REVIEW

published: 16 November 2021

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769782

Building Positive Organizations:

A Typology of Positive Psychology
Interventions
Marianne van Woerkom 1,2*
1
Department of Human Resource Studies, Tilburg University, Tilburg, Netherlands, 2 Center of Excellence for Positive
Organizational Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands

Research indicates that Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) in the work context
have a small positive impact on improving desirable work outcomes, and a small to
moderate effect on reducing undesirable work outcomes, suggesting that the effects of
PPIs are not trivial, but also not large. Whereas this may be related to the difficulty
of changing oneself or one’s happiness levels, the relatively small effects of PPIs
may also be due to the predominant use of one-off interventions instead of more
structural interventions that reflect policy level commitment. Furthermore, since most
PPIs tend to focus on the individual, one could question the long-term effectiveness of
such interventions, especially when the work environment remains unchanged. In this
manuscript, I introduce a typology of PPIs in organizations by distinguishing between
Edited by: the organizational level they target (the individual or group level), and between one-off
Llewellyn Ellardus Van Zyl, and structural interventions. I argue that different types of interventions can strengthen
North West University, South Africa
each other, and that to make a sustainable contribution to the optimal functioning of
Reviewed by:
Fabian Gander,
workers, PPIs need to comprise a wide variety of one-off and structural interventions
University of Zurich, Switzerland targeting both individuals and groups in organizations. Furthermore, I make suggestions
Meg Aum Warren, for improving the long-term effectiveness of PPIs by drawing on the literature on transfer
Western Washington University,
United States of training, nudging, and positive design.
*Correspondence: Keywords: positive psychology, positive psychology intervention (PPI), employee well-being, positive
Marianne van Woerkom organizational scholarship (POS), positive institutions, transfer of training, positive design, nudging
[Link]@[Link]

Specialty section: INTRODUCTION

This article was submitted to
Positive Psychology, Most adults spend a large part of their life working, and their well-being at work accounts for
a section of the journal
a large part of the variation in their life satisfaction (Judge and Watanabe, 1993). Furthermore,
Frontiers in Psychology
happy employees have been found to perform better than their less happy colleagues (Cropanzano
Received: 02 September 2021
and Wright, 2001). For these reasons, many scholars and practitioners develop and investigate
Accepted: 23 October 2021
Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) that are aimed to enhance worker well-being. PPIs refer
Published: 16 November 2021
to intentional activities or methods (training and coaching, etc.) based on (a) the cultivation of
Citation:
valued subjective experiences, (b) the building of positive individual traits, or (c) the building of
van Woerkom M (2021) Building
Positive Organizations: A Typology
positive institutions (Meyers et al., 2013). Examples of well-known PPIs are interventions that
of Positive Psychology Interventions. try to enhance feelings of gratitude (Davis et al., 2016), optimism (Malouff and Schutte, 2017),
Front. Psychol. 12:769782. or kind behavior (Curry et al., 2018). Whereas the ultimate aim of PPIs is to increase the well-being
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.769782 of an individual or group (Schueller et al., 2014), when considered in an organizational context

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van Woerkom Building Positive Organizations

