PROCESSORS

A computer processor, often called the central processing unit or CPU, is the brain of a
computer. It’s a hardware component that executes instructions and performs calculations
necessary to run programs and operate the computer system.

The CPU processes data by fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, executing
operations, and storing results. It contains one or more processing cores, each capable of
executing instructions independently and in parallel, thereby increasing the overall processing
power of the system.

The CPU’s speed, measured in gigahertz (GHz), determines how quickly it can execute
instructions and perform computations, impacting the computer’s overall performance

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER PROCESSOR

The processor of a typical computer consists of several key components that work together to
execute instructions and perform calculations. These components include:

 Control unit (CU): The control unit manages and coordinates the CPU’s
operations. It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and controls the
data flow between the CPU and other components.
 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic and logical
operations on data. It can perform basic arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical operations (AND, OR, NOT) used
in decision-making and data manipulation.
 Registers: Registers are small, high-speed memory units located inside the CPU.
They temporarily hold data, instructions, and memory addresses that the CPU is
processing. Registers include the instruction register (IR), program counter (PC),
and general-purpose registers (such as the accumulator and index registers).
 Cache: Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located directly on the CPU
chip. It stores frequently accessed data and instructions to reduce the time needed
to access information from the slower main memory (RAM). Cache memory helps
improve overall system performance by providing faster access to critical data.
 Control bus: The control bus is a set of electrical pathways that carry control
signals between the CPU and other components of the computer system. Control
signals include commands for reading and writing data, initiating memory
transfers, and controlling instruction flow.
 Data bus: The data bus is a set of electrical pathways that carry data between the
CPU, memory, and other devices connected to the computer system. It allows the
CPU to transfer data to and from memory, input/output devices, and other
peripherals.
 Clock generator: The clock generator produces electrical signals called clock
pulses that synchronize the timing of operations within the CPU. The clock speed,
measured in hertz (Hz) or gigahertz (GHz), determines how quickly the CPU
executes instructions and processes data.
  Evolution of CPU architectures (1980s)

CPU architectures have evolved significantly to meet the growing demands of computing tasks
and applications. Early CPU designs focused on executing instructions sequentially, one at a
time.

As computing needs became more complex, CPUs evolved to incorporate features such as
pipelining, which allows multiple instructions to be executed simultaneously in overlapping
stages, and superscalar execution, which enables the parallel execution of multiple instructions
within a single clock cycle.

Other advancements include out-of-order execution, which reorders instructions dynamically to

maximize CPU utilization, and speculative execution, which predicts and executes instructions
ahead of time to improve performance.

 Multi-core processors (1990s)

As transistor scaling approached physical limits and the frequency scaling of CPUs became
increasingly challenging, CPU manufacturers turned to multi-core processors to continue
performance scaling. Multi-core processors contain multiple processing cores on a single chip,
allowing for parallel execution of tasks and improved multitasking capabilities.

Multi-core processors enable better utilization of CPU resources and increased performance.

 Specialized processors and accelerators (2000s)

With the rise of specialized workloads such as graphics rendering, machine learning, and
cryptography, there has been a proliferation of specialized processors and accelerators optimized
for specific tasks.

Graphics processing units (GPU are specialized processors designed to render graphics and
perform parallel computations, making them well-suited for gaming, scientific simulations, and
artificial intelligence applications.

 Power efficiency and performance (2010s onwards)

Modern CPUs strive to balance power efficiency with performance, incorporating features such
as dynamic voltage and frequency scaling, low-power states, and advanced power management
techniques to optimize energy consumption and thermal performance.

Power efficiency is critical in mobile devices, where battery life is a primary concern, and
in where energy consumption and cooling costs are major considerations. By improving their
CPUs, manufacturers can now deliver more powerful and energy-efficient computing solutions
to meet the needs of diverse applications and environments.

STEPS OF A CPU OPERATION

  Instruction fetch
In this stage, the CPU retrieves instructions from the computer’s memory. The program
counter (PC) holds the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched. The CPU
sends a request to the memory subsystem, specifying the memory address stored in the
PC.
 Instructions decode
The CPU analyzes the fetched instruction to determine the operation it represents and the
data it involves. The CPU’s CU decodes the instruction by parsing its opcode (operation
code) and operands. The opcode specifies the type of operation to be performed, such as
arithmetic, logical, or control transfer. The operands identify the data or memory
locations involved in the operation.
 Operand fetch
If the decoded instruction requires data from memory or registers, the CPU fetches the
operands needed to execute the instruction. The operands may be memory addresses,
register contents, or immediate values specified by the instruction.
 Execute
In the execute stage, the CPU performs the computation or operation specified by the
decoded instruction.
 Memory Access (Store)
Now, the CPU interacts with the computer’s memory subsystem to read from or write to memory
as necessary. If the instruction involves storing data back to memory (e.g., storing the result of a
computation), the CPU initiates a memory write operation. Types of CPUs

Various computer processors are available, each designed for different purposes and
performance requirements. Here are some common types:

 General-purpose processors: These processors are designed for everyday

computing tasks and are found in most personal computers, laptops, and
workstations—for instance, the well-known Intel Core series and AMD Ryzen
series processors.
 Mobile processors: Mobile processors are specifically designed for smartphones,
tablets, and other mobile devices. They prioritize energy efficiency and
performance optimization to extend battery life while providing adequate
processing power. Qualcomm Snapdragon and Apple A-series processors belong to
this category.
 Server processors: Server processors are optimized for handling high-
performance computing tasks in server environments. They often feature multiple
cores, higher cache sizes, and support for multi-threading and virtualization.
Examples include Intel Xeon and AMD EPYC processors.
 Embedded processors: Embedded processors are designed for integration into
embedded systems, such as consumer electronics, automotive systems, industrial
equipment, and devices. They prioritize power efficiency, compact size, and
reliability. Examples include ARM Cortex-M and Intel Atom processors.
  Graphics processing units (GPUs): While GPUs are primarily used for rendering
graphics in gaming and multimedia applications, they also perform parallel
processing tasks and are increasingly used for general-purpose computing tasks,
such as, scientific simulations, and data processing. NVIDIA GeForce and AMD
Radeon GPUs are two popular processors of this type.
 Accelerated processing units (APUs): APUs combine CPU and GPU components
into a single integrated chip. They offer improved graphics performance and are
commonly used in budget-friendly laptops and desktops, and AMD Ryzen also
manufactures APUs.
 High-performance CPUs: These are designed for applications that require
maximum computing power, such as scientific simulations, data analysis, and
artificial intelligence. They feature high core counts, large cache sizes, and support
for advanced instruction sets. Examples include Intel’s Core X series and AMD’s
Ryzen Thread ripper CPUs.
 Workstation CPUs: Workstation CPUs are similar to desktop CPUs but are
optimized for professional workloads such as video editing, 3D rendering,
and applications. They typically offer higher core counts, larger cache sizes, and
support for error correction code (ECC) memory—for instance, Intel Xeon W.

MODERN INTEL PROCESSORS

1. Intel Pentium – Single core

2. Intel Dualcore – Two cores

3. Intel Core 2 Duo – Two cores

4. Intel Core i3 – 2/4/6/8/10 Cores

5. Intel Core i5 - 2/4/6/10/12/14 Cores

6. Intel Core i7 - 2/4/6/8/10/12/14/16/20 Cores

7. Intel Core i9 - 8/10/14/16/24 Cores

Intel processors also comes with different generation’s which dictates the associated RAM

frequency and chipset e.g.

 4th Generation, 5th Generation, 6th Generation, 7th Generation, 8th Generation up to the

current 14th Generation.