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me/RazKrLive

MODERN WORLD HISTORY

21. Renaissance 223

22. Geographical Discoveries 234
23. The Reformation and Counter Reformation 242
24. The American War of Independence (1776-1783) 252
25. French Revolution 261
26. Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions 273
27. First World War 284
28. Russian Revolution of 1917 295
29. The League of Nations 304
30. Rise of Fascism and Nazism 314
31. Second World War 326
32. Growth of Asian Nations: China And Japan 335
33. United Nations Organisation 343
34. The Cold War 353
35. World Today 360

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LESSON 21
RENAISSANCE

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The meaning of Renaissance.

2. The causes for the birth of Renaissance in Italy.

3. Revival of classical Literature.

4. Renaissance Literature.

5. Renaissance Art.

6. Development of Science.

7. Results of the Renaissance.

The term Renaissance literally means “rebirth” or “revival”.

But it refers to the significant changes that took place in Europe
during the transition period between the medieval and modern. There
was a revival of literature and art on the intellectual side. The spirit
of enquiry led to scientific inventions. Politically, this period witnessed
the end of feudalism and the emergence of nation-states. The spirit
of individualism and humanism began to dominate in the social sphere.
The religious transformation was symbolized by the Reformation.
All these changes in Europe were collectively referred to as
Renaissance.
The Roman Empire declined by the end of the 5th century A.D.
It had resulted in the neglect of classical literature and arts. But
these treasures of culture were preserved in the Eastern Roman
Empire with its capital at Constantinople. The Ottoman Turks captured
Constantinople in 1453. As a result, the Byzantine-Greek scholars

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fled from Constantinople to Rome. They brought with them the Greek
and Roman heritage. With this revival of classical learning in Italy, a
spirit of enquiry developed. This spirit of enquiry stimulated the
progress of science, art, architecture, sculpture, painting, literature,
geography and religion.
Renaissance in Italy
Italy is considered the birth place of the Renaissance for several
reasons. Some of them were:
- Italy was the seat of ancient civilization and the Latin
language.
- The rich city states in Italy like Florence and Venice patronized
art and literature. For example, the Medici family of Florence had
patronized many scholars.
- The publication of the Divine Comedy by the greatest Italian
poet Dante (1265-1321) triggered the Renaissance movement in the
city of Florence. It was written in the Italian language. Thereafter,
the Renaissance spread to other parts of Europe and reached its
peak in the sixteenth century.
Revival of Classical Literature
The most important contribution of the
Renaissance was the revival and learning of ancient
Greek and Latin literature. The pioneer in this effort
was Petrarch (1304–1374) with his profound
knowledge in these languages, he collected and
compiled many ancient manuscripts containing the
works of Plato and Aristotle. His disciple Boccaccio PE T RA RC H
had also encouraged the classical learning. Many Greek scholars
who came from Constantinople spread the ancient Greek literature
in Florence. The most notable among them was Manuel Chrysolores.

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Another scholar, Bracciolini traced the works of

Tacitus, Livy and Sophocles. In the 15th century Pope
Nicholas V founded the Vatican Library and the
ancient manuscripts were preserved in that library.
They were studied and analysed by scholars. The
contribution of Erasmus (1463-1536) in correcting
and editing the Latin works was also notable. He
BOCCACCIO
edited the New Testament in the Greek language.
The invention of printing
press by John Gutenberg (1398-
1468) in Germany had influenced
the Renaissance literature. The
first book published by him was
The Bible. William Caxton set up
LIVY a printing press in England.
ERASMUS
Shortly, many printing presses
came up throughout Europe and it provided a
stimulus to the Renaissance movement. The availability of books at
cheaper rates made the masses to improve their awareness.
Renaissance Literature
Apart from the revival of classical literature, many works in
classical languages as well as in the native
languages came up during this period. We have
already referred to Dante’s
Divine Comedy written in the
Italian language. Similarly,
Chaucer wrote the Canterbury
Tales in English. Boccaccio was
the author of the Deccameron,
a collection of fables.
DANTE
Machiavelli, who lived in MACHIAVELLI

