24EE204 – BASICS OF ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV

ELECTRONIC DEVICES

 Introduction to semiconductor
 PN Diode
 Zener Diode
 BJT
 Its configurations – CE, CB, CC
 SCR
 Optoelectronic devices
 LED
 OLED
 Seven segment displays.
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1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR

A semiconductor is a material which has electrical conductivity to a degree between

that of a metal (such as copper) and that of an insulator (such as glass). Semiconductors
arethe foundation of modern electronics, including transistors, solar cells, light -emitting
diodes (LEDs), quantum dots and digital and analog integrated circuits.

DIODE

Diode – Di + ode

Di means two and ode means electrode. So physical contact of two electrodes is
known asdiode and its important function is alternative current to direct current.

REVIEW OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

An intrinsic semiconductor is one, which is pure enough that impurities do not

appreciably affect its electrical behavior. In this case, all carriers are created due to
thermally or optically excited electrons from the full valence band into the empty
conduction band. Thus equal numbers of electrons and holes are present in an intrinsic
semiconductor. Electrons and holes flow in opposite directions in an electric field, though
they contribute to current in the same direction since they are oppositely charged. Whole
current and electron current are not necessarily equal in an intrinsic semiconductor,
however, because electrons and holes have different effective masses (crystalline
analogues to free inertial masses).

The concentration of carriers is strongly dependent on the temperature. At low

temperatures, the valence band is completely full making the material an insulator.
Increasing the temperature leads to an increase in the number of carriers and a
corresponding increase in conductivity. This characteristic shown by intrinsic
semiconductor is different from the behavior of most metals, which tend to become less
conductive at higher temperatures due to increased phonon scattering.

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Both silicon and germanium are tetravalent, i.e. each has four electrons (valence
electrons) in their outermost shell. Both elements crystallize with a diamond- like
structure, i.e. in such a way that each atom in the crystal is inside a tetrahedron formed
by the four atoms which are closest to it. Each atom shares its four valence electrons with
its four immediate neighbors, so that each atom is involved in four covalent bonds.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped with impurities to modifythe
number and type of free charge carriers. An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor
that has been doped, that is, into which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it
different electrical properties than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor.

Doping involves adding doping atoms to an intrinsic semiconductor, which changes

the electron and hole carrier concentrations of the semiconductor at thermal equilibrium.
Dominant carrier concentrations in an extrinsic semiconductor classify it as either an n-
type or p-type semiconductor.
A pure or intrinsic conductor has thermally generated holes and electrons. However
these are relatively few in number. An enormous increase in the number of charge carriers
can be achieved by introducing impurities into the semiconductor ina controlled manner.
The result is the formation of an extrinsic semiconductor. This process is referred to as
doping. There are basically two types of impurities: donor impurities and acceptor
impurities. Donor impurities are made up of atoms (arsenic forexample) which have five
valence electrons. Acceptor impurities are made up of atoms(gallium for example) which
have three valence electrons.
The two types of extrinsic semiconductor are

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
Extrinsic semiconductors with a larger electron concentration than hole
concentration are known as n-type semiconductors. The phrase 'n-type' comes from the

Negative charge of the electron. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority
carriers and holes are the minority carriers. N-type semiconductors are created by doping
an intrinsic semiconductor with donor impurities.

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In an n-type semiconductor, the Fermi energy level is greater than that of the intrinsic
semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction band than the valence band. Arsenic has
5 valence electrons, however, only 4 of them form part of covalent bonds. The 5th
electron is then free to take part in conduction. The electrons are said to be the majority
carriers and the holes are said to be the minority carriers.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
As opposed to n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a larger hole
concentration than electron concentration. The phrase 'p-type' refers to the positive
charge of the hole. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and
electrons are the minority carriers. P-type semiconductors are created by doping an
intrinsic semiconductor with acceptor impurities. P-type semiconductors have Fermi
energy levels below the intrinsic Fermi energy level.
The Fermi energy level lies closer to the valence band than the conduction band in
a p- type semiconductor. Gallium has 3 valence electrons, however, there are 4 covalent

bonds to fill. The 4th bond therefore remains vacant producing a hole. The holes are said
to be the majority carriers and the electrons are said to be the minority carriers.
PN JUNCTION DIODE

When the N and P-type semiconductor materials are first joined together a very large
density gradient exists between both sides of the junction so some of the free electrons
from the donor impurity atoms begin to migrate across this newly formed junction to
fill up the holes in the P- type material producing negative ions.