PPIs may also be applied to indirectly enhance outcomes such forty articles they reported small but significant effects for both
as performance, job satisfaction, leadership skills, and work- well-being and depression. Whereas the effects of PPIs at a three
life balance (Meyers et al., 2013). A recent meta-analysis on to 6 months follow-up were still significant for well-being, they
PPIs in a wide variety of contexts (Carr et al., 2020) concluded were no longer significant for depression. Furthermore, they
that PPIs have small to medium positive effects on outcomes found that interventions were more effective if they lasted longer,
related to well-being, and small to medium negative effects if recruitment was conducted via referral or hospital, if they were
on outcomes related to ill-being. A systematic review and a delivered on an individual basis, and if the study design was of
meta-analysis on PPIs in the work context pointed out that low quality. They also established that people with psychosocial
on average these interventions have a small positive impact on problems benefited more from PPIs.
improving desirable work outcomes, and a small to moderate Based on a reanalysis of the studies that were previously
effect on reducing undesirable work outcomes (Meyers et al., included in the meta-analyses of Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009)
2013; Donaldson et al., 2019b). So even though the effects of PPIs and Bolier et al. (2013); White et al. (2019) found that when
are not trivial, they are also not large. Apart from the difficulty small sample size bias was considered, the effect of PPIs on well-
of changing oneself or one’s happiness levels, and maintaining being were small but still significant, whereas the effect of PPIs on
such behavioral changes (Sheldon and Lyubomirsky, 2021), this depression were generally not statistically significant.
may be due to the predominant use of interventions that are The most recent meta-analysis (Carr et al., 2020) broadly
based on singular constructs (e.g., gratitude or optimism), that viewed PPIs as evidence-based interventions which have the
are short-term in nature (Kushlev et al., 2017; White et al., 2019), primary aim of increasing well-being and included 347 PPIs
and that are not structurally embedded in the organizational involving over 72,000 participants from clinical and non-clinical
policies. Furthermore, since most PPIs tend to focus on the child and adult populations. The authors concluded that PPIs
individual, one could question the long-term effectiveness of such have small to medium positive effects on well-being, strengths,
interventions, especially when the (social) work environment and quality of life, and small to medium negative effects on
remains unchanged. depression, anxiety, and stress, that were maintained at 3 months
In this manuscript, I address the role of PPIs in the creation follow-up. Further, they established that effects were stronger
of positive organizations that facilitate optimal functioning of its for individuals in non-western countries, and with clinical
members. I introduce a typology of four different types of PPIs in problems, and that longer programs containing multiple PPIs
organizations by distinguishing between the organizational level were more effective.
they target (the individual or the group level), and between one- When looking at the effect of PPIs in the organizational
off and structural interventions. I argue that different types of context, less information is available. Meyers et al. (2013)
interventions can strengthen each other, and that in order to conducted a systematic review of PPIs applied in the
make a sustainable contribution to the optimal functioning of organizational context. Based on an analysis of fifteen studies
workers, PPIs need to comprise a wide variety of one-off and they conclude that PPIs consistently enhance employee well-
structural interventions targeting both individuals and groups. being. The effects on performance were more ambiguous,
Furthermore, I make suggestions for improving the long-term which according to the authors could have been caused by a
effectiveness of PPIs by drawing on the literature on transfer of limited sample size or shortenings of the interventions due
training, nudging, and positive design. to the pressure to include them into busy working days. The
authors explain the ambiguous effects of PPIs on negative
emotional states such as anxiety, burnout, depression, and stress
WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE by statistical floor effects since employee populations score rather
EFFECTIVENESS OF POSITIVE low on these negative constructs.
PSYCHOLOGY INTERVENTIONS A recent meta-analysis by Donaldson et al. (2019a) included
intervention studies from positive organizational scholarship
Several meta-analyses have been conducted to establish the (POS), positive organizational behavior (POB), and positive
effectiveness of PPIs in a variety of settings. The first meta- organizational psychology literature (POP), comprising
analysis (Sin and Lyubomirsky, 2009) was based on 51 studies interventions targeting psychological capital, job crafting,
that tested interventions, therapies, or activities primarily strengths gratitude, or well-being. Based on 22 studies they found
aimed at increasing positive feelings, positive behaviors, or that PPIs had a small positive effect on improving desirable
positive cognitions, and that included pre- and post-intervention work outcomes, and a small to moderate effect on reducing
measures of well-being or depression, as well as a comparison undesirable work outcomes. Interestingly, whereas previous
group. This study pointed out that PPIs have a significant positive meta-analyses found that delivery methods on an individual
effect on well-being and a significant negative effect on depressive basis (e.g., individual coaching) were more effective in improving
symptoms. This study also revealed that PPIs are more effective well-being (Sin and Lyubomirsky, 2009; Bolier et al., 2013), they
for people who are depressed, older, or highly motivated to observed a larger effect of PPIs that were delivered in groups,
improve, and that longer interventions and interventions that are even though individual interventions had a stronger effect on
delivered to individuals (versus groups) are more effective. decreasing undesirable work outcomes. Furthermore, they found
Bolier et al. (2013) chose to meta-analyse only randomized that gratitude and strengths interventions had stronger mean
controlled studies that were explicitly labeled as PPIs. Based on effect sizes than other interventions on desirable outcomes,

