Initially, the National Museum was looked after by the Director-General of
Archaeology.
o In 1957, the Ministry of Education, Government of India, declared it a
separate institution and placed it under its own direct control, highlighting its
growing importance as a national cultural entity.
o Currently, the National Museum is under the administrative control of the
Ministry of Culture, Government of India. It functions as a subordinate office
under the ministry.

The Collections of the National Museum, New Delhi

The National Museum boasts an extraordinary collection of approximately 2,00,000 objects,

both Indian and foreign, covering a vast expanse of time—more than five thousand years of
Indian cultural heritage, along with significant international artefacts. The collections are
diverse, encompassing archaeology, anthropology, decorative arts, paintings, manuscripts,
arms and armour, and more.

Key Departments and Collections:

1. Pre-Historic Archaeology:
o This department houses artefacts from the Stone Age (Palaeolithic, Mesolithic,
Neolithic) and Chalcolithic periods in India. Tools, pottery, and skeletal
remains offer insights into early human life, technological advancements, and
settlement patterns on the subcontinent.
2. Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley Civilization):
o The National Museum holds arguably the world's most representative
collection of antiquities from the Harappan Civilization (circa 2600-1900
BCE), with over 3,500 objects on permanent loan from the Archaeological
Survey of India (ASI).
o These include iconic items from major sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro,
Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi.
o Key exhibits include:
 The famous bronze "Dancing Girl" from Mohenjo-daro, a
masterpiece of lost-wax casting.
 The red sandstone torso of a male figure from Harappa, showcasing
remarkable naturalism.
  Numerous steatite seals with intricate carvings of animals (unicorn,
bull, elephant) and pictographic script (yet to be definitively
deciphered).
 Painted pottery, terracotta figurines (Mother Goddess, toy animals,
carts), jewellery (beads, bangles), bronze tools, and standardized
weights and measures, all indicative of a highly sophisticated urban
civilization.
3. Archaeology (Post-Harappan to Early Medieval):
o This vast collection traces the historical trajectory of India from the post-
Harappan period through various dynasties.
o It includes:
 Artefacts from the Gangetic Chalcolithic cultures and the Iron Age.
 Sculptures and architectural fragments from the Mauryan period (e.g.,
pillar capitals, ring stones).
 Rich collections from the Sunga, Kushana (Gandhara and Mathura
schools of art – showcasing exquisite Buddha and Bodhisattva
images), and Satavahana periods.
 Masterpieces from the Gupta period, often considered the "classical
age" of Indian art, known for its serene and spiritually imbued
sculptures (e.g., standing Buddhas, Vishnu images).
 Sculptures and bronzes from various early medieval and medieval
dynasties like the Pallavas, Cholas (renowned for their Nataraja
bronzes), Palas, Pratiharas, Chandellas, etc., representing diverse
regional styles.
4. Manuscripts:
o The museum possesses a rich collection of over 14,000 manuscripts, including
about 1,000 illustrated ones, spanning a period of 1400 years (7th to 20th
centuries).
o These are written on various materials like palm leaf, birch bark, paper, cloth,
and metal, in languages such as Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Apabhramsha, Persian,
Arabic, and various regional Indian languages.
o They cover a wide array of subjects: religious texts (Vedas, Upanishads,
Puranas, Buddhist and Jain scriptures), philosophical treatises, literary works,
scientific texts (astronomy, medicine), and historical chronicles.
o Notable manuscripts include beautifully illuminated Jain Kalpasutras,
illustrated Ramayanas and Mahabharatas, and important historical documents.