FORWARD BIAS CONDITION

When positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and negative
terminal to N-type of the PN junction diode that is known as forward bias condition.

Operation
The applied potential in external battery acts in opposition to the internal
potential barrier which disturbs the equilibrium.

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As soon as equilibrium is disturbed by the application of an external voltage, the

Fermilevel is no longer continuous across the junction. Under the forward bias condition
the applied positive potential repels the holes in P typeregion so that the holes move
towards the junction and the applied positive potential repels the electrons in N type
region so that the electrons move towards the junction.
When the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential the
depletionregion and internal potential barrier disappear.


Figure: 1.1.1 PN junctions under forward bias
[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 110]

V-I Characteristics
As the forward voltage increased for VF < Vo, the forward current IF almost zero
because the potential barrier prevents the holes from P region and electrons from N
region to flow across the depletion region in opposite direction.


Figure: 1.1.2 V-I characteristics of a diode under forward bias

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 111]

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For VF > Vo, the potential barrier at the junction completely disappears and hence,
the holes cross the junction from P to N type and electrons cross the junction to opposite
direction, resulting large current flow in external circuit.

A feature noted here is the cut in voltage or threshold voltage VF below

which the current is very small. At this voltage the potential barrier is overcome and
the current through the junction starts to increase rapidly.
 Cut in voltage is 0.3V for germanium and 0.7 for silicon.

UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITION

When the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and positive
terminal to N-type of the PN junction diode that is known as forward bias condition.

Operation
The holes from the majority carriers of the P side move towards the negative terminal
of the battery and electrons which from the majority carrier of the N side are attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery.

Figure: 1.1.3 PN junctions under reverse bias

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 111]

Hence, the width of the depletion region which is depleted of mobile charge carriers
increases. Thus, the electric field produced by applied reverse bias, is in the same
direction as the electric field of the potential barrier. Hence the resultant potential barrier
is increased which prevents the flow of majority carriers in both directions. The depletion
width W is proportional to under reverse bias.

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V-I characteristics
Theoretically no current flow in the external circuit. But in practice a very small
amount of current of the order of few microamperes flows under reverse bias.

Figure: 1.1.4 V-I characteristics under reverse bias

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 112]

Electrons forming covalent bonds of semiconductor atoms in the P and N type

regions may absorb sufficient energy from heat and light to cause breaking covalent
bonds. So electron hole pairs continuously produced.
Consequently the minority carriers electrons in the P region and holes in the N
region, wander over to the junction and flow towards their majority carrier side giving
rise a small reverse current. This current is known as reverse saturation current Io.

The magnitude of this current is depends on the temperature because minority carrier
is thermally broken covalent bonds.

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1.7 ZENER DIODE

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like
a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown
voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after
Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.

Figure: 1.7.1 Zener Diode Symbol

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 136]

 However, the Zener Diode or "Breakdown Diode" as they are sometimes called,
are basically the same as the standard PN junction diode but are specially designed
to have a low pre- determined Reverse Breakdown Voltage that takes advantage
of this high reverse voltage.
 The point at which a zener diode breaks down or conducts is called the "Zener
Voltage" (Vz).The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting
of a silicon PN junction.
 When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode
passing the rated current, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it the reverse
saturation Current remains fairly constant over a wide range of voltages.
 The reverse voltage increases until the diodes breakdown voltage VB is reached
at
 Which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the depletion layer
and the current flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the
maximum circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor).
 This breakdown voltage point is called the "zener voltage" for zener diodes.