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van Woerkom Building Positive Organizations

whereas interventions targeting psychological capital (i.e., hope, and the coordination of team roles based on these strengths is
optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy (Luthans et al., 2006) had associated with both individual performance and leader-rated
stronger effect sizes on undesirable outcomes. team performance (Meyers et al., 2020). Furthermore, Fortuin
et al. (2021) found that the extent to which team members exhibit
mood-enhancing, energizing, and uniting behaviors, directed
The Psychologistic Fallacy of Positive toward other team members contribute to a positive team climate
Psychology Interventions and teamwork engagement.
When looking at the meta-analytic studies, it is striking to By incorporating principles from the systems sciences into the
see that PPIs focus almost exclusively on individual outcomes design of the intervention, PPIs can consider that individuals
such as well-being and depression. Even the studies that cannot be separated from the broader social systems that
focused on PPIs in the organizational context hardly included they are part of Kern et al. (2020). An example of an
outcomes beyond the individual level. The review by Meyers intervention informed by systems sciences is Appreciative
et al. (2013), which explicitly aimed to cover outcomes at Inquiry (AI), which aims to create high motivation, high spirit,
multiple organizational levels (individual, team, department, and cooperation among organizational members as well as a
and organization), only identified one study that investigated positive and appreciative climate (Whitney and Cooperrider,
changes in an organizational level variable (service delivery rate 1998). AI interventions focus the attention on positive change
of primary care practices) (Ruhe et al., 2011) and one study that in an organization by collecting stories of organizational
investigated changes at the group level (group potency and group successes, developing ideas for a positive future, designing an
identification) (Peelle, 2006). The meta-analysis by Donaldson organization that makes optimal use of available strengths, and
et al. (2019b) included only two studies that contained outcomes setting up action plans for becoming such an organization
at the collective level, referring to team interactions (Spence (Cooperrider and Whitney, 2005).
Laschinger et al., 2012), and (individual level) perceptions
of organizational virtues such as forgiveness, trust, integrity,
optimism, and compassion (Williams et al., 2016). Positive Psychology Interventions as
The predominant use of PPIs that focus on the individual is Quick Fixes
in line with research showing that self-initiated and proactive The meta-analyses also reveal that the classic PPI is relatively
behaviors can have an important influence on the well-being of short. In the meta-analysis by Sin and Lyubomirsky (2009), only
workers (Parker et al., 2010; Oprea et al., 2019), and with the trend five of the 49 PPIs that targeted well-being, and only five of the
to encourage workers to take responsibility for their own well- 25 PPIs that targeted depression, lasted longer than 12 weeks. Of
being (Neck and Houghton, 2006). In addition, these individual the 39 interventions that were included by Bolier et al. (2013)
level PPIs may be particularly relevant for self-employed workers the majority (21) comprised 2 weeks or less. The meta-analysis
or employees who have little contact with their supervisor of Carr et al. (2020) was based on interventions with an average
or co-workers (Nielsen, 2013). However, the limited focus on of ten sessions over a 6-week period. When looking at studies in
individual traits and states is not in line with definitions of the organizational context, in the systematic review by Meyers
PPIs, which also refer to the aim of building positive institutions et al. (2013) only one of the 15 studies lasted for longer than
(Meyers et al., 2013), or enhancing the well-being of groups 11 weeks. Of the 22 studies that were included in the meta-
(Parks and Biswas-Diener, 2013). This neglect of broader socio- analysis by Donaldson et al. (2019b), the majority (12 studies)
environmental influences is also known as the “psychologistic included interventions that lasted for less than a month.
fallacy” (Bacharach et al., 2008); by primarily addressing a Further, only very few studies report on the sustainability of
person’s psyche, the broader social forces that impact upon on PPIs. Based on their review of 40 studies that reported on PPIs
individual’s well-being are ignored (Kern et al., 2020). Given targeting adults in real world settings Hone et al. (2015) conclude
the multi-level nature of work organizations that requires an that less than half of the studies (43%) assessed individual
investigation of intervention outcomes at individual, team, and behavior at least 6 months post-intervention, that only one study
organizational level (Rousseau, 1985), the focus on individual- reported details of current intervention or program status (2.5%),
level dependent variables represents an important shortcoming while none of the studies reported on the costs of maintenance.
of the literature on PPIs in organizations. Furthermore, even though three different meta-analyses (Sin
The scarcity of PPIs that target the group level is also in sharp and Lyubomirsky, 2009; Bolier et al., 2013; Carr et al., 2020)
contrast with studies that point out that positive states, traits, pointed out that longer interventions are more effective, possibly
and behaviors also exist at the group level. For example, West because they give participants the opportunity to convert the
et al. (2009) found that positive psychological capacities such as positive activities they are learning into habits (Fredrickson et al.,
efficacy, optimism and resilience also function at the team level, 2008), short PPIs are more popular in organizations, due to their
and that these team capacities are associated with important team reduced costs and lost working time (Meyers et al., 2013).
outcomes. van Woerkom et al. (2020) argue that the team context The predominant short-term nature of PPIs and the lack
has an important influence on whether individuals’ strengths will of knowledge about the sustainability of their effects might of
be noticed and appreciated by others, and ultimately, whether course be related to practical problems when conducting long-
these strengths will be used. They found that collective awareness term (experimental) research in organizations. However, it could
of the individual strengths that are represented in the team also suggest that PPIs are often implemented as quick fixes to