5. Miniature Paintings:
o The National Museum houses one of the world's largest and most prestigious
collections of Indian miniature paintings, with over 17,000 works.
o This collection spans 900 years and represents almost all major schools of
Indian painting:
 Early traditions: Pala (Eastern India), Western Indian (Jain style),
Sultanate.
 Indigenous styles: Malwa, Mewar, Bundelkhand, Raghogarh.
 Mughal School: From the reign of Akbar to later Mughal emperors,
showcasing fine naturalism, portraiture, and court scenes.
 Deccani Schools: Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, known for their
rich colours and lyrical intensity.
 Rajasthani Schools: Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Kishangarh (famous for Bani
Thani), Jaipur, Bikaner, etc., each with distinct stylistic features.
  Pahari Schools: Basohli, Guler, Kangra (renowned for its lyrical
romanticism and delicate beauty), Chamba, Mandi, Garhwal.
 Later styles: Sikh, Jammu, Tanjore, Company School paintings.
6. Numismatics and Epigraphy:
o The numismatic collection covers the entire history of Indian coinage, from
the earliest punch-marked coins (6th century BCE) through Kushana gold
coins, Gupta coinage, coins of various Sultanates and the Mughal Empire,
princely states, British India, to post-independence coins.
o This collection, comprising tens of thousands of coins, is a vital source for
understanding political, economic, and metallurgical history.
o The epigraphy section includes inscriptions on stone and copper plates, crucial
for historical reconstruction.
7. Arms and Armour:
o A fascinating collection of Indian arms and armour from different periods,
showcasing the evolution of weaponry and the artistry involved in their
creation.
o Includes swords, daggers (like katars, khanjars), shields, spears, bows, arrows,
body armour, and firearms, often intricately decorated with gold, silver, and
precious stones.
o Highlights include Mughal and Rajput weaponry, and personal armours of
historical figures.
8. Decorative Arts:
o This department features a wide range of objects showcasing exquisite
craftsmanship in various materials:
 Textiles: Historic Indian textiles, including Kashmiri shawls, Banarasi
brocades, Gujarati patolas, and regional embroideries.
 Metalware: Bidriware, silver and gold objects, ritual implements.
 Ivory and Jade: Delicately carved ivory and jade items.
 Woodwork: Carved architectural elements, furniture, and decorative
pieces.
 Pottery and Ceramics: Traditional Indian pottery and later glazed
ware.
 Jewellery: An extensive collection of traditional Indian jewellery from
different regions and periods, showcasing a stunning variety of designs
and gemstones.
9. Anthropology/Ethnography:
o This collection focuses on the material culture of various tribal and folk
communities of India.
o It includes costumes, textiles, jewellery, masks, musical instruments, tools,
and ritual objects, providing insights into the diverse lifestyles, beliefs, and
artistic expressions of these communities.
10. Central Asian Antiquities:
o One of the museum's unique international collections, primarily comprising
wall paintings, silk banners, sculptures, and other antiquities brought from
Central Asia (Silk Route sites in Chinese Turkestan) by Sir Aurel Stein during
his expeditions in the early 20th century.
o These artefacts, dating from the 3rd to 12th centuries CE, show a remarkable
blend of Indian, Chinese, Hellenistic, and Iranian artistic influences, reflecting
the cultural crossroads of the Silk Route.
11. Pre-Columbian and Western Art:
 o The museum also has a modest collection of Pre-Columbian art from Latin
America and some examples of Western art, adding to its international scope.
12. Other Departments:
o The museum also has departments for Display, Modelling, Photography,
Education, Public Relations, Publication, and a well-equipped Conservation
Laboratory.