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Florence, wrote his eight- volume History of Florence. His most

famous work was The Prince, a book on political science.
While Italy was the home of the most famous
literary figures of the Renaissance, a Renaissance
literature typical of that period can also be found in
France, England, Germany, and Spain.
In England, Sir Thomas Moore
THOMAS MORE
wrote his famous book Utopia in
Latin. However, the Elizabethan era
marked the beginning of the English Renaissance. It
saw dramatists like William Shakespeare, Christopher
Marlowe and Charles Webster; poets like Edmund
Spenser, Sydney and Ben Johnson. Hakluyt wrote SHAKESPEARE

excellent travel accounts during this

period.
Montaigne (1533-1592), the French essayist,
was the most typical writer of the Renaissance
literature. His works reflect an intense interest in
himself and in things connected with the life of man.
MARTIN LUTHER His essays on education were regarded as important
for centuries. A forerunner of Voltaire in his method
of writing and thinking, Montaigne revolted against the authority and
the tyranny of the past and earned the title “the first modern man”.
In Germany, Martin Luther translated the Bible in the German
language. Sebastian Brant wrote The Ship of Fools. In Spain,
Cervantes authored the famous Don Quixote.
Renaissance Art
Art in the Middle Ages was dominated by the Christian religion
and Church. During the Renaissance importance was given to the
love of nature and human body. Although the spirit of humanism

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prevailed, the subject matter of the most of the Renaissance art was
Christian. Renaissance painting bloomed most profusely in Italy.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564) and
Raphael (1483-1520) were the dominant figures among the
Renaissance painters.
Leonardo da Vinci, one of the most versatile
men of his time, was an artist, poet, musician, and
engineer. Hence, he is known as the “Renaissance
Man”. Born in Florence, he visited several countries.
He was patronized by the Duke of Milan. His
LEONARDO DA VINCI
famous paintings were the Mona Lisa and the Last
Supper.
Michelangelo was both a painter and
sculptor. He lived in Florence and patronized by
the Medici family. Later, he went to Rome. The
magnificent frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine
Chapel in the Vatican represent his most brilliant
achievement in painting. This work contains 145
pictures with 394 figures, some of which are as
much as ten feet high. His painting, The Last MICHELANGELO
Judgement is considered the best in the world.
Raphael achieved a rare blending of devotional feeling with a
sense of beauty. Although Raphael died at the age of thirty-seven,
he produced a great number of paintings, of which
the most familiar is the Madonna.
The Venetian School is an excellent example
of the secularization of the Renaissance art. Artistic
expression in Venice was worldly and materialistic.
Titian (1477-1576) and Tintoretto (1518-1592) were
the greatest painters of Venice.
RAPHAEL

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Renaissance Sculpture
The art of sculpture had also witnessed
progress during the Renaissance period. It was
more original and beautiful. The pioneer of the
Renaissance sculpture was Lorenzo Ghiberti
(1378-1455). The magnificent doors at the
Baptistery of Florence were his master piece. LORENZO GHIBERTI

Michael Angelo appreciated the beauty of these

doors as worthy to the gates of the Paradise. Donatello (1386-1466)
produced the statue of St. George in Florence and that of St. Mark at
Venice. Michelangelo besides being a painter was a celebrated
sculptor. He produced some of his best sculptures for the Medici
family in Florence. He was also the creator of the statue of David in
Florence. Brunelleschi and Robbia were the other famous sculptors
of this period. One of the most familiar examples of the Renaissance
architecture is St. Peter’s Church of Rome.
Development of Science
The spirit of modem science was born with the Renaissance.
Science in the Middle Ages struggled against
superstitions. The Renaissance brought about a
critical observation of natural phenomena. This
spirit of learning took root in science.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is considered
the father of modern science.
FRANCIS BACON He denounced the deductive
method and advocated the
inductive method in scientific research. Descartes
(1596-1650) brought out convincingly the necessity
of questioning everything. Descartes contributed the
idea of doubt, and doubt was the forerunner of a COPERNICUS

new age in science.

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Copernicus (1473-1543)
established the heliocentric
theory. According to this theory
the heavenly bodies do not
revolve about the earth as
believed during that period but
KEPLER around the sun. Kepler (1571- GALILEO
1630) formulated mathematical
laws to support the conclusions of Copernicus. He also stated that
the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits. Galileo (1564-
1642) through the invention of the telescope brought new evidence
to support the Copernican theory.
Newton (1642-1727) concluded that the
movements of all celestial bodies were controlled
by gravitation. With the new astronomical
knowledge that was available, the old Julian
calendar was reformed in 1582 by Pope Gregory
XIII.
The humanistic spirit of the Renaissance
NEWTON
had also awakened increased interest in the study
of medicine and anatomy. Vesalius (1514-1564), a Netherlander wrote
a treatise on human anatomy. William Harvey (1578-1657) discovered
the blood circulation, a prime contribution to medical science. In this
period, chemistry became something more than alchemy. Paracelsus
(1493-1541) showed that reactions in the human body involve
chemical changes. He had employed chemicals for medicinal
purposes. Cordus (1515-1544) made ether from sulphuric acid and
alcohol. Helmont (1577-1644) discovered the carbon dioxide.
Results of the Renaissance
The Renaissance remained the symbol of the beginning of the
modern age. The spirit of enquiry and the consequent scientific
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inventions produced important changes in the life

of humanity. The invention of the Mariner ’s
Compass and other astronomical faiths led to the
Geographical discoveries. The impact of these
discoveries was profound in the political and
economic life of the people. The reasoning spirit WILLIAM HARVEY

had resulted in the Reformation and changed the

outlook of the people towards religion.