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van Woerkom Building Positive Organizations

TABLE 1 | Types of positive psychology interventions in organizations.

Targeting individuals Targeting groups

One-off E.g., a 4-week web-based strengths intervention E.g., a 1-day intervention focusing on appreciative inquiry into best
practices and peak experiences in a team
Structural E.g., implementing a feedforward interview in the performance appraisal procedures E.g., the implementation of well-being related HR practices

address problems with worker well-being, instead of considering changes in leader behavior do not always trickle down to the
them as part of integrated culture change processes and a way subordinate level (Slemp et al., 2021).
of ingraining positive practices in the fabric of an organization
(Garcea et al., 2009). A more sustainable implementation of a
positive psychology approach in organizations has implications FOUR TYPES OF POSITIVE
for every part of leadership and HR practices. For this reason, PSYCHOLOGY INTERVENTIONS
Llorens et al. (2013) recommend incorporating PPIs into the
general HR practices of the organization, thereby making them By distinguishing between interventions targeting individuals or
“natural procedures”, that can easily be prompted when needed, groups, and between one-off and structural interventions, four
and to warrant commitment of the whole organization by different types of PPIs emerge (see Table 1). This Typology of
providing them with information about the expected gains. Positive Psychology Interventions in Organizations (TYPPIO)
For instance, to sustain worker resilience in the long- widens the scope of practitioners and scholars beyond the
term a short one-off training is obviously not sufficient but classical one-off PPI that targets positive states or traits of
would need to be complemented by the development of caring individuals but let the (social) work environment remain
relationships among managers and employees, enhancing social unchanged and alerts them to other types of interventions that
support, promoting work–life balance practices, the provision address the multi-level nature of work organizations or make
of counseling services, and flexible work arrangements that use of the opportunity to incorporate interventions into the
help workers cope with work and non-work demands (Bardoel fabric of the organization (Garcea et al., 2009). Further, this
et al., 2014). Similarly, implementing a strengths workshop typology enhances awareness of the different roles that different
that helps workers to identify their strengths and use these types of intervention may play in enhancing worker well-being.
more often at work is unlikely to be successful if such By studying combinations of different types of intervention;
a training is not embedded in an organizational climate individual-level and group-level interventions, and one-off and
and accompanying HR practices (Biswas-Diener et al., 2017). structural interventions, we can expand our knowledge of the
A sustainable implementation of a strengths-based approach potential of positive psychology to facilitate worker well-being in
requires recruitment and selection practices that are informed by the long run and add to the building of positive organizations.
knowledge about the strengths of applicants and the strengths Below, we discuss examples of each of these four types of
that are lacking in the team, and socialization practices that interventions, and the role they may play in building positive
recognize and highlight newcomers’ strengths at the very organizations in a sustainable way.
beginning of the employment relationship (Cable et al., 2013).
Further, idiosyncratic deals that individuals negotiate with their One-Off Interventions Targeting
team leader and co-workers (Rousseau et al., 2006) allow for Individual Level Outcomes
opportunities to tailor job content to individual strengths, A typical example of a one-off PPI targeting individual outcomes
and strengths-based performance appraisals (Bouskila-Yam and is a 4-week web-based intervention aimed at enhancing the
Kluger, 2011) aimed at discovering unique qualities of workers application of signature strengths at work that was investigated
can give them the opportunity to create a job role in which they by Harzer and Ruch (2016). In this intervention, participants
can use their strengths to contribute to the team task. first filled in the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-
Another way to ensure the sustainability of PPIs is to enhance IS; Peterson and Seligman, 2004), and then learned about their
the well-being of workers by targeting interventions at their four highest character strengths through a web-based training
leaders. Because leaders can promote a culture of support platform. Subsequently, they were asked to think about the ways
for employees and hold positions at which they can provide they currently used their signature strengths in daily activities and
important resources to promote worker well-being, these types tasks at work, and to develop if-then-plans about how to use their
of interventions may lead to more sustainable effects (van four highest character strengths in new and different ways in daily
Woerkom et al., 2021). For instance, Kelloway et al. (2013) show activities and tasks at work. Next, participants were instructed
that positive leadership behaviors such as praising, helping, or to implement these plans. The authors established that this
thanking individuals are associated with employee well-being. intervention enhanced the perception of the job as a calling, and
Avey et al. (2011) showed that when leaders enact the features satisfaction with life until 6 months after the intervention period.
of psychological capital (i.e., hope, optimism, resilience, and self- Even though it is striking that such a relatively light
esteem), follower positivity and performance were enhanced. intervention led to effects 6 month later, it is questionable
However, a potential risk of interventions targeting leaders is that whether these effects can be prolonged if the work environment