Role and Significance:

The National Museum, New Delhi, serves multiple functions:

 Preservation of Heritage: It is a primary custodian of India's tangible cultural assets.

 Education and Outreach: It conducts educational programs, guided tours, lectures,
workshops, and special exhibitions for students, scholars, and the general public. The
museum aims to foster an appreciation and understanding of Indian art, history, and
culture.
 Research: It provides resources for scholars and researchers studying various aspects
of Indian heritage.
 Cultural Diplomacy: Its collections are often part of international exhibitions,
showcasing Indian culture globally.
 National Identity: It plays a role in shaping and reflecting India's national identity by
presenting a cohesive narrative of its long and diverse history.

Challenges and Future Directions:

Like many large museums, the National Museum faces challenges such as the need for
continuous modernization of displays, enhanced visitor engagement through interactive
technologies, ongoing conservation of its vast collections, space constraints, and the need to
make its narratives more inclusive and representative of all sections of Indian society. The
principles of "New Museology," emphasizing community engagement and multivocality, are
increasingly relevant to its future development, aligning with the DU syllabus's focus.

In conclusion, the National Museum, New Delhi, is more than just a building housing old
objects. It is a dynamic institution that embodies India's civilizational legacy. Its rich history
of establishment, driven by a post-independence vision, and its unparalleled collections make
it an indispensable center for anyone seeking to understand the depth, diversity, and
continuity of Indian culture across millennia. Its focus on research, exhibition, and education
makes it a cornerstone of India's cultural landscape.

Question 4: Write short notes on any two:

I will answer (i) Living Ethnological exhibits, 1886 and (iv) New Museology, as "New
Museology" is explicitly mentioned in the DU SEC syllabus (Source 1.2) and "Living
Ethnological Exhibits" represents a critical historical aspect of museum-related practices that
is important for a nuanced understanding of museological history.

(i) Living Ethnological Exhibits, 1886

"Living ethnological exhibits," also controversially known as "human zoos" or "ethnographic
displays," refer to the practice, particularly prevalent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
of exhibiting groups of people from non-Western cultures in reconstructed or "authentic"
settings at international expositions, colonial exhibitions, fairs, and even specialized zoos or
amusement parks in Europe and North America. The year 1886 is significant in this context
as it falls within the peak period of this phenomenon and saw major colonial exhibitions, such
as the Colonial and Indian Exhibition held in London.

Context and Rationale (as perceived then):

The rise of living ethnological exhibits was fueled by a confluence of factors:

1. Colonialism and Imperialism: This was the height of European colonial expansion.
Exhibiting people from colonized lands served to showcase the vastness of empires,
the diversity of their subjects, and, implicitly or explicitly, the supposed "civilizing
mission" of the colonial powers. It brought the "exotic" empire "home" to the
metropolitan populace.
2. Scientific Racism and Social Darwinism: Prevailing pseudo-scientific theories of
the time, like social Darwinism and polygenism, posited a hierarchy of races, with
white Europeans at the apex. These exhibits were often framed as educational
displays illustrating different "stages" of human development, invariably portraying
the exhibited peoples as "primitive," "savage," or "less evolved." This provided a
visual "justification" for colonial domination and racial prejudice.
3. Anthropology and Ethnology as Emerging Disciplines: Early anthropology and
ethnology were keen to document and classify different cultures, particularly those
perceived as "disappearing" due to Western influence. While some scholars aimed for
objective study, the methods of display often catered to popular spectacle and
reinforced stereotypes rather than fostering genuine understanding. The exhibits were
seen by some as "living laboratories."
4. Public Entertainment and Commercial Enterprise: These exhibits were
immensely popular and commercially successful. Promoters like Carl Hagenbeck
(who transitioned from animal trading to exhibiting humans alongside animals in
"ethnographic villages") recognized the public's appetite for the exotic and the
sensational. The lines between education, science, and entertainment were heavily
blurred.

The Colonial and Indian Exhibition, London (1886):

The Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886 in South Kensington, London, was a massive
undertaking designed to stimulate trade and strengthen imperial bonds. Alongside displays of
raw materials, industrial products, and arts and crafts from various colonies (including a
significant Indian section), it also featured living exhibits. Groups of artisans from India
(weavers, potters, metalworkers, etc.) were brought to demonstrate their crafts in settings
designed to replicate Indian villages or streetscapes.

 Ambiguous Representation: While ostensibly showcasing traditional skills, these

displays often presented a romanticized, static, and decontextualized image of Indian
life. The artisans themselves were put on display, becoming objects of curiosity for
the Western gaze. Their living and working conditions during these exhibitions were
often subpar, and they had little agency in how they were represented.
  Reinforcing Stereotypes: The emphasis was often on the "traditional" and
"unchanging" nature of these cultures, which fit into the colonial narrative of India as
a land of ancient but static traditions, in contrast to the "dynamic" West. This
overlooked the complexities, internal diversities, and ongoing changes within these
societies.

