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🧠 CHAPTER 1: GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY
(Sanaullah’s – Elaborated, Exam-Oriented Notes)
🔹 1. Homeostasis
De nition:
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal
environment in the body. It ensures optimal conditions
for cellular functions.
• The term was coined by Walter Cannon.
• Regulated by nervous and endocrine systems.
Examples:
• Body temperature (~37°C)
• Blood glucose (~70–110 mg/dL)
• Blood pressure (~120/80 mmHg)
Feedback Mechanisms:
• Negative feedback: Corrective response;
counteracts changes.
→ Example: Rise in body temp → sweating →
cooling down.
• Positive feedback: Ampli es the change until a
speci c outcome occurs.
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→ Example: Oxytocin release during childbirth →
stronger uterine contractions.
🔹 2. Body Fluid Compartments
Total Body Water (TBW):
• ~60% of body weight (about 42 L in average adult
male)
◦ Intracellular Fluid (ICF): ~40% (about 28 L)
◦ Extracellular Fluid (ECF): ~20% (about 14 L)
▪ Plasma: 5%
▪ Interstitial uid: 15%
Electrolyte Composition:
Compartmen Major
Major Anion
t Cation
PO₄³⁻,
ICF K⁺, Mg²⁺
proteins
ECF Na⁺ Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻
• Osmolarity: ~285–295 mOsm/L (same in both ICF
and ECF)
• Water shifts between compartments depend on
osmotic gradients.
🔹 3. Transport Across Cell Membrane
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🔸 A. Passive Transport (No energy required)
1. Simple diffusion: Along concentration gradient;
e.g., O₂, CO₂.
2. Facilitated diffusion: Requires carrier proteins but
no ATP.
→ Example: Glucose via GLUT transporters.
3. Osmosis: Movement of water from low solute to
high solute concentration.
🔸 B. Active Transport (Uses ATP)
1. Primary Active Transport:
◦ Uses ATP directly.
◦ Example: Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase – pumps 3 Na⁺ out
and 2 K⁺ in.
2. Secondary Active Transport:
◦ Indirectly uses ATP via ion gradients.
◦ Co-transport (same direction): e.g., Na⁺-glucose
(SGLT)
◦ Counter-transport (opposite direction): e.g.,
Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchanger
🔸 C. Vesicular Transport
• Endocytosis:
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◦ Phagocytosis (solids): WBC engul ng bacteria
◦ Pinocytosis (liquids): Cell drinking
• Exocytosis: Vesicle fusion to release substances
(e.g., neurotransmitter release)
🔹 4. Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)
De nition:
RMP is the voltage difference across the membrane of a
resting cell.
• Typical RMP:
◦ Neuron: –70 mV
◦ Skeletal muscle: –90 mV
Causes of RMP:
• High K⁺ inside the cell and high Na⁺ outside
• Cell membrane is more permeable to K⁺ than Na⁺
• Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase maintains gradient (electrogenic
pump)
🔹 5. Action Potential
De nition:
A rapid, temporary change in membrane potential that
spreads along nerve/muscle cells.
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Phases:
1. Depolarization: Na⁺ channels open → Na⁺ in ux
→ membrane becomes +ve.
2. Repolarization: K⁺ channels open → K⁺ ef ux →
membrane returns to –ve.
3. Hyperpolarization: Excessive K⁺ ef ux →
membrane becomes more –ve.
All-or-None Law:
Once threshold is reached (~–55 mV), an AP is red;
strength of stimulus doesn't affect size of AP.
Refractory Periods:
• Absolute: No AP possible, Na⁺ channels inactivated.
• Relative: Stronger stimulus needed to trigger AP.
🔹 6. Acid-Base Balance
Normal arterial pH: 7.35–7.45
Maintained by:
1. Buffer Systems ( rst line):
◦ Bicarbonate buffer (HCO₃⁻ / H₂CO₃) → most
important
◦ Phosphate, protein buffers
2. Respiratory Regulation:
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◦ Alters CO₂ excretion
◦ ↑ CO₂ → ↓ pH (acidosis)
◦ ↓ CO₂ → ↑ pH (alkalosis)
3. Renal Regulation:
◦ H⁺ excretion and HCO₃⁻ reabsorption
Disorders:
• Metabolic acidosis/alkalosis
• Respiratory acidosis/alkalosis
🔹 7. Cell Junctions
Type Structure/Function Found In
Seal between cells, prevent
Tight junctions Intestinal epithelium
leakage
Cardiac muscle, smooth
Gap junctions Allow ions and molecules to pass
muscle
Desmosomes Mechanical strength, cell adhesion Skin, heart
Adherens
Actin linkage, support structure Epithelial tissues
junctions
🔹 8. Apoptosis vs. Necrosis
Feature Apoptosis Necrosis
Pathological (injury,
Cause Physiological (programmed)
toxins)
Cell shrinkage, chromatin
Process Cell swelling, lysis
clumping
In ammatio
No Yes
n
Example Embryogenesis Hypoxia-induced cell death
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🔹 9. Feedback Mechanisms
Type Function Examples
Negativ Restores normal
Temp regulation, blood glucose
e state
Blood clotting, labor
Positive Ampli es response
contractions
🎯 High-Yield Exam Points
• RMP of neuron = –70 mV; skeletal muscle = –90
mV
• Most abundant ICF ion = K⁺
• Na⁺/K⁺ pump is electrogenic (3 Na⁺ out, 2 K⁺ in)
• Homeostasis term coined by Cannon
• Gap junctions are key in cardiac conduction
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