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van Woerkom Building Positive Organizations

does not change, and structural interventions that help and future. The researchers found that the feedforward intervention
remind workers to use their strengths on an ongoing basis increased performance 4 months later, relative to the traditional
are lacking. Further, based on the findings of Seligman et al. performance appraisal procedure.
(2005) it seems that the novelty-aspect in this exercise is Even though the authors of this study unfortunately did
particularly relevant, and that simply displaying more strengths- not report whether their study in fact led to lasting changes
based behavior does not go along with increases in well-being. in the performance review practices in the organization,
This calls into question the effectiveness of prolonging this type this intervention is a good example of a seemingly effective
of intervention. organizational practice that can replace current structural
However, one-off interventions like this can still play an practices, instead of being implemented as a one-off intervention
important role in the creation of positive organizations. First, on top off current practices. This would mean that implementing
they may function as an important first step in the transition this intervention does not involve the investment of additional
to a more positive organization by providing workers and time, apart from a one-time investment in the development of
leaders with new knowledge and insights based on positive new procedures and training managers and can sustainably be
psychology theories, which may in time lead to more structural embedded in the organization.
interventions when they succeed in convincing people of the
value of positive psychology. Second, these interventions may One-Off Interventions Targeting Group
indirectly also influence organizational culture, as was shown
Level Outcomes
by Williams et al. (2016) who studied the effects of a 3-day
Since happiness comes from trying to make others feel good
training in psychological capital. Even though this training
rather than oneself (Titova and Sheldon, 2021), targeting group
addressed individual cognitions, they found that respondents
interactions can be an effective way to enhance well-being in
with higher levels of PsyCap chose to focus on positive aspects
organizations. Furthermore, group interventions can stimulate
of the organization environment and therefore evaluated the
a social support climate, thereby fostering the commitment
organizational culture more positively. Third, due to hedonic
and motivation that is needed to sustain intervention effects
adaptation, workers might over time adapt to the emotional
(Knight et al., 2019). This may especially be the case when
impact of more structural positive organizational practices
employees and employers have a joined responsibility for the
(Lyubomirsky, 2011), such that they will experience a boost in
design of the intervention, and when the intervention targets
well-being at the start of the positive change, followed by a
leader and employee behaviors as mutually supportive ways to
return to their original baseline level of well-being as they grow
foster employee well-being (see e.g., Kompier et al., 1998; Holman
accustomed to the change and begin to take it for granted (Parks
and Axtell, 2016).
et al., 2012). Short one-off interventions that target individual
An example of an intervention in this category is described in a
level outcomes may act as boosters of more structural positive
study by Peelle (2006) among cross-functional teams. The author
interventions that workers might have grown accustomed to.
found that a 1-day intervention focusing on appreciative inquiry
into best practices and peak experiences led to higher levels of
Structural Interventions Targeting group identification and in turn group potency, compared to
an intervention focusing on creative problem solving. Another
Individual Level Outcomes
example in this category is a 6-month workgroup intervention
Job redesign that increases the amount of control that employees
that aimed at enhancing civility, respect, and engagement
have over their work is an example of a structural intervention
in the workplace and in social encounters among people in
that enhances the well-being of individual workers. For instance,
hospital units (Leiter et al., 2011, 2012). Hospital units were
an intervention that gave call center workers more control over
surveyed 3 months before the intervention and unit managers
their work plan and their development planning, led to stronger
were provided with a profile of their overall results regarding
perceptions of job control, and an improved mental health
civility, respect, and engagement in comparison with other
(Bond and Bunce, 2001; Bond et al., 2008). Another example
units for discussion with their staff. Next, all units identified
of an intervention targeting individual outcomes that could be
their own goals, agendas, and processes for improving their
implemented on a structural basis is a feedforward interview that
working relationships in weekly sessions under the guidance
was implemented as an alternative to the traditional performance
of a dedicated facilitator. The intervention resulted in more
appraisal interview (Budworth et al., 2015). For the delivery of
frequent expressions of appreciation, and in changed workgroup
this intervention, managers were trained to focus an employee’s
processes, such as including respect as a continuing agenda
attention on a positive work experience involving goal attainment
item on workgroup meetings and improving procedures for
by asking for a specific incident where they felt particularly good
registering complaints about mistreatment at work.
about attaining a goal. Furthermore, managers were instructed
to ask follow-up questions on the circumstances that enabled
their employees to be effective, about the actions that made them Structural Interventions Targeting Group
feel energized, and about what they could do in coming year Level Outcomes
to create similar circumstances. This training shifted the role Even though field experiments with structural interventions
of the manager from judging an employee’s past performance addressing group level outcomes are uncommon, several
to appreciative inquiry of what an employee will do in the studies report that HR practices aimed at enhancing worker

