What is Intercultural Communication?

◦Intercultural communication is broadly defined as the exchange of information between

individuals who are culturally unalike.

◦It is the verbal and nonverbal interaction between people from different cultural backgrounds.

◦Sometimes, it can describe a single person interacting in a foreign environment, but more often,
it's a two-way street where people from both cultures try to improve their communication.

◦Intercultural communication is not simply language proficiency; it includes nonverbal elements

like body language, attitudes, and rituals (like hand-shaking). While estimates vary, a significant
portion (some sources suggest around 60-70%) of human communication is nonverbal.

◦Intercultural communication as a human activity is ancient, occurring when small cultural

groups encountered each other through trade, war, conflict, or relationships. The desire for
material objects may have initiated interactions between cultures separated by large distances.

◦As an academic discipline, it is relatively new, originating in the U.S. with an applied focus on
training American diplomats and development personnel. It later spread to universities in the U.S.
and Europe.

◦Studying intercultural communication helps us step back from habitual worldviews and become
aware of the influences that shape our thinking. It is fundamental to becoming intercultural and
being able to see the world from multiple perspectives, recognizing and respecting different ways
of thinking. Some study it out of curiosity about how different worldviews affect communication.
Those who see their own culture as the only culture or judge others as inferior (ethnocentric) may
feel they don't need to study it. A few even fear the foreign (xenophobic)

•What is Culture? Culture is described as those deep, common, unstated experiences which
members of a given culture share, communicate without knowing, and which form the backdrop
against which all other events are judged

. A subculture or co-culture is a set of shared cultural meanings held by a system within a larger
system; it is a culture within a culture. Examples include the culture of communities,
organizations (like IBM or Walt Disney Enterprises), professions (journalism, college teaching),
or specific groups (like the Oklahoma University athletes or the U.S. Marine Corps boot camp).
Cultural artifacts are material objects produced by a culture, along with its musical and artistic
productions.

•The Characteristics of Culture:

1. ◦Culture is based on symbols: Every culture has symbols associated with experiences and
perceptions. Symbols can be words, drawings, pictures, gestures, clothing, homes, cars,
etc... Language is the most powerful human symbol, culturally specific, conveying
meaning, and is a source of continuity and identity. Arts are another form of symbolic
communication.
 2. ◦Culture is learned: People are not born with culture; it is socially inherited and learned
from others in a society, such as learning language or societal rules.
3. ◦Culture is adaptive: People use culture to adjust to changes in the world, contributing to
human success.
4. ◦Culture is shared: People in the same society share common behaviors and ways of
thinking. Societies collectively create, maintain, and preserve culture across generations
through knowledge, objects, and traditions.
5. ◦Culture is integrated: This refers to people from one culture adopting the essence of
another (attitudes, ceremonies) while maintaining their own, often as a survival tool for
immigrants.
6. ◦Culture is dynamic: Culture is fluid and changes constantly in subtle and tangible ways.

•The Components of Culture:

1. ◦Beliefs: These are the ideas a culture believes in and how they celebrate or practice them.
Beliefs are shaped by an individual's culture. A cultural belief is held by most members of
a culture and may rest on a common history. Not everyone in a society holds the exact
same beliefs, but members sharing a culture have more similar beliefs than those from
different cultures. Examples include beliefs about gift-giving (Japanese vs. US),
magic/sacrifice (West African), religious practices (Buddhism, Chinese Religion,
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam), spiritual beliefs (good luck symbols, reincarnation, karma,
judgment day), and beliefs related to births, deaths, dress, and food.

2. ◦Attitudes: These are lasting emotional responses to people, groups, objects, and ideas.
Attitudes and beliefs are internal and inferred from expressed opinions and behavior.

3. ◦Values: These are what people who share a culture strongly regard as good or bad.
Values have an evaluative component and often concern desired goals or ways of
behaving that lead to those goals (e.g., salvation, world peace, thrift, honesty). The
meaning of a value, like freedom, can differ across cultures. Examples of differing values
include views on bullfighting (US vs. Mexico/Spain) or nepotism/bribery (US vs. other
nations).