Characteristics of Living Ethnological Exhibits:

 Staged Authenticity: Environments were constructed to look "authentic," but were

often caricatures or amalgamations of different cultural elements. Performers were
usually dressed in "traditional" attire and encouraged to perform rituals, dances, or
daily activities for the audience.
 Objectification and Dehumanization: The people on display were treated more as
specimens or exhibits than as individuals with their own agency and dignity. Their
personal experiences, perspectives, and discomfort were largely ignored.
 Power Imbalance: The relationship between the exhibitors and the exhibited was one
of stark power imbalance, rooted in colonial domination and economic disparity.
 Focus on the "Other": These exhibits emphasized the perceived differences and
"exoticness" of non-Western peoples, reinforcing a sense of "us" (civilized
Westerners) versus "them" (primitive Others).

Criticism and Legacy:

By the early to mid-20th century, the practice of living ethnological exhibits came under
increasing criticism due to:

 Growing Ethical Concerns: The inherent racism, exploitation, and dehumanization

of these displays became more apparent and unacceptable.
 Changing Anthropological Approaches: Anthropology moved towards more
respectful, contextual, and participatory methods of research (though this was a slow
process).
 Anti-Colonial Movements: The rise of anti-colonial movements challenged the very
foundations of imperial power and its associated cultural representations.

Significance for Museology:

The phenomenon of living ethnological exhibits is a dark chapter in the history associated
with museums and exhibitions. It highlights:

1. The Colonial Roots of Display: It underscores how early museum and exhibition
practices were deeply embedded in colonial power structures and ideologies.
2. The Ethics of Representation: It serves as a stark reminder of the ethical
responsibilities involved in representing other cultures and the dangers of
objectification and stereotyping.
3. The Power of the Gaze: It illustrates how the act of displaying and viewing can
reinforce power dynamics and construct identities.
4. The Need for Critical Historical Awareness: For students of museology,
understanding this history is crucial for developing critical perspectives on museum
collections (especially ethnographic ones), display practices, and the historical
 narratives museums convey. It informs contemporary efforts to decolonize museums
and make them more equitable and respectful spaces.

While no longer practiced in their historical form, the legacy of living ethnological exhibits
raises ongoing questions about how cultural diversity is represented in museums, the role of
source communities in interpreting their own heritage, and the potential for exhibitions to
perpetuate or challenge stereotypes. The DU syllabus, by including topics related to colonial
museum history and New Museology, encourages a critical examination of such past
practices.

(iv) New Museology

"New Museology" (Nouvelle Muséologie) is a critical theoretical movement and set of

practices that emerged primarily in the 1970s and 1980s, challenging the traditional
philosophies and functions of museums. It represents a significant paradigm shift, moving
away from the museum as a temple of elite culture and authoritative knowledge towards a
more socially responsible, community-focused, and democratic institution. The DU SEC
syllabus for Museum and Museology (Source 1.2) explicitly includes "A brief introduction to
New Museology," underscoring its importance in contemporary museum thought.

Traditional Museology: The Context for Change

To understand New Museology, it's essential to recognize what it reacted against –

"traditional" or "classical" museology, which was characterized by:

1. Object-Centeredness: An overwhelming focus on the collection, conservation, and

scholarly research of objects as primary.
2. Elitism and Authority: Museums seen as institutions run by experts (curators,
directors) for a largely educated, often upper-class audience. The museum was the
authoritative voice, transmitting knowledge to a passive public.
3. Monumentalism: Emphasis on grand buildings, often symbolizing cultural or
national prestige, sometimes intimidating to wider audiences.
4. Static Narratives: Often presenting a single, linear, and uncontested historical or
artistic narrative.
5. Detachment from Social Issues: Largely disengaged from contemporary social,
political, and economic realities of the communities they were situated in.
6. Colonial Legacy: Many traditional museums, particularly in post-colonial contexts,
carried the legacy of colonial frameworks of collection, classification, and
interpretation.