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van Woerkom Building Positive Organizations

well-being have a positive impact on group outcomes. For negative affectivity, openness to experience, perceived utility of
example, Acosta et al. (2012) established that an organization’s the training, having specific plans for achieving career related
systematic, planned, and proactive efforts to improve employees goals, and organizational commitment are learner characteristics
and organizational health are associated with higher levels that are associated with transfer of training. Regarding the
of teamwork engagement. These efforts included practices intervention design, they found that setting explicit learning
at the task level (e.g., by redesigning tasks to improve goals, a training content that is perceived as relevant to the
autonomy and feedback), social environmental level (e.g., work task, providing practice and feedback, behavioral modeling
by bidirectional communication to improve social relationships), (i.e., descriptions of a models’ key behaviors) and error-based
and organizational level (e.g., by practices that improve the examples (i.e., sharing with trainees what can go wrong if they
work-family balance). Further, Huettermann and Bruch do not use the trained skills back on the job) were relevant
(2019) found that HR practices aimed at maintaining and factors. Furthermore, they established that supervisory support
promoting employees’ psychological well-being, enhance and peer support are factors in the work environment that
employees’ collective well-being. More specifically, these enhance transfer. More generally, a transfer climate, referring
HR practices included the prevention of and recovery from to cues in the work environment that prompt trainees to use
work-related psychological health problems, the critical role new skills, incentives for correct use of skills, and remediation
of top management in communicating the importance of the for not using skills has also been associated with higher chances
HR practices, and of leaders in delivering health-related HR of transfer. Additionally, they found that transfer is limited
practices, and the ongoing evaluation of the HR practices to when trainees are not provided with opportunities to use new
ensure their effectiveness and sustainability. According to the learning in their work setting, for instance because their workload
authors, these practices instilled a positive mindset about the is too high. Other studies on transfer of training suggest that
potentially enhancing nature of stress, which in turn, decreased pre-training interventions such as offering attentional advice,
employees’ shared perceptions of how emotionally drained their preparatory information, and advance organizers, may enhance
colleagues are from their work, and increased shared perceptions training effectiveness (Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran, 2010).
of how physically, cognitively, and emotionally invested their Also assisting trainees in monitoring their progress toward
colleagues are in their work. meeting their objectives or reminding them to continuously
Even though future research will have to point out if the answer the question “why am I doing this” may enhance the
aforementioned HR practices have a sustainable effect on group effectiveness of training (Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesvaran,
level outcomes, the structural embeddedness of these practices 2010). Further, post-training interventions such as goal-setting
in the organizational procedures make it more likely that their and self-management (Gist et al., 1991; Werner et al., 1994) have
effects will be long lasting. proved to improve learning outcomes.
The extensive research on the factors that play a role in
transfer of training is particularly relevant to the design of
ENHANCING THE SUSTAINABILITY OF one-off PPIs that are delivered in the form of a training
POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY or coaching program. Whereas knowledge about trait-level
INTERVENTIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS characteristics of participants (e.g., openness to experience)
associated with transfer of training may be more difficult
By investigating a combination of one-off and structural to translate to PPI design, the knowledge about state-level
interventions, and interventions that target individual and participant characteristics, as well as features of the intervention
collective outcomes, we can develop a fuller understanding design and the work environment that contribute to transfer of
of the potential of PPIs to contribute to the building of training can help to make the design of PPIs stronger and embed
positive organizations. Further, to sustain the effects of PPIs in one-off interventions more structurally in the work environment.
organizations, researchers and practitioners may benefit from For example, the web-based strengths intervention that was
several streams in the literature that so far have been largely developed by Harzer and Ruch (2016) could be strengthened
neglected in the literature on positive psychology. Below, I discuss by organizing supervisor or peer support for strengths use or
some suggestions based on the literature on transfer of training, providing a post-training intervention on goal-setting and self-
behavioral change, positive design, and nudging. management.