4. ◦Norms: These are established behavior patterns for members of a social system.
Violating a cultural norm leads to social punishment. Examples include prohibitions on
using the left hand for eating or handing objects in the Middle East and Asia, or norms
regarding reverence for the king in Thailand.

Collectivistic vs. Individualistic Cultures:

▪This is a key dimension of cultural differences. Collectivistic cultures prioritize the goals of the
group over the individual. Individualistic cultures prioritize the goals of the individual over the
group.

▪In a collectivistic culture, individuals see themselves as connected to others; independence might
be seen as selfish or rude. Characteristics include group loyalty, interdependence, emphasis on
social harmony, indirect communication, and respect for authority. Examples show group
cohesion and shared responsibility (Japanese office work habits, communal support for education
in Nigerian villages, adjusting personal appearance for group harmony at a funeral). Maintaining
"face" (public self-image) is crucial, especially other-face, involving compliments, deference, and
apologies to maintain positive relationships. High-context cultures tend to be collectivistic and
less self-disclosing.

▪In an individualistic culture, individuals see themselves as independent; interdependence might

be seen as weakness. Characteristics include independence, self-expression, personal
achievement, direct communication, and focus on individual rights. Priorities include pursuit of
personal goals, self-reliance, personal choice in relationships, self-expression, individual
rights/freedom, personal development, competition, leaving the family nest early, and
legal/economic independence. Examples include the "American Dream," legal systems protecting
individual rights, emphasis on adult children establishing independent lives. Figures like Steve
Jobs and Elon Musk embody the pursuit of personal vision and innovation. Individualistic
cultures tend to be low-context and more self-disclosing. Attention to self-face is more important
than other-face, though face isn't irrelevant (e.g., praising employees publicly, criticizing
privately). Low-context cultures tend to fill silence with speech.

▪It's important to note that not everyone in a culture fits neatly into these categories; there is
variance within cultures

What is communication? Communication is defined as the process through which participants

create and share information with one another as they move toward reaching mutual
understanding. It is involved in every aspect of daily life and is universal. Being able to
communicate is associated with being human. Communication is never perfectly effective, as the
receiver seldom decodes a message into exactly the same meaning the source intended.
meanings are in people, not just in words or messages. Meanings are interpreted through an
individual's feelings, prior experiences, and culture. Communication helps people create meaning
rather than just transmit it. Interpersonal communication is a process where meanings are
negotiated by the parties involved.

• A Model of Communication: The sources outline several elements involved in

communication:
◦A source is the individual who originates a message by encoding an idea into a message.
◦Encoding is the process by which an idea is converted into a message by a source.
◦A message is the encoded idea.
◦A channel is the means by which a message is transmitted from its origin to its destination.
◦A receiver is the individual who decodes a communication message by converting it into an
idea.
◦Decoding is the process by which the physical message is converted into an idea by the receiver.
◦A code is a classification, such as a language, used by individuals to categorize their experience
and communicate it.
◦Feedback is a message about the effects of a previous message that is sent back to the source.
◦Noise is anything that hinders the communication process among participants.
•Elements that Affect Communication: Several factors can influence communication, including
Status/Role, Cultural Differences, Choice of communication channels, Length of communication,
Use of language, Disabilities, Whether the receiver is known or unknown, Individual perceptions,
Atmosphere/Noise, Clarity of the message, and Lack of feedback.
Subjectivity, perceptions, paradigms, and past experiences flavor the encoding and decoding
process. Effective communication is less likely to occur when the source and receiver do not
share a common value regarding the message content, which can lead to conflict. The more
dissimilar (heterophilous) the source and receiver are, the more likely their communication will
be ineffective.