Important Historical Events of Renaissance

1300 Humanism taught at Padua University in Italy
1341 Petrarch given title of ‘Poet Laureate’ in Rome
1349 University established in Florence
1390 Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales published
1436 Brunelleschi designs the Duomo in Florence
1454 Gutenberg prints the Bible with movable type
1495 Leonardo da Vinci paints The Last Supper
1512 Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel ceiling
1516 Thomas More’s Utopia published
1543 Andreas Vesalius writes On Anatomy
1582 Gregorian calendar introduced by Pope Gregory XIII
1628 William Harvey links the heart with blood circulation
1687 Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica published

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Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

1. The wider meaning of the Renaissance.

2. The reasons for the birth of Renaissance in Italy.

3. The role of intellectuals like Dante and Petrarch in the

revival of Classical Literature.

4. The role of Leonardo da Vinci and others in the Renaissance

art.

5. The scientific development during the Renaissance.

6. The results of the Renaissance.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in
(a) 1453 (b) 1533
(c) 1543 (d) 1443
2. Who among the following is considered as the father of modern
science?
(a) Copernicus (b) Francis Bacon
(c) Kepler (d) Newton
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Boccaccio was the disciple of …….
2. The Prince, a book on political science was written by ……
3. Telescope was invented by …….
III. Match the following.
1. Last Supper a. Michael Angelo
2. Last Judgement b. Sebastian Brant
3. Madonna c. Sir Thomas Moore
4. Utopia d. Leonardo da Vinci
5. The Ship of Fools e. Raphael
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
correct.
a) The first book published by John Gutenberg was The Bible.
b) Descartes is considered the father of modern science

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c) Newton established the Heliocentric Theory.

d. Blood circulation was discovered by Thomas More.
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. Dante’s Divine Comedy was written in the Latin language.
2. The printing press was first invented by William Caxton.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Meaning of Renaissance.
2. Leonardo da Vinci.
3. Copernicus.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Discuss the causes for the birth of Renaissance in Italy.
2. Write a note on the Renaissance sculpture.
3. Estimate the results of the Renaissance.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Evaluate the role of intellectuals in the development of
Renaissance literature.
2. Assess the scientific development during the period of the
Renaissance.

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LESSON 22
GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The causes leading to the geographical discoveries.

2. The role of Portugal in exploring the new sea routes.

3. The role of Spain in the discovery of new continents.

4. Other geographical discoveries.

5. The impact of geographical discoveries.

The Geographical Discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries

constitute an important chapter in the history of the modern world. It
is also known as the Age of Discovery. The new sea routes to the
East as well as the discovery of new continents like the America
radically transformed the course of history. The adventurous spirit
of the sailors like Bartholomew Diaz, Christopher Columbus and
Ferdinand Magellan ultimately led to these historic discoveries. There
are several causes that led to these discoveries.
Causes for the Geographical Discoveries
1. In 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, the
important trade route to the East. Thus, the Turks began to
control the European trade with the East. They imposed heavy
duties on the goods. On the other hand, the Arab traders
continued their trade through the Coasts of India and got huge
profits in spice trade. Therefore, the Europeans were forced
to find an alternative route to the East.

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2. The Renaissance spirit and the consequent scientific discoveries