Transfer of Training Positive Design

The literature on transfer of training signals that training Another stream in the literature that could be helpful in
effectiveness in organizational contexts depends on the extent enhancing the sustainability of PPIs in organizations is the
to which the learning that results from a training experience literature on positive design. This literature proposes that
transfers to the job and leads to meaningful changes in work interventions do not only include trainings, coaching programs,
behavior (Blume et al., 2009). Transfer of training is influenced or apps, but also new organizational policies or practices, or
by three primary factors, i.e., learner characteristics, intervention changes in the physical environment (Desmet, 2021). Desmet
design and delivery, and the work environment. Based on a (2021) identifies four design strategies that can be used to
review of the literature Burke and Hutchins (2007) conclude that enhance the effectiveness of PPIs by appealing to the needs of
cognitive ability, self-efficacy, pre-training motivation, anxiety or the user, and motivating them to adhere to the intervention,

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van Woerkom Building Positive Organizations

i.e., empathic design, participative design, gamification, and (Egebark and Ekström, 2016), and that desk-based electricity use
persuasive design. Empathic design refers to putting oneself in the can be reduced by programming devices to automatically switch
position of the target group, their experiences, and latent needs off after a period of non-activity (Staddon et al., 2016). A nudge
(Koskinen et al., 2003), for instance by meeting the users of the that informed people that an increasing number of people is
intervention and visiting the places where they will make use of switching from to-go cups to sustainable alternatives led to a
the intervention. Co-design is a strategy in which designers and reduced use of disposable cups at work (Loschelder et al., 2019).
end-users cooperate to come up with a good design and is based Making desirable behavior more visible can also be an effective
on the idea that end-users of the intervention are experts of their nudge, as was shown by a study that found that medical staff
own experiences and therefore have can a unique contribution in engaged more often in hand hygiene behaviors when they were
the design process. Gamification refers to enhancing motivation openly observed (Wu et al., 2018).
and engagement by applying gaming principles in non-gaming Whereas nudges tend not to be effective when people have
environments. For instance, by introducing rewards, making a strong preference for the alternative option, they are most
progression visible, and facilitating social interaction, specific effective in situations where people are indifferent to the
activities can be made more challenging and fun, thereby behavior at hand, have good intentions that they forget about,
accommodating basic needs for affirmation, growth, autonomy, experience conflicting preferences, or do not know what to
and self-expression. Persuasive design tries to change attitudes do because the situation is new to them (Venema and van
or behavioral patterns of end users by forcing or seducing them Gestel, 2021). All these situations may apply after workers have
into a specific behavior, for example by transferring knowledge, participated in a one-off PPI and may intent to display certain
making desired behavior easier, reminding people of intended behavior (e.g., focusing on the positive, using their strengths,
behavior, activating their norms, using social competition and etc.) but are still unfamiliar with this behavior, forget about it
rewards, or giving immediate feedback (Kelders, 2012). in the madness of the working day, or are being confronted
By applying empathic design, participative design, with negative experiences at work. By changing the choice
gamification, and persuasive design PPIs can become more architecture at the workplace, nudging could be a valuable tool
structurally embedded in the physical and social work for supporting behavioral change that could be incorporated
environment, thereby making their effects more sustainable. in the design of PPIs. For instance, the effect of a 6-month
Because habits are often strongly connected to the environments workgroup intervention aimed at enhancing civility, respect, and
in which they occur, changing the environment in cooperation engagement in the workplace (Leiter et al., 2011, 2012) could
with workers can be a very effective intervention to support be prolonged by making expressing gratitude to co-workers
behavioral change. For instance, the effect of a 1-day intervention by default the first point on the agenda of team meetings, or
focusing on appreciative inquiry into best practices and peak by incorporating feedback on strengths in performance review
experiences among cross-functional teams (Peelle, 2006) could procedures. Also, the concept of nudging could be used to
be strengthened by designing a room where these teams can scrutinize the current choice environment at the workplace for
meet and engage in fun and relaxing activities during breaks, or unintended counterproductive nudges in terms of the defaults
by implementing a game that rewards expressing appreciation to that are in place and the norms that are being conveyed
other team members. (Venema and van Gestel, 2021).