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Avalanche Breakdown: There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can
increase until the diode breakdown voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Break
down region. At this stage maximum current will flow through the zener diode. This
breakdown point is referred as ―Zener voltage‖.

The point at which current flows can be very accurately controlled (to less than
1%tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes construction giving the diode a specificzener
breakdown voltage, (Vz) ranging from a few volts up to a few hundred volts. This zener
breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.

Zener diode characteristics

Figure: 1.7.2 Zener diode V I Characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 137]

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2.1 TRANSISTORS
The transistor is the main building block ―element of electronics. It is a semiconductor
device and it comes in two general types: the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and the
Field Effect Transistor (FET).
It is named as transistor which is an acronym of two terms: ―transfer-of-resistor. It
means that the internal resistance of transistor transfers from one value to another values
depending on the biasing voltage applied to the transistor. Thus it is called Transfer
resistor: i.e. TRANSISTOR.
A bipolar transistor (BJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the
operation depends on the interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence
the name bipolar. The voltage between two terminals controls the current through the
third terminal. So it is called current controlled device. This is the basic principle of the
BJT

It can be used as amplifier and logic switches. BJT consists of three terminals:
 Collector: C
 Base: B
 Emitter: E

 TYPES

There are two types of bipolar transistors

 NPN transistor
 PNP transistor.

TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION

PNP Transistor: In PNP transistor a thin layer of N-type silicon is sandwiched between
two layers of P-type silicon. NPN Transistor: In NPN transistor a thin layer of P-type
silicon is sandwiched between two layers of N-type silicon. The two types of BJT are
represented in figure2.1.1

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Figure 2.1.1 Transistors: NPN, PNP

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 210]

The symbolic representation of the two types of the BJT is shown in figure 2.1.2

Figure 2.1.2 circuit symbol: NPN transistor, PNP transistor

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 210]

Junctions:
 There are two junctions in this transistor – junction J-1 and junction J-2
 The junction between or C-B junction. Collector layer and base layer
is called as collector-base junction
 The junction between base layer and emitter layer is called as base-
emitter junction or B-E junction. The two junctions have almost same
potential barrier voltage of 0.6V to 0.7V, just like in a diode.
Equivalent diode representation:
The transistor formed by back to back connection of two diodes

The states of the two p n junctions can be altered by the external circuitry connected
to the transistor. This is called biasing the transistor. Usually the emitter- base junction
is forward biased and collector –base junction is reverse biased. Due to

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Figure: 2.1.3 NPN-PNP Transistor

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 211]

Forward bias on the emitter- base junction an emitter current flows through the base into
the collector. Though, the collector –base junction is reverse biased, almost the entire
emitter current flows through the collector circuit.

Figure 2.1.4 Transistor biasing: PNP transistor, NPN transistor

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 211]

A single p n junction has two different types of bias:

 Forward bias
 Reverse bias

There are two junctions in bipolar junction transistor. Each junction can be forward or
reverse biased independently. Thus there are four modes of operations:

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Emitter-Base Collector- Base

Modes
junction junction

Cutoff Reverse Reverse

Active Forward Reverse

Saturation Forward Forward

Reverse Reverse Forward

active

Table 2.1 Modes of operation of transistor

Forward Active

In this mode of operation, emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector base
junction is reverse biased. Transistor behaves as a source. With controlled source
characteristics the BJT can be used as an amplifier and in analog circuits.

Cut off

When both junctions are reverse biased it is called cut off mode. In this situation there
is nearly zero current and transistor behaves as an open switch.

Saturation

In saturation mode both junctions are forward biased large collector current flows
with a small voltage across collector base junction. Transistor behaves as a closed
switch.