were also responsible for geographical discoveries. The art of
ship-building developed along with the invention of Mariner’s
Compass. The astronomical and other scientific discoveries
raised the hope of the adventurers to explore new sea routes.
3. The travel accounts of Marco Polo and Nicolo Polo about China
and India kindled great enthusiasm among the Europeans about
the fabulous wealth of the Eastern countries. Other accounts
of the voyages also encouraged explorations. A Merchants
Handbook described all known trade routes between Europe
and the Far East. Similarly, the Secrets of the Faithful
Crusader told about Asiatic cities.
4. Other factors such as the spirit of adventure, desire for new
lands and competition for exploration between European nations
had also stimulated the explorers venturing into the seas.
Portugal
The first great wave of expeditions was launched by Portugal.
Its ruler was Henry (1394-1460) generally known
as “the Navigator”. As a result of
his efforts, the Madeira and
Azores Islands were discovered.
The main project of Henry the
Navigator was the exploration of
HENRY THE NAVIGATOR
the West Coast of Africa. His
sailors discovered the Cape Verde BARTHOLOMEW
DIAZ
Islands. Although Henry died in 1460, his zeal
provided stimulus to the Portuguese for further explorations. In 1487
Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern tip of Africa and called it
“the Cape of Storms” due to a terrible storm he experienced there.
Later it was renamed as “the Cape of Good Hope” because it provided
hope that access to the Indian Ocean was possible. Vasco da Gama
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successfully used this route and reached India in 1498. Vasco da

Gama’s discovery of a new sea-route to India was a most significant
event in the history of Europe and Asia.
Spain
Next to Portugal, Spain began to explore the
sea route to the east. Christopher Columbus, a
Genoese sailor, planned to discover a new sea route
to the East by traveling westwards.
After securing monetary assistance
VASCO DA GAMA
from King Ferdinand and Queen
Isabella of Spain, he set sail on
August 3, 1492 across the Atlantic. After a long
and difficult voyage he reached an island of the
Bahamas on Oct 12, 1492. He thought that he had
COLOUMBUS
reached the shores of India. Therefore, he called
the natives of that island Indians. He made three more voyages and
explored the islands in the Caribbean Sea and Central America. These
islands are even today called as the West Indies.
Later in 1501, Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian
navigator, with the support of the king of Spain
explored the areas of South America. He came
to the conclusion that what Columbus discovered
was not India but a “New World”. Therefore the
new continent was named as
AMERIGO VESPUCCI America. However, Columbus
is considered as the discoverer
of America.
In 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued a Bull in
order to prevent any dispute between Spain and
Portugal in exploring new sea routes and new lands.
MAGELLAN

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It is popularly called the Papal Bull (order of Pope). According to it

an imaginary line was drawn dividing the globe into east and west.
Spain was given the right to possess the lands on the west and Portugal
on the east of the Pope’s line. Thus, Spain could not use sea route
through the Cape of Good Hope to reach the East Indies.
Therefore, Spain planned to reach the east by sailing westwards.
On August 10, 1519, Ferdinand Magellan had sailed with five Spanish
ships – namely, Trinidad, San Antonio, Concepcion, Victoria, and Santiago
- from the port of Sevilla. The fleet of Magellan crossed an arduous
373-mile long passage on the southern end of South America. This strait
is now named the Strait of Magellan. Then he entered an ocean which
was calmer than the Atlantic. Therefore, he named it the Pacific Ocean.
While crossing the Pacific, the sailors suffered for want of food and
drinking-water. At last, on March 6, 1521, they reached the Philippines,
where Magellan was killed by the natives. The survivors with the only
remaining ship, the Victoria arrived at Sevilla through the Cape of Good
Hope on September 9, 1522. It was the first voyage undertaken round
the world.
Other Geographical Discoveries
In 1497, John Cabot was sent by Henry VII
of England to explore the seas. He discovered the
Newfoundland. In his next expedition, he reached
North America and explored it. But he was not able
to find any people there and returned to England
disappointed. However, this voyage
resulted in the claim of England to
JOHN CABOT
the mainland of North America. In
1534, Jacques Cartier from France went to the North
America and explored the region. He found the Red
Indian settlements and named that region as Canada.
JACUS CARTIER

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Voyages by Europeans
1492 Columbus claims Bahama Islands and Cuba for Spain
1494 The ‘undiscovered world’ divided between Portugal
and
1497 John Cabot, Englishman, explores North American
coast
1498 Vasco da Gama reaches Calicut/Kozhikode
1499 Amerigo Vespucci sights South American coast
1522 Magellan circumnavigates the globe
1571 Spanish conquer the Philippines
1600 British East India Company formed
1602 Dutch East India Company formed

Impact of the Geographical Discoveries

The geographical discoveries had a profound impact on the
economic, political and social conditions in most parts of the world.
The most important among them are:
1. There was a tremendous improvement in the trade and industry
in Europe. It began to reach beyond the Oceans.
2. The expansion of trade provided a stimulus to the development
of ship-building industry. Larger quantities of goods had to be
carried in bigger ships.
3. As the trade developed in large scale, joint-stock companies
and banking enterprises emerged. European companies
established their trade centres in Asia, Africa and Latin
America.