Verbal Communication:

▪This is the use of spoken language to convey meaning, share information, and build
relationships. It includes words and how they are delivered (tone, pitch, pace).
▪Examples include face-to-face conversations, interviews, telephone calls, lectures, meetings,
etc...
▪Advantages include clarity, immediate feedback, time-saving, ability to motivate/persuade,
encouraging group cohesion, adaptability, and cost-effectiveness.
▪Disadvantages include no permanent record, potential for distortion/misinterpretation, lack of
legal formality, susceptibility to emotional influence, ineffectiveness for long/complex messages,
and being impacted by physical/psychological barriers.
▪Cultural influences on verbal communication include:

•Talk and Silence: Cultures differ in comfort with silence. High-context cultures (Japan, Native
American) often value silence; low-context cultures (U.S., Germany) tend to fill silence. Silence
can convey respect, thoughtfulness, or disengagement. Asians are described as more taciturn than
European Americans and more likely to use indirect expression; silence can be an important
message. Native Americans view reticence as appropriate and polite.
•Speaking Style: Shaped by cultural tradition. African-American tradition emphasizes oratory,
interaction, and rhythm, with interactive relationships between speaker and audience. Western
cultures prioritize clarity and brevity.
•Turn-taking: The process of deciding who talks next in a conversation. Non-verbal cues (eye
contact, pauses) often signal transitions. Misinterpretation of these cues can lead to overlaps or
awkward silences, especially between people from different cultures. For example, the pause
duration before a Japanese speaker responds can feel disconcerting to a North American.
•Self-disclosure: Revealing personal thoughts or feelings. It varies by culture. Individualistic
cultures (U.S.) tend to have higher levels of openness; collectivistic cultures (China, Japan) are
more reserved. Cultural factors strongly determine the appropriateness of self-disclosure.
•Content versus Relationship: Messages have content (what is said) and a relationship
dimension (how it is said). Collectivistic cultures emphasize the relationship aspect, forming
messages to avoid offending or causing loss of face, with less emphasis on clarity of content.
Individualistic cultures stress message content, valuing clarity, conciseness, and directness, even
if feelings are hurt.
•Face: An individual's public self-image or reputation. Maintaining face is essential in
collectivistic cultures (Japan, Korea) where individuals are concerned with how they appear to
others and wish to avoid looking foolish or inept. Strategies include complimenting others, being
deferential, avoiding confrontation, and offering apologies. While more prominent in
collectivistic cultures (other-face), attention to self-face is present in individualistic cultures too
(e.g., manager criticism in private).
•Code-switching: Changing from speaking one language to another during a conversation. It can
show warmth, reinforce relationships, indicate formality/informality, or be used to distance
oneself from others.
•Listening: Equally important as speaking in communication. Effective communication depends
on listening. Active listening involves attentiveness, withholding judgment, and empathy.
Cultural norms influence listening habits (like comfort with silence or turn-taking). Many people
are not effective listeners; mind wandering is common due to the difference between speaking
and listening rates. Effective listening involves detecting central themes, entertaining various
meanings without filling gaps, not interrupting, being cautious with questions, controlling
emotions, and avoiding distractions. Listening demonstrates caring.

◦Non-verbal Communication:

▪Defined as all types of communication that take place without words. This includes body
movements, the wave of a hand, wearing clothes, or being on time.
▪About two-thirds of the meaning in an interaction is conveyed nonverbally. Some sources say
approximately 70%.
▪It's important because it's everywhere, often comes first, is usually trusted (as it can be
unintentional/unconscious), and is particularly important in intercultural situations. It can also
lead to misunderstanding.
▪Cultural factors influence nonverbal communication:

•Kinesics and other body movements: Body language. Includes:

 ◦Emblems: Body movements that can be translated into words and are used intentionally
(e.g., a nod, a wave).
 ◦Illustrators: Body behaviors that accompany what is said verbally (gesturing with
hands, smiling, slouching).
 ◦Regulators: Kinesic behaviors controlling turn-taking (eye contact, touch, hand gestures,
head nods).
 ◦Affect displays: Kinesic behaviors expressing emotions (facial expressions like arching
eyebrows for surprise or wrinkling the nose for disgust).
•Proxemics: Nonverbal communication involving space. How physically close people stand
communicates about their relationship. Definitions of appropriate space are culture-bound;
differences can lead to misunderstandings (e.g., European American vs. Latin American
perceptions of closeness).
•Chronemics: The way time affects communication. Cultural norms dictate the time elapsed
before being considered late. Time perception can be linear (Western: past-present-future) or
different, with some cultures valuing the past, others the future, or others the present.
•Haptics: Nonverbal communication involving touching. The degree of touch varies by culture
and individuals. Touch can convey warmth, caring, playfulness, or irritation. It can also be status-
dependent; higher-status individuals often initiate touch in business.
•Voice: Referred to as paralanguage, this is vocal communication other than the verbal content.
Includes loudness, speed, accent, tone, grunts, and filler words. Voice can nonverbally identify a
person's gender, ethnic group, age, etc...
•Artifacts: Personal possessions like clothing, jewelry, eyeglasses, attachés, or cars. They
transmit meaning, make statements, and can communicate belonging or independence.
•Physical Appearance: Another type of nonverbal communication. Culturally defined
preferences dictate what is considered attractive. Physical attractiveness can be an advantage. It is
especially important during first impressions between strangers.

▪Many intercultural misunderstandings stem from nonverbal messages. Learning the nonverbal
codes of another culture is difficult as they are seldom written down. Intensive effort, reading,
and training are needed for high competence.

◦Models/Theories Relevant to Communication (including Intercultural)

▪Basic Communication Model: Involves a source who encodes an idea into a message. The
message is transmitted through a channel to a receiver. The receiver decodes the message back
into an idea. Feedback is a message about previous message effects sent back to the source. Noise
is anything hindering the process. Communication is never perfectly effective; the receiver
seldom decodes the exact meaning the source intended. Factors like status/role, cultural
differences, channel choice, language, disabilities, receiver knowledge, perceptions,
atmosphere/noise, message clarity, and lack of feedback affect communication. Subjectivity
(perceptions, paradigms, past experiences) flavors encoding/decoding. When source and receiver
are dissimilar (heterophilous) or don't share common values about the message, effective
communication is unlikely, leading to conflict.

•Types of Communication:
◦Intrapersonal communication: Information exchange that occurs inside one person. It is the
process of selecting and interpreting symbols to represent thoughts, perceptions, or physical
reality. Intercultural communication begins with intrapersonal communication and ways of
thinking, influenced by experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and values.

◦Interpersonal communication: Face-to-face exchange of information between two or more

people, involving exchanging mutually understood symbols. It depends on understanding the
other person's religion, country, culture, belief system, and behaviorally/demographically defined
behaviors. Understanding different cultural ways of thinking helps predict responses in
intercultural interactions. Meanings are interpreted by interfacing message content with an
individual's feelings, prior experiences, and culture. Meanings are in people, not in the words
themselves. Interpersonal communication helps people create meaning rather than just transmit it.
Meanings are negotiated, and this process is less effective when participants come from different
cultures. People construct meanings from their language, attitudes, interpersonal, and cultural
knowledge/experience. An individual's culture shapes the meaning given to a word or symbol.

◦Verbal Communication: The use of spoken language to convey meaning, share information, and
build relationships, including words, tone, pitch, and pace. It's central to everyday and
professional interaction. Examples include conversations, interviews, phone/video calls, lectures,
speeches, meetings. Advantages include being clear, easily understood, providing immediate
feedback, saving time, motivating, persuading, encouraging group cohesion, being adaptable,
responsive, cost-effective, and accessible. Disadvantages include no permanent record, potential
for distortion/misinterpretation, lack of legal formality, being subject to emotional influence,
being ineffective for long/complex messages, and being impacted by physical/psychological
barriers. Verbal communication is context-dependent and culturally nuanced. Factors influencing
verbal intercultural communication include talk and silence, speaking style, turn-taking, self-
disclosure, face, code-switching, and listening.

◦Nonverbal Communication: All types of communication that take place without words. This
includes body movements (like a nod or wave), clothing, arriving early for an appointment, etc...
About two-thirds of the meaning in an interaction is conveyed nonverbally. Nonverbal
communication is ubiquitous, often comes first, is usually trusted (as it can be
unintentional/unconscious), can lead to misunderstanding, improves interactions, and is
especially important in intercultural situations.

•Cultural Influences on Communication / Intercultural Communication:

◦Intercultural communication is defined as the exchange of information between individuals who

are culturally unalike. It is the verbal and nonverbal interaction between people from different
cultural backgrounds. It is not simply language proficiency; nonverbal communication is a
significant part of it.
◦Attribution is the process of seeking to understand the causes behind others' behavior and our
own. It's how we interpret and explain behavior. When attributing the behavior of a culturally
unalike person, we are more likely to see their actions as based on hidden motives within their
culture. Attribution theory has implications for intercultural communication, influencing how
behavior is interpreted, how stereotypes and prejudice form, how communication styles are
perceived, and how conflicts are addressed.
◦High/Low-Context Communication: High-context cultures often value silence and use indirect
expression, while low-context cultures tend to fill gaps with speech and prioritize clarity and
brevity.

Communication problems can arise when individuals from these different cultural types interact,
such as low-context individuals becoming impatient with the detailed, spiral communication style
of high-context individuals. Collectivistic cultures put greater emphasis on the relationship aspect
of a message, trying not to offend, while individualistic cultures stress message content and being
clear/direct.

◦Self-disclosure: Individualistic cultures (like the U.S.) tend to have higher levels of openness,
while collectivistic cultures (like China, Japan) are more reserved regarding revealing personal
information.
◦Face: This is the public self-image or reputation in a social context. Maintaining face is essential
in collectivistic cultures (like Japan, Korea), where individuals are concerned with how they
appear to others and wish to avoid looking foolish or making social errors that could lead to guilt
or shame. Strategies include complimenting others, avoiding confrontation, and apologizing. In
collectivistic cultures, maintaining other-face predominates, while in individualistic cultures, self-
face is more important, though face is not unimportant in individualistic cultures.
◦Code-switching: Changing from one language to another during a conversation. It can be used
to show warmth and reinforce social relationships or to distance oneself from others.
•Cultural Clash: This is defined as the conflict that occurs between two or more cultures when
they disagree about a certain value, potentially involving strongly held values like religion.
Examples include disagreements over traditional practices like live animal markets or the killing
of dolphins. Cultural variance exists within and between cultural groups. Differences in national
culture, gender, age, or socioeconomic status can also be conceptualized as intercultural
differences, and wider differences make communication less likely. Cultural identification
determines in-groups and out-groups and influences behavior and communication. Language
fluency can be linked to cultural identification. Cultural markers (like name or appearance)
suggest cultural identity. People may change their names to reflect a new religious or ethnic
identity.

•Culture Shock: This refers to the anxiety and feelings (surprise, disorientation, uncertainty,
confusion) experienced when operating within a different and unknown culture
. It stems from difficulty assimilating the new culture and can include a dislike for certain aspects
of the new culture. It is caused by differences in language, climate, religion, food, education
system, how people make decisions, spend leisure time, resolve conflicts, express emotions, and
body language. There are typically five stages: 1. Excitement/Euphoria (Honeymoon stage), 2.
Crisis period (disappointment, overwhelming problems, irritation, "fight-back" technique), 3.
Adjustment phase (learning to accept the culture, changing attitude), 4. Acceptance and
Adaptation phase (feeling at home, involvement, enjoying customs), 5. Reentry reverse culture
shock (experienced upon returning home, initial euphoria/crisis/disenchantment, difficulty
readjusting).

•Initial Contact and Uncertainty among Strangers: This is a central concern in intercultural
communication because individuals face heightened ambiguity, unfamiliar social cues, and
divergent norms. Initiating conversation with a stranger is difficult without prior information.
Information seeking strategies help reduce uncertainty:

◦Passive: Observation (physical appearance, non-verbal cues, behavior, social media profiles),
Digital Footprint Analysis (search engines, public records, online content), Social Network
Analysis (connections, interactions by others). These don't involve direct interaction.
◦Active: Third-Party Inquiry (asking acquaintances), Direct Contact (email, social media, in
person), Elicitation Techniques (subtle questions, building rapport). These involve interaction,
direct or indirect.
◦Interactive: Conversational Engagement (casual/structured conversations, open-ended questions,
active listening), Social Media Engagement (commenting, direct messages, engaging in shared
online spaces), Role-Playing/Disguised Inquiry (ethically sensitive). This is the most
straightforward form of interactivity.
◦Conversation helps reduce uncertainty, facilitating further communication.

•Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT): Developed by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese
(1975). It posits that when strangers meet, they face high uncertainty, especially across cultures.
If they share language/interests, they can talk, share meanings, and gradually decrease
uncertainty. The theory describes stages of relational development:
◦Entry phase: Beginning stage, characterized by behavioral norms.
◦Personal phase: People communicate more spontaneously and personally, exploring
attitudes/beliefs.
◦Exit phase: People decide if they want to continue the relationship.

◦URT has seven original axioms:

1. Verbal communication: More talk decreases uncertainty, and lower uncertainty increases talk.
2. Non-verbal expressions: More expressiveness decreases uncertainty, and lower uncertainty
increases expressiveness.
3. Information Seeking: High uncertainty increases information seeking.
4. Self-disclosure: High uncertainty decreases intimacy, and low uncertainty increases intimacy.
5. Reciprocity: High uncertainty produces high rates of reciprocity, and low uncertainty produces
low rates.
6. Similarity: Similarities reduce uncertainty, while dissimilarities increase it.
7. Liking: High uncertainty decreases liking, and low uncertainty increases liking. Different
cultures have ways to reduce uncertainty, such as the Japanese meishi (name card) exchange
protocol, which helps determine status and reduce awkwardness, but making a mistake can lead
to loss of face.

•Becoming More Intercultural: To become more intercultural, one needs to acquire

intercultural competence.

◦Intercultural competence is the degree to which an individual can exchange information

effectively and appropriately with culturally dissimilar individuals. Improving this is seen as
beneficial for individuals and society, helping avoid conflict and understand others.

◦It involves overcoming barriers:

▪Ethnocentrism: The degree to which other cultures are judged as inferior to one's own.
Decreasing ethnocentrism involves emotional change, training interventions, and practicing
cultural relativism.
▪Cultural relativism: The opposite of ethnocentrism; considering a cultural element in light of
its total culture to understand its function
. It means understanding a culture from the inside, looking at behavior from their point of view,
and respecting differences.
▪Stereotypes: Oversimplifications of groups of people. Stereotypes can be self-fulfilling;
accepting them makes us see only supporting evidence. Interculturally competent communicators
question stereotypes and judge individuals on a person-to-person basis.
▪Prejudice: An unfounded attitude toward an outgroup based on comparison with one's ingroup.
It's a cultural blindness preventing accurate perception of reality. Avoiding prejudiced attitudes
helps individuals become more competent.
▪Discrimination: Treating individuals unequally based on race, gender, or other characteristics.

◦Moving towards multiculturalism means recognizing that several different cultures can exist and
benefit each other. Ways to become more multicultural include communicating with culturally
different others, seeking friends unlike yourself, traveling, learning languages, working to
understand people unlike yourself (reading, personal relationships, training), being pluralistic and
culturally relativistic (seeing a continuum of differences), capitalizing on curiosity, understanding
yourself (ethnocentrism, prejudice vs. relativism, tolerance), recognizing and appreciating
cultural differences, and being nonjudgmental of others and their cultural values.

•Intercultural Communication as an Academic Discipline: While intercultural communication

as a human activity is ancient (trade, conflict, etc.)
, it is relatively new as a discipline. It began for applied purposes in the US (training diplomats)
and spread to universities. In Europe, university courses started later. It has matured into an
academic field studying communication across different cultures and social groups, or how
culture affects communication. It describes communication processes and problems in diverse
contexts and seeks to understand how people from different countries/cultures act, communicate,
and perceive the world. The study can help us step back from habitual views, understand cultural
influences, and see the world from multiple perspectives. It encourages recognizing and
respecting different ways of thinking. The course focuses on the relationship between culture and
communication.