Reverse Active

It is opposite to forward active mode because in this emitter base junction is reverse
biased and collector base junction is forward biased. It is called inverted mode. It
is no suitable for amplification. However the reverse active mode has application
in digital circuits and certain analog switching circuits.

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TRANSISTOR CURRENTS

Figure 2.1.5 Transistor current flow directions

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 215]

 The arrow is always drawn on the emitter The arrow always point toward
the n-type
 The arrow indicates the direction of the emitter current:
 PNP: E-> B
 NPN: B-> E

IC = the collector current, IB = the base current, IE = the emitter current

OPERATION OF AN NPN TRANSISTOR

Emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased.
Due to emitter base junction is forward biased lot of electrons from emitter entering the base
region.
Base is lightly doped with P-type impurity. So the number of holes in the base region is
very small.

Due to this, electron- hole recombination is less (i.e,) few electrons (<5%) combine
with holes to constitute base current (IB)

The remaining electrons (>95%) crossover into collector region, to constitute collector
current(IC).

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Figure: 2.1.6 Current in NPN transistor

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 216]

Figure: 2.1.7 Current in PNP transistor

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 216]

Emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased. Due
to emitter base junction is forward biased lot of holes from emitter entering the base
region and electrons from base to emitter region.
Base is lightly doped with N-type impurity. So the number of electrons in the base region
is very small.
Due to this, electron- hole recombination is less (i.e,) few holes (<5%) combine with
electrons to constitute base current (IB)

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2.2 CONFIGURATION OF TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT

A transistor is a three terminal device. But require ‗4‘terminals for connecting it in a circuits.
(i.e.) 2 terminals for input, 2 terminals for output.
Hence one of the terminal is made common to the input and output circuits.Common
terminal is grounded.
TYPES OF CONFIGURATIONS
Three types of configuration is available

1) Common base(CB) configuration

2) Common emitter (CE) configuration

3) Common collector (CC) configuration

COMMON BASE (CB) CONFIGURATION

In common base configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here base is grounded

and it is used as the common terminal for both input and output.

Figure 2.2.1 Circuit to determine CB static characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 310]

It is also called as grounded base configuration. Emitter is used as an input terminal

whereas collector is the output terminal.

Input characteristics:

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input

current whereas output voltage is constant.

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To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is kept constant at zero
and emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing VEB.This is repeated for
higher fixed values of VCB.

A curve is drawn between emitter current and emitter base voltage at constant collector
base voltage is shown in figure 2.2.1.When VCB is zero EB junctions is forward biased.
So it behaves

Figure 2.11 CB input characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 311]

Output Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltages to output current
whereas input current is constant. To determine output characteristics, the emitter
current IE is kept constant at zero and collector current Ic is increased from zero by
increasing VCB.This is repeated for higher fixed values of IE.

From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IE, Ic is independent of
VCB and the curves are parallel to the axis of VCB.As the emitter base junction is forward
biased the majority carriers that is electrons from the emitter region are injected into the
base region.

In CB configuration a variation of the base-collector voltage results in a variation of the

quasi- neutral width in the base. The gradient of the minority-carrier density in the base
therefore changes, yielding an increased collector current as the collector-base current is

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increased. This effect is referred to as the early effect.

Figure 2.2.3 CB output characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 311]

COMMOM EMITTER CONFIGURATION

In common emitter configuration circuit is shown in figure. Here emitter is grounded and
it is used as the common terminal for both input and output. It is also called as grounded
emitter configuration. Base is used as a input terminal whereas collector is the output
terminal.

Figure 2.2.4 Circuit to determine CE static characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 312]

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Input Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input current
whereas output voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the collector base voltage VCB is kept constant at
zero and base current IB is increased from zero by increasing VBE.This is repeated for
higher fixed values of VCE.

A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage at constant collector
base voltage is shown in figure2.14. Here the base width decreases. So curve moves right
as VCE increases.