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4. The trading companies slowly captured political power and

established their rule in their respective regions. This led to
Colonialism and Imperialism.
5. Capitalism had grown in Europe along with the policy of
Mercantilism. As a result, the colonies were exploited.
6. The mad rush for new colonies led to mutual rivalry among the
European powers and ultimately resulted in wars.
7. The system of slavery was followed. The European planters in
America imported Negro slaves from Africa to work in their
plantations.
8. The geographical discoveries solved the problem of over
population in Europe and many Europeans began to settle in
the American continents.
9. The culture of Europe had spread to Asia, Africa and other
parts of the world very rapidly.

Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be to explain

1. The causes like the fall of Constantinople and scientific

discoveries led to geographical discoveries.
2. Henry the Navigator and his contributions to geographical
explorations.
3. Early efforts of the Portuguese navigators like Bartholomew
Diaz.
4. The explorations of Christopher Columbus and Amerigo
Vespucci.
5. Magellan’s circumnavigation of the Globe.
6. Impact of the geographical discoveries.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Madeira and Azores islands were discovered by
(a) Henry (b) Bartholomew Diaz
(c) Columbus (d) Magellan
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Vascodagama reached India in …..
2. Canada was discovered by …….
III. Match the following.
1. Bartholomew Diaz a. Bahamas Island
2. Columbus b. Newfoundland
3. Amerigo Vespucci c. Cape of Storm
4. John Cabot d. America
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
correct.
a. King Ferdinand of Spain is generally known as “the
Navigator”.
b. In 1487 Vasco da Gama reached the southern tip of Africa
and called it “the Cape of Storms”.
c. Ferdinand Magellan while crossing the clam part of the ocean
named it the Pacific Ocean.
d. John Cabot of England went to the North America and explored
the region.

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V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

1. Vasco da Gama reached India in 1598.
2. Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian navigator, with the support of the
king of Spain explored the areas of South America.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Henry the Navigator.
2. Ferdinand Magellan
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Discuss the role of Portugal in exploring the new sea routes.
2. Analyse the causes for the geographical discoveries.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the contribution of Spain towards the
discovery of new countries.
2. Examine the impact of the geographical discoveries.

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LESSON 23
THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The causes for the Reformation.

2. Martin Luther’s Contribution to the Reformation.

3. Ulrich Zwingli and the Reformation in Switzerland.

4. John Calvin and his contribution to the Reformation.

5. Counter Reformation.

6. The results of the Reformation.

The term Reformation refers to a great religious reform

movement in Europe during 16th century. There was a big protest
against the Christian Church in different parts of Europe and it
ultimately resulted in the emergence of Protestant Christian religion.
This great religious movement was not only the evidence of a great
religious change, but also proclaimed the dawn of a new era. The
Reformation started in Germany and later it spread to other countries.
Causes for the Reformation
There are several causes for the Reformation.
1. The Christian Church under the Pope was originally commanded
respect among the people. But in the Middle ages, it had become
a big feudal institution and possessed so much of lands and
wealth. The Popes enjoyed great political influence and
interfered into the political affairs. As a result they began to
neglect their spiritual duties. The Pope and the clergy began to
lead luxurious lives. The Popes like Alexander VI, Julius II

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and Leo X who lived in 15 th and 16 th centuries with their

activities undermined the respect and prestige of the Church.
2. The Renaissance movement created a spirit of inquiry among
the masses. They began to read the Bible and realized that the
activities of the Church and the clergy were not according to
the precepts of the holy book. In the years preceding the
Reformation, many writers condemned luxurious and
superstitious practices prevalent in the Church. John Wycliffe
(1330-1384) from England criticized the Pope for his authority
and misdeeds. He translated the Bible into English. He is
considered “the Morning Star of the Reformation. Erasmus
(1466-1536) attacked the superstitions followed by the clergy
in his book In Praise of Folly. It was published in 1509. John
Huss (1369-1415), a Bohemian, struggled for reforming the
Church. But he was condemned for his writings against the
Church and burnt to death. These early efforts to reform the
Church sowed the seeds for the Reformation of the 16 th
century.
3. The emergence of nation-states in Europe eroded the political
influence enjoyed by the Church during the Middle Ages. The
Pope and the Emperor lost their influence and power. The
people began to respect their king and the nation. Therefore,
the concept of Universal Church slowly gave way to national
churches.
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
The Reformation started in Germany and it
was led by Martin Luther. Martin Luther was born
in Eisleben on November 10, 1483. Luther was
educated at the University of Erfurt. He became a
monk in 1508. In November 1510 he visited Rome.
MARTIN LUTHER
He was shocked to see the worldly life led by the
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Roman clergy. In 1512 he received his doctorate in theology from