Core Principles and Tenets of New Museology:

New Museology sought to redefine the museum's role, purpose, and relationship with society.
Key figures associated with its development include Georges Henri Rivière and Hugues de
Varine-Bohan in France, and later, thinkers like Peter van Mensch and an increasing number
of voices globally. Its core ideas include:

1. People-Centered / Community-Focused:
 o Shift from Object to People: The primary focus shifts from the objects
themselves to the people and communities the museum serves and represents.
Objects are seen as tools for dialogue, understanding, and social action, rather
than ends in themselves.
o Serving Society: The museum is reconceptualized as an instrument for social
development, education, and community empowerment. Its success is
measured by its impact on people's lives and its relevance to the local context.
2. Emphasis on Territory and Context (The Ecomuseum):
o The concept of the ecomuseum (écomusée), championed by Rivière and de
Varine, is central to New Museology. An ecomuseum is not confined to a
building but is rooted in a specific territory or community.
o It focuses on the holistic heritage of that territory – natural and cultural,
tangible and intangible, past and present.
o Local communities are actively involved in defining, managing, and
interpreting their own heritage. The ecomuseum is "of, by, and for" the
community.
3. Democratization and Participation:
o Shared Authority: New Museology advocates for a more democratic
approach, where authority is shared between museum professionals and
community members. Collaborative curation, community consultations, and
participatory projects become key methodologies.
o Multi-vocality: It seeks to include diverse perspectives, narratives, and
voices, especially those historically marginalized or excluded from traditional
museum representations.
o Accessibility: Aims to make museums more accessible and welcoming to all
sections of society, breaking down physical, intellectual, and social barriers.
4. Holistic Heritage:
o Expands the definition of heritage beyond elite art objects and archaeological
artefacts to include everyday objects, oral histories, intangible heritage
(traditions, skills, rituals), industrial heritage, and the natural environment.
o Recognizes the interconnectedness of tangible and intangible heritage.
5. Social Responsibility and Activism:
o Museums are encouraged to engage with contemporary social issues –
inequality, environmental concerns, human rights, cultural identity, social
justice – and to become platforms for dialogue, debate, and even social
activism.
o The museum can be an agent for positive social change.
6. Process over Product:
o The process of community engagement, research, and dialogue is often
considered as important, if not more so, than the final exhibition or product.
o Emphasis on interpretation as an ongoing, dynamic process rather than a fixed
presentation of facts.

Impact and Manifestations:

New Museology has had a profound impact on museum practice worldwide, leading to:

 Development of Ecomuseums and Community Museums: Numerous ecomuseums

and community-based museum initiatives have been established globally, reflecting
 these principles. Examples in India include experiments with community-led heritage
initiatives.
 Changes in Mainstream Museums: Even traditional museums have increasingly
adopted aspects of New Museology, such as:
o More inclusive exhibition narratives and community consultation.
o Enhanced educational and outreach programs targeting diverse audiences.
o Use of participatory exhibits and interactive technologies.
o Greater focus on contemporary relevance and social issues.
 Influence on Museum Ethics and Professional Standards: Codes of ethics for
museums now often emphasize social responsibility, community engagement, and
inclusivity.
 Decolonization Efforts: New Museology provides a framework for efforts to
decolonize museum collections and narratives, particularly in post-colonial nations,
by challenging colonial-era interpretations and giving voice to indigenous and local
perspectives.

Criticisms and Challenges:

While influential, New Museology has also faced critiques:

 Idealism vs. Practicality: Some argue its ideals can be difficult to implement fully,
especially within large, established institutions with traditional structures and limited
resources.
 Defining "Community": The concept of "community" can be complex and
contested, and achieving genuine consensus and representation can be challenging.
 Risk of Relativism: The emphasis on multiple voices can sometimes lead to concerns
about historical accuracy or the dilution of expert knowledge (though proponents
argue for a balance).
 Sustainability: Community-led initiatives may face challenges in terms of long-term
funding and professional support.

Relevance in the Indian Context (and DU Syllabus):

For India, with its immense cultural diversity, rich intangible heritage, strong community
traditions, and colonial museum legacy, the principles of New Museology are particularly
pertinent.

 It offers pathways to make museums more relevant to the vast majority of the
population.
 It supports the documentation and preservation of local and intangible heritage that
might be overlooked by traditional, object-focused museums.
 It provides a framework for addressing colonial legacies and creating more equitable
representations of history and culture.
 The emphasis on site museums and community-based approaches in India aligns well
with New Museology's spirit.