Nudging
Another helpful stream in the literature related to persuasive CONCLUSION
design is that on nudging. The concept of nudging is based
on research that shows that many behaviors are directed Research on PPIs has greatly contributed to the field of positive
by unconscious processes and that decisions are often not psychology in general, and to the field of positive organizational
made based on rational thinking processes, but on quick psychology in particular, especially because these studies are
and automatic heuristic processing (Kahneman, 2011) that is generally based on strong, experimental or quasi-experimental
influenced by cues in the environment that people are unaware designs. However, despite definitions of PPIs that mention the
of. Nudging interventions gently suggest a specific choice by aim of building positive institutions (Meyers et al., 2013), or
rearranging the choice context (Marchiori et al., 2017), without enhancing the well-being of groups (Parks and Biswas-Diener,
restricting alternative options or changing financial incentives 2013), these studies are largely based on interventions that target
(Thaler and Sunstein, 2008). Typical nudges change the physical positive states and traits of individuals but let the (social) work
environment or standard options, provide the possibility to environment remain unchanged. Given the multi-level nature of
correct impulsive choices, or provide feedback on choices work organizations, and the importance of positive states, traits,
(Thaler and Sunstein, 2008). and behaviors at the group level this represents an important
Several studies investigated the effectiveness of nudging in shortcoming of the literature. Another drawback of the literature
organizational contexts. One study found that placing a sit-stand on PPIs in organizations is that it is based on relative short,
desk by default at standing height increased stand-up working one-off interventions and that very little is known about the
rates by approximately seven times (Venema et al., 2018). Other sustainability of their effects (Hone et al., 2015). This could
studies found that changing default printer settings to double- indicate that PPIs are often implemented as quick fixes to
sided printing led to significant reductions in paper waste problems with worker well-being, instead of as part of integrated

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van Woerkom Building Positive Organizations

culture change processes that are ingrained in the fabric of the Whereas structural PPIs that target the group or organizational
organization (Garcea et al., 2009). level are more difficult to assess with (quasi) experimental
In this manuscript, I distinguished between four different designs, the effectiveness of these interventions can still be
types of interventions that can all play a role in the building evaluated with a wide array of methods, e.g., by conducting
of positive organizations, i.e., one-off interventions targeting interviews with stakeholders, recording field study notes from
individuals, one-off interventions targeting groups, structural workshops, and obtaining experience sampling or diary data
interventions targeting individuals, and structural interventions (Nielsen and Abildgaard, 2013).
targeting groups. One-off interventions can play an important However, if organizations are to embed the principles of
role in the beginning of a change process when workers positive psychology on a more structural basis in their HR and
need to be informed about the value of positive psychology. leadership practices, this will require a shift from a focus on
However, structural interventions in the form of HR or managing employee deficits to a focus on their strengths (Garcea
leadership practices that are based on the principles of positive et al., 2009). HR should move to a new phase and start to
psychology are needed to promote, increase, and improve the promote, increase, and improve the well-being of all workers on
well-being of all employees on the long term (Paul and Garg, the long term, and not just workers who are sick, distressed or
2014). When these structural interventions are in place, one- underperforming (Schaufeli and Salanova, 2010).
off interventions can again strengthen their effect by acting
as a booster when the structural attention for specific positive
practices in the organizations has begun to wane. Furthermore, AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
one-off interventions can be embedded more structurally in
the organization by incorporating insights from research on MW was responsible for the entire article and approved it
transfer of training, positive design, and nudging in their design. for publication.

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interventions in organizations. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 94, 221–229. doi: absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a
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Werner, J. M., O’Leary-Kelly, A. M., Baldwin, T. T., and Wexley, K. N. (1994). or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and
Augmenting behavior-modeling training: testing the effects of pre- and post- the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal
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