Figure 2.2.5 CE input characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 312]

Output Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltages to output
current whereas input current is constant.
To determine output characteristics, the base current IB is kept constant at zero and
collector current Ic is increased from zero by increasing VCE.This is repeated for higher
fixed values of IB.

From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, Ic is independent of VCB
and the curves are parallel to the axis of VCE.

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Figure 2.2.6 CE output Characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 312]

The output characteristic has 3 basic regions:

 Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements.

 Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
 Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V.

Active region Saturation region Cut-off region

BE and CB junction is Region below the line
IE increased, IC forward bias of IE=0 A
increased. Small changes in VCB BE and CB is reverse
BE junction forward will cause big different biase
bias and CB junction to IC No current flow at
reverse bias. The allocation for this collector, only leakage
Refer to the graph, IC≈ region is to the left of current.
IE VCB=0V.
IC not depends on VCB
Suitable region for the
transistor working as
amplifier.

Table: Common Emitter Region

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COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

Figure 2.2.7 Circuits to determine CC static characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 313]

Input Characteristics

It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between input voltages to input current
whereas output voltage is constant.
To determine input characteristics, the emitter base voltage VEB is kept constant at zero
and base current IB is increased from zero by increasing VBC.This is repeated for higher
fixed values of VCE.A curve is drawn between base current and base emitter voltage
at constant collector base voltage is shown in figure2.2.7

Figure 2.2.8 CC input characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 313]

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Output Characteristics
It is defined as the characteristic curve drawn between output voltages to output current
whereas input current is constant.
To determine output characteristics, the base current IB is kept constant at zero and
emitter current IE is increased from zero by increasing VEC. This is repeated for higher
fixed values of IB.

From the characteristic it is seen that for a constant value of IB, IE is independent of VEB
and the curves are parallel to the axis of VEC.

Figure 2.2.9 CC output characteristics

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 313]

A comparison of CB, CE and CC Configurations

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2.6 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

The SCR stand for Silicon Control Rectifier, it is used in industries because it can handle
high values of current and voltage.

Three terminals
• Anode - P-layer
• Cathode - N-layer (opposite end)
• Gate - P-layer near the cathode

Three junctions - four layers

Connect power such that the anode is positive with respect to the cathode - no current
will flow

A silicon controlled rectifier is a semiconductor device that acts as a true electronic

switch. It can change alternating current and at the same time can control the amount of
power fed to the load. SCR combines the features of a rectifier and a transistor.

Figure 2.6.1 Basic Structure, equivalent transistor model and symbol of SCR
[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 110]

When a p n junction is added to a junction transistor the resulting three p n junction

device is called a SCR. ordinary rectifier (p n) and a junction transistor (n p n) combined
in one unit to form p n p n device.
Three terminals are taken: one from the outer p- type material called anode a second
from the outer n- type material called cathode K and the third from the base of transistor
called Gate. GSCR is a solid state equivalent of thyratron. The gate anode and
cathode of SCR correspond to the grid plate and cathode of thyratron SCR is called
thyristor.

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Working Principle

Load is connected in series with anode the anode is always kept at positive potential
w.r.t cathode.

SCR Operation / Working

The Silicon Control Rectifier SCR start conduction when it is forward biased. For this
purpose the cathode is kept at negative and anode at positive. When positive clock pulse
is applied at the gate the SCR turns ON.
When forward bias voltage is applied to the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR, the junction
J1 and J3 become forward bias while the junction J2 become reverse bias.

When we apply a clock pulse at the gate terminal, the junction J2 become forward bias
and the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR start conduction. The Silicon Control Rectifier
SCR turn ON and OFF very quickly, At the OFF state the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR
provide infinity resistance and in ON state, it offers very low resistance, which is in the
range of 0.01O to 1O.