Wittenberg University. He began his career as a professor of theology
in the same university. Thereafter, Luther began a systematic
campaign for the removal of evils of the Church.
In 1517, Pope Leo X sent John Tetzel to
Germany to sell indulgences for the purpose of
raising money to renovate the Saint
Peter ’s Church at Rome. An
indulgence was originally meant a
promise given to a sinner for the
remission of punishment if he JOHN TETZEL
repented and confessed his sins. But Pope Leo X
used the sale of indulgences to raise money.
POPE LEO X Therefore, Luther opposed the practice of the sale
of indulgences. When John Tetzel visited
Wittenberg, Luther listed the abuse of indulgence in his 95 theses
and nailed it to the doors of the church. Pope Leo X got alarmed and
excommunicated Luther in January 1521. Luther burnt this order in
public.
Then the Pope appealed to Charles V, the
Holy Roman Emperor, to punish Luther for his
writings against the Church. But Luther had the
support of the German princes. However, he
appeared before Emperor Charles V at the Diet
of Worms in April 1521. Luther was proclaimed
guilty. But before his imprisonment, he was
CHARLES V escorted by his friends and kept at Wartburg
Castle. There he translated New Testament from
original Greek into German language. He published his most popular
book, the Small Catechism, in 1529. Luther led a life of seclusion till
his death in 1546.

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When the rural people of Germany joined this religious protest it

became the Peasants’ War of 1524-1525. The revolt of peasants was
suppressed with an iron hand. Many peasants were massacred. In the
Diet of Spires which met in 1526, the religious question was raised again
by the German princes. The Diet gave permission to the princes to choose
their own religion. But, Emperor Charles V revoked this decision in 1529.
Therefore, the German princes drew up a protest and they came to be
known as “Protestants”. It was only in the Peace of Augsburg in 1555,
formal approval was given by the Emperor to the princes either to remain
Catholic or Lutheran. It gave recognition only to Lutheran sect and not
to Zwinglianism or Calvinism.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Ulrich Zwingli paved the way for the Reformation in
Switzerland. He was contemporary of Martin Luther. Born in a rich
family in Switzerland, he became a priest in the Zurich Canton in
1502. He attacked abuses of the Church such as
the sale of indulgences. He spoke openly that the
clergy should strictly follow the principles of the
Bible. Samson was sent to Zurich by the Pope to
sell the indulgences. It was opposed by Zwingli.
Thereafter, his preaching was directed against the
leadership of the Pope, the excessive veneration
ULRICHZWINGLI of saints, the celibacy of the priesthood, and fasting.
His stand against the celibacy was opposed by the
bishop of Constance. The city council voted in favour of Zwingli and
against the bishop. Thus Zurich adopted the Reformation. In 1523,
Pope sent an order excommunicating Zwingli but, the Zurich Canton
announced its separation from the Church. Five other Cantons
declared a war against Zurich in which Zwingli was killed in 1531.
Finally an agreement was reached between the Cantons by which
each Canton was given freedom to choose their religious sect.

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John Calvin (1509-1564)

The French protest reformer John Calvin was
born in France. He studied humanities and Law at
the University of Paris. He obtained in 1532, Doctor
of Law. His first published work was a commentary
on Roman philosopher Seneca’s De Clementia. In
1536, he settled in Geneva. His main teachings are
that the Bible alone is the final authority for matters
JOHN CALVIN
of faith and that salvation is attained purely through
grace. He subscribed to the doctrine of the absolute
fore-knowledge and the determining power of God. Calvin published
his religious doctrines as a book called The
Institutes of Christian Religion. His religious
sect was own as Calvinism. He became the head
of the church in Geneva. He established several
schools for the spread of education. He was also
the founder of the University of Geneva.
Calvinism had spread to many parts of Europe.
Reformation in England
HENTRY VIII
King Henry VIII of England initially
opposed Martin Luther and supported the Pope. He was called “the
Defender of Faith” by Pope Leo X. This relationship
with the Pope broke down when the Pope refused
to permit King Henry VIII to marry Anne Boleyn
after divorcing his queen. He asked the Parliament
to pass an Act of Supremacy in 1534 by which the
king was made the head of the Church of England.
This new Church independent of the authority of
Pope was called the Anglican Church. Henry VIII
did not introduce any changes in the Catholic
EDWARD VI doctrines. But the Anglican Church became really

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Protestant in the reign of Edward VI (1547-1553). The service books

were translated into English.
Counter-Reformation
The success of the Reformation movement created a great
awe and fear in the Roman Catholic Church. Before things went out
of control, it took drastic measures to check the spread of the
Protestant religion and also to carry out reforms within itself. This
process was known as Counter-Reformation.
Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) was a Spanish soldier and lost his
legs in a war. Thereafter, he decided to contribute his might to the
cause of the Roman Catholic Church. Loyola
founded the Society of Jesus in 1534 and it was
recognized by the Pope. The aim of this Society
was to reform and restore the glory of the Catholic
Church. Members of the society were known as
Jesuits. They worked hard to earn good name for
the Catholic Church through their dedicated service.
IGNATIUS LOYOLA They established schools and colleges in several
parts of the world. They achieved a remarkable
success in their missionary activities. They remained faithful to the
Pope and the Catholic religion.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563) introduced several reforms in
the Catholic Church. The most glaring abuses of the clergy were
removed. Celibacy was strictly enforced for them. The sale of offices
was stopped. The practice of the sale of indulgences was abolished. It
also stressed that clergy adhere more strictly to their duties. The Pope
was recognized as the supreme authority in the matters of religion.
An Index consisting of the list of dangerous and heretical books
was issued by the Church. The Catholics were prohibited from reading
these books.

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Similarly the medieval practice of Ecclesiastical Court of

Inquisition was revived. Torture was used to extract confession.
Severe punishments such as burning to death were employed against
the enemies of the Church.
The success of the Counter Reformation can be understood
from the fact that the rapid spread of Protestantism was halted.
Southern Germany, France, Poland, some of the Swiss cantons, and
Savoy were brought back to the Catholic faith. At the same time
Protestantism was driven out of Italy and Spain. The Roman Catholic
Church is still one of the greatest religious organizations in the world.

Important Historical Events of Reformation

1492 Columbus claims Bahama Islands and Cuba for Spain
1517 Martin Luther writes the Ninety-Five Theses
1522 Luther translates the Bible into German
1525 Peasant uprising in Germany
1559 Anglican Church established in England, with the
king/queen as its head

Effects of Reformation
The important results of the Reformation were:
1. The Reformation led to two major divisions in Christianity –
Catholics and Protestants. This division had resulted in religious
persecution and religious wars Germany and in other parts of
Europe.
2. People were encouraged to read the Bible and ponder on
religion. The freedom given by the Protestants to interpret the
Bible led to free thinking. It encouraged the development of
art, literature and science.

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3. The democratic church system paved the way for the growth
of democracy and nationalism. The nations began to evolve
their own churches. The place of Pope was taken by the
nationalistic churches.
4. The rapid progress of the Protestant religion and the counter-
Reformation ultimately resulted in the purification of the Church.
Both Catholics and Protestants began to adopt high moral
standards after the Reformation. The Catholics purified their
Church establishments and this in turn improved the values in
the society.

Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be to explain

1. The abuses in the Church and other factors led to the

Reformation.

2. The life and work of Martin Luther in bringing the

Reformation in Germany.

3. The role of John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli in the

Reformation.

4. The process of Counter Reformation and the role of Ignatius

Loyola.

5. The results of the Reformation.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Which among the following was not a reason for the
Reformation?
(a) The Spirit of enquiry created by the Renaissance
(b) Emergence of nation-states in Europe
(c) The Geographical discoveries
(d) The luxurious life led by the Pope and the Clergy.
2. Who is considered as the ‘morning star of the Reformation’?
(a) Erasmus (b) Martin Luther
(c) John Huss (d) John Wycliffe
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The Society of Jesus was founded by …….
2. The founder of the University of Geneva was ……
III. Match the following.
1. Martin Luther a. France
2. Ulrich Zwingli b. Spain
3. John Calvin c. Germany
4. Ignatius Loyola d. England
5. John Wycliffe e. Switzerland

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IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

right.
a) The Counter Reformation was launched by the Protestants.
b) The followers of Ignatius Loyola contributed for the spread of
education.
c) The Trent Council was convened by Henry VIII.
d) During the Counter Reformation an Index consisting of the list
of good books was issued by the Church.
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. King Henry VIII of England initially supported Martin Luther
and opposed the Pope.
2. The Anglican Church became really Protestant in the reign of
Edward.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Ulrich Zwingli
2. Counter Reformation
3. Society of Jesus
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Discuss the role of John Calvin in the Reformation.
2. Evaluate the effects of the Reformation.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the causes for the Reformation.
2. Analyse the contribution of Martin Luther for the Reformation
in Germany.
3. Discuss the course of the Counter Reformation.

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LESSON 24
THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
(1776-1783)

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The fundamental causes of the American War of

Independence.

2. The circumstances leading the war.

3. The Declaration of Independence.

4. Important events of the war.

5. Importance of the war.

The English Colonies in America

After the discovery of the American continent, there was a
continuous migration of people from Europe to the New World. South
America was colonized by Spain. The English and the French
established their colonies in the North America. By the mid eighteenth
century, the English had established their thirteen colonies along the
Atlantic coast. Landless peasants, people seeking religious freedom
and traders had settled there. Initially the relationship between the
colonies and British Government was cordial. Although these colonies
were controlled through the governors, they enjoyed political freedom.
Each colony had its own assembly elected by the people. It enacted
laws concerning local matters. However, the policies followed by
the home government (Britain) had resulted in the confrontation. This
ultimately led to the American War of Independence at the end of
which the colonies became independent. There were several causes
for this war.

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Fundamental Causes
The British Government followed the policy of mercantilism.
According to this policy the colonies existed for the benefit of the
mother country. The colonies were expected to furnish raw materials.
They had to serve as markets for produced goods. Moreover, the
colonies had to ship their goods only in British ships. In these ways
the colonies were expected to add more wealth to the home country.
The British Government enacted laws to implement this policy of
mercantilism.
A series of Navigation Acts were passed by the British
Parliament to control the trade of the American colonies. These Acts
insisted that all the goods of both exports and imports should be carried
in ships owned by England. Custom collectors were appointed in the
colonies to implement the Navigation Acts. But, the American colonies
considered these Acts as infringement of their rights.
The Molasses Act levied heavy duties on sugar and molasses
imported into the American colonies. In addition to this, a series of
Trade Acts were also passed to control the trade in the colonies. For
example, the Hat Act of 1732 prohibited the import of hats from one
colony to the other. The Iron Act 1750 stopped the large-scale
production of iron in the colonies. These Acts were opposed by the
colonies.
Due to these restrictions, bitterness developed between the
home government and the American colonies. They were looking
for an opportunity to free themselves from the control of Britain.
Circumstances leading to the War of Independence
Seven Year’s War
The end of the Seven Years War in 1763 and the transfer of
Canada from France to England removed the French fear from the

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minds of the Americans. There was no need to depend on their mother

country against any possible attack by the French. Therefore, the
American colonies decided to face the colonial attitude of the British.
Granville Measures
When Granville was the Prime Minister of England a series of
Acts were passed affecting the interests of the American colonies. The
Proclamation of 1763 prohibited the colonists from purchasing lands
beyond Appalachian Mountains. The Sugar Act of 1764 increased the
duties on the sugar which affected the interests of the colonies. The
Stamp Act of 1765 insisted on the use of British stamps in commercial
and legal documents of the colonies. The Quartering Act made it
compulsory that colonists should provide food and shelter to English
troops. These measures were severely opposed by the colonists. They
raised the slogan “No Taxation without Representation” thus insisting
American representation in the English Parliament. As violence broke
out in the streets, the Stamp Act was repealed.
Townshend Laws
Charles Townshend, the Finance Minister of England imposed
fresh taxes on glass, paper, tea, paints, etc in 1767. It was known as
Townshend laws. The Americans protested it and boycotted the British
goods. On 5th March 1770, five Americans were killed by the British
soldiers at Boston during the protest. It was known as the Boston
Massacre. After this event, the Townshend laws were repealed.
Boston Tea Party
In 1773, a new Tea Act was passed
imposing a tax on import of tea. It was a
symbol to show that the British Parliament
had the right to tax the colonies. But
Americans showed their protest. A group
BOSTON TEA PARTY of Americans dressed as Red Indians,

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climbed on the ships and threw away the tea bundles into the sea at
the Boston harbour. This event took place on 16th December 1773
and it was known as the Boston Tea Party. The offenders were
punished. In 1774, the British Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts
against the Americans in order to prevent such protests.
Philadelphia Congress
The American colonists decided to unite in
their fight against the British. In September 1774,
the first Continental Congress was held at
Philadelphia. It was attended by the representatives
of the twelve colonies except Georgia. This
congress appealed to the British King to remove
restrictions on industries and trade and not to impose
any taxes without their consent. The second
JEFFERSON
Continental Congress met in May 1775 at
Philadelphia. Delegates from all the thirteen colonies attