Defining relative clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something –
information that we need in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining relative
clause usually comes immediately after the noun it describes.

We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which, whose and whom) to introduce a defining
relative clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred
to is underlined.):

They’re the people who want to buy our house.

Here are some cells which have been affected.

They should give the money to somebody who they think needs the treatment most.

[talking about an actress] She’s now playing a woman whose son was killed in the First World
War.

Spoken English:
In defining relative clauses we often use that instead of who, whom or which. This is very common in
informal speaking:

They’re the people that want to buy our house.

Here are some cells that have been affected.

Subject or object
The relative pronoun can define the subject or the object of the verb:

They’re the people who/that bought our house. (The people bought our house. The people is the
subject.)

They’re the people who/that she met at Jon’s party. (She met the people. The people is the object.)

Here are some cells which/that show abnormality. (Some cells show abnormality. Some cells is the
subject.)

Here are some cells which/that the researcher has identified. (The researcher has identified some
cells. Some cells is the object.)

No relative pronoun
We often leave out the relative pronoun when it is the object of the verb:

They’re the people she met at Jon’s party.

Here are some cells the researcher has identified.

Punctuation
Warning:
In writing, we don’t use commas in defining relative clauses:

This is a man who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Not: This is a man, who takes his responsibilities seriously.

Nouns and pronouns in relative clauses

When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal
pronoun or noun in the relative clause because the subject (underlined) is the same:

She’s the lady who lent me her phone. (who is the subject of the relative clause, so we don’t need
the personal pronoun she)

Not: She’s the lady who she lent me her phone.

There are now only two schools in the area that actually teach Latin. (that is the subject of the
relative clause, so we don’t need the personal pronoun they)

Not: There are now only two schools in the area that they actually teach Latin.

When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause, we don’t use another personal pronoun
or noun in the relative clause because the object (underlined) is the same:

We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended. (which is the object of the relative
clause, so we don’t need the personal pronoun it)

Not: We had a lovely meal at the place which Phil recommended it.

Non-defining relative clauses

We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing. It is not
necessary information. We don’t need it to understand who or what is being referred to.

We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a non-defining relative
clause (In the examples, the relative clause is in bold, and the person or thing being referred to is
underlined.)

Clare, who I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Not: Clare, I work with, is doing the London marathon this year.

Doctors use the testing kit for regular screening for lung and stomach cancers, which account for
70% of cancers treated in the western world.

Alice, who has worked in Brussels and London ever since leaving Edinburgh, will be starting a
teaching course in the autumn.

Warning:
We don’t use that to introduce a non-defining relative clause:
 Allen, who scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.

Not: Allen, that scored three goals in the first game, was the only player to perform well.

Punctuation
In writing, we use commas around non-defining relative clauses:

Etheridge, who is English-born with Irish parents, replaces Neil Francis, whose injury forced him
to withdraw last week.

Spoken English:
In speaking, we often pause at the beginning and end of the clause:

Unlike American firms – which typically supply all three big American car makers – Japanese
ones traditionally work exclusively with one maker. (formal)

And this woman – who I’d never met before – came up and spoke to me. (informal)

Defining or non-defining relative clauses?

Sometimes defining and non-defining relative clauses can look very similar but have different
meanings.

Compare

non-defining defining

His brother, who works at the His brother who works at the supermarket is
supermarket, is a friend of mine. a friend of mine.

He has only one brother, and that He has more than one brother. The one I’m
brother works at the supermarket. talking about works at the supermarket.
It’s hoped that we will raise It’s hoped that we will raise £10,000 for local
£10,000 for local charities, which charities which help the homeless.
help the homeless.

The money is intended for local charities.

The money is intended for local Some of these local charities help the
charities. All these local charities homeless. There are other local charities as
help the homeless. well as these.

Warning:
The information in a defining relative clause is essential, so we
can’t leave out the relative clause. The information in a non-defining
relative clause is extra information which isn’t essential, so we can
leave out the relative clause.
Compare

A defining relative clause

The soldier who had gold stripes on his
which we can’t leave out;
uniform seemed to be the most important one.
without this information we do
not know which soldier the
speaker is referring to.

Non-defining relative clauses

The tour party was weakened when Gordon
which we can leave out:
Hamilton, who played in the World Cup team,
withdrew yesterday because of a back injury,
which kept him out of the Five Nations The tour party was weakened
Championship. when Gordon Hamilton
withdrew yesterday because of
a back injury.