SCR Firing & Triggering

The Silicon Control Rectifier SCR is normally operated below the forward break over
voltage (VBO). To turn ON the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR we apply clock pulse at
the gate terminal which called triggering of Silicon Control Rectifier, but when the
Silicon Control Rectifier SCR turned ON, now if we remove the triggering voltage, the
Silicon Control Rectifier SCR will remain in ON state. This voltage is called Firing
voltage

Break over Voltage

It is the minimum forward voltage gate being open at which SCR starts conducting
heavily i.e turned on.

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Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV)

It is the maximum reverse voltage applied to an SCR without conducting in the reverse
direction

Holding Current

It is the maximum anode current gate being open at which SCR is turned off from on
conditions.

V-I Characteristics of SCR

Figure 2.6.2 V-I Characteristics of SCR

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 110]

Forward Characteristics

When anode is +vew.r.t cathode the curve between V &I is called Forward
characteristics. OABC is the forward characteristics of the SCR at Ig =0. if the
suppliedvoltage is increased from zero point A is reached .SCR starts conducting
voltage across SCR suddenly drops (dotted curve AB) most of supply voltage
appears across RL
Reverse Characteristics

When anode is –ve w.r.t cathode the curve b/w V&I is known as reverse
characteristics reverse voltage come across SCR when it is operated with ac supply

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reverse voltage is increased anode current remains small avalanche breakdown occurs
and SCR starts conducting heavily is known as reverse breakdown voltage.

Application

 SCR as a switch
 SCR Half and Full wave rectifier
 SCR as a static contactor
 SCR for power control
 SCR for speed control of d.c. shunt motor
 Over light detector

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1.6 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light emitting diode (LED) is known to be one of the best optoelectronic devicesout of
the lot. The device is capable of emitting a fairly narrow bandwidth of visible or invisible
light when its internal diode junction attains a forward electric current or voltage.

The visible lights that an LED emits are usually orange, red, yellow, or green. The invisible
light includes the infrared light. The biggest advantage of this device is its high power to
light conversion efficiency. That is, the efficiency is almost 50 times greater than a
simple tungsten lamp.

The response time of the LED is also known to be very fast in the range of 0.1
microseconds when compared with 100 milliseconds for a tungsten lamp. Due to these
advantages, the device wide applications as visual indicators and as dancing light displays.
We know that a P-N junction can connect the absorbed light energy into its proportional
electric current. The same process is reversed here. That is, the P-N junction emits light
when energy is applied on it. This phenomenon is generally calledelectro luminance, which
can be defined as the emission of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of an
electric field.
The charge carriers recombine in a forward P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-
region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the
conduction band of energy levels, while holes are in the valence energy band.

Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons.
Some part of the energy must be dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the
holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and light.
The electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for silicon and germanium diodes.But in
Gallium- Arsenide-phosphorous (GaP) and Gallium-phosphorous (GaP) semiconductors,
the electrons dissipate energy by emitting photons. If the semiconductor is translucent, the
junction becomes the source of light as it is emitted,

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thus becoming a light emitting diode (LED). But when the junction is reverse biased no light
will be produced by the LED, and, on the contrary the device may also get damaged.
All the semiconductors listed above can be used. An N-type epitaxial layer is grown up on a
substrate, and the P-region is produced by diffusion. The P-region that includes the
recombination of charge carriers is shown is the top. Thus the P-region becomes the device
surface. In order to allow more surface area for the light to be emitted the metal anode
connections are made at the outer edges of the P-layer.
For the light to be reflected as much as possible towards the surface of the device,a gold film is
applied to the surface bottom. This setting also enables to provide a cathode connection. The re-
absorption problem is fixed by including domed lenses for the device. All the wires in the
electronic circuits of the device is protected by encasingthe device.

The light emitted by athe device depends on the type of semiconductor materialused. Infrared
light is produced by using Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) as semiconductor. Red or yellowlight is
produced by using Gallium -Arsenide-Phosphorus (GaAsP) as semiconductor.

LED Circuit Symbol

The circuit symbol of LED consists of two arrow marks which indicate the radiation emitted by
the diode.

Figure: 1.6.1 Symbol of LED

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 145]

EC8353 ELECTRONICS DEVIES AND CIRCUITS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure: 1.6.2 LED characteristics curve

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 145]

The forward bias Voltage-Current (V-I) curve and the output characteristics curve is shown
in the figure above. The V-I curve is practically applicable in burglar alarms. Forward bias
of approximately 1 volt is needed to give significant forward current. The second figure is
used to represent a radiant power-forward current curve.The output power produced is very
small and thus the efficiency in electrical-to-radiantenergy conversion is very less.

The commercially used LED‘s have a typical voltage drop between 1.5 Volt to

2.5 Volt or current between 10 to 50 milli amperes. The exact voltage drop depends onthe
LED current, colour, tolerance, and so on.
LED as an Indicator

The circuit shown below is one of the main applications of LED. The circuit is designed
by wiring it in inverse parallel with a normal diode, to prevent the device from being
reverse biased. The value of the series resistance should be half, relative to that o f a DC
circuit.

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Figure: 1.6.3 LED as an indicator

[Source: “Electronic devices and circuits” by “Balbir Kumar, Shail.B.Jain, and Page: 147]

LEDS displays are made to display numbers from segments. One such design is the seven-
segment display as shown below. Any desired numerals from 0-9 can be displayed by
passing current through the correct segments. To connect such segment acommon anode or
common cathode cathode configuration can be used. Both the connections are shown
below. The LED‘s are switched ON and OFF by using transistors.
 Advantages of LED’s

 Very low voltage and current are enough to drive the LED.
 Voltage range – 1 to 2 volts.
 Current – 5 to 20 mill amperes.
 Total power output will be less than 150 mill watts.
 The response time is very less – only about 10 nanoseconds.
 The device does not need any heating and warm up time.
 Miniature in size and hence light weight.
 Have a rugged construction and hence can withstand shock and
vibrations.
 An LED has a life span of more than 20 years.

 Disadvantages of LED

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 A slight excess in voltage or current can damage the device.

• The device is known to have a much wider bandwidth compared to the
laser.
 The temperature depends on the radiant output power and wavelength

Laser diode

A laser diode, or LD, is an electrically pumped semiconductor laser in which theactive laser
medium is formed by a p-n junction of a semiconductor diode similar to that found in a
light-emitting diode.
The laser diode is the most common type of laser produced with a wide range ofuses that
include, but are not limited to, fiber optic communications, barcode readers, laser pointers,
CD/DVD/Blu-ray Disc reading and recording, laser printing, laser scanning and
increasingly directional lighting sources.
A laser diode is electrically a P-i-n diode. The active region of the laser diode isin the
intrinsic (I) region, and the carriers, electrons and holes, are pumped into it fromthe N and
P regions respectively.

While initial diode laser research was conducted on simple P-N diodes, all modern lasers
use the double-hetero structure implementation, where the carriers and the photons are
confined in order to maximize their chances for recombination and light generation. The
laser diode epitaxial structure is grown using one of the crystal growthtechniques, usually
starting from an N doped substrate, and growing the .I doped active layer, followed by the
P doped cladding, and a contact layer. The active layer most often consists of quantum
wells,

EC8353 ELECTRONICS DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

 Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)
An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is a type of LED (light-emitting diode), where the
emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound which emits light in response to an
electric current.
OLED's use the reaction of electrons and holes to produce light, but unlike normal LED's
these use organic material layers in the process.

COMPONENTS OF OLED:
There are four main components namely, anode, cathode, emission, and conductive layers.
• Substrate- support structure, sometimes flexible
• Anode
• Organic Material
o Emissive
o Conductive
• Cathode

The current ratings of each layers are

1. Cathode 2000A
2. Emissive Layer 800A
3. Photon Radiation
4. Conductive Layer 1200A
5. Anode 1500A

Manufacturing of OLEDs:
There are two general types of OLEDs namely,
o Vacuum Thermal Evaporation(VTE)
o They are manufactured with small molecule OLEDs
o Organic Vapor Phase Deposition(OVPD)
o They are manufactured with polymer LEDs (PLED)
 o Inkjet Printing
o They are manufactured with PLEDs
o There is also a newer type of OLEDs under development called phosphorescent organic light
emitting diodes (PHOLED) which has efficiencies approaching 100%.
o Those based on small molecules are typically used with smaller structures and can be used to
make well controlled, homogeneous films, and the construction of very complex multi-layer
structures
o Those made using polymers are used for larger area films. They are efficient and require a
small amount of power

Materials Used:
• Small molecule production can be made of organometallic chelates, fluorescent and
phosphorescent dyes and conjugated dendrimers.
• Many materials are used for their charge transport properties, triphenylamine and derivatives
are often used as materials for hole transport layers.
• Fluorescent dyes can be chosen to obtain light emission at different wavelengths, and
compounds such as perylene, rubrene and quinacridone derivatives are often used.
• Typical polymers used in PLED displays include derivatives of poly (p-phenylene vinylene)
and polyfluorene.

Advantages:
Lighter
Flexible
Thinner
Brightness
Power Consumption and Efficiency
Easier to Produce in Large Sizes
170 Degree Viewing Area
Theoretically Cheaper to Make in the Future
Faster Response Time

Disadvantages:
 Vulnerability to Fluids
 Lifetime of Blue Organic Film
 Cost of Manufacturing
 Power Consumption (White Backgrounds)

Commercial Uses:
 Portable Digital Media Players
 Mobile Phones
 Car Radios
 Digital Cameras
 High Definition TVs
 SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY
The 7 segment display is an arrangement of 7 LEDs and a separate LED for the decimal place.
 The display can form the digits 0-9 to display decimal numbers.
 It can also form the letters A-F allowing Hexadecimal to be displayed.
 7 Segment displays come in different sizes and colours.
 They have different forward bias voltages depending on how many LEDs make up each segment.
 There are two types of display available - common cathode and common anode.
 The number "SC52" on the 7 segment display shown means it is a common Cathode display.
A 7 Segment display is a series of LEDs arranged to make letters and numbers. There are 8
LEDs including the decimal point. A display decoder is usually used to convert binary (for example)
into the correct outputs for the display. Common cathode displays have a common cathode connected
to ground and each segment is made HIGH. Common anode displays have a common anode
connected to positive and each segment is made LOW. Each LED needs a series resistor. Numbers,
some upper case letters and some upper case letters can be displayed
CONNECTION

The LEDs in a 7 Segment Display usually need a series resistor. 7 Segment Displays are usually used
with some form of counter and may need a decoder so that the correct segments are illuminated for
each corresponding number, letter or symbol. The diagram shows the connections for a typical 7
segment display.
COMMON CATHODE DISPLAYS

o In a Common Cathode 7 Segment Display the cathodes of all eight LEDs are connected to a
common pin which should be connected to 0 V.
o Each separate segment of the display should have its own series resistor.
o Each segment is made HIGH to illuminate the display.
o The display driver must be able to source current to the LEDs.
COMMON ANODE DISPLAYS

o In a 'Common Anode' 7 Segment Display, all eight anodes are connected to a common pin
which is connected to the positive supply.
o Each segment is connected separately to 0 V (made LOW) using a series resistor to illuminate
the display.
o The display driver must be able to sink current from the LEDs.
DISPLAYING NUMBERS

No. of LED which is ON

Numbers
a b c d e f g
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
2 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
3 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
4 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
5 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
6 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
7 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
DISPLAYING HEXADECIMAL ALPHABETS
No. of LED which is ON
Alphabets
a b c d e f g
6 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
9 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
A 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
b 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
C 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
d 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
E 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
F 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

DISPLAYING UPPERCASE LETTERS

DISPLAYING LOWERCASE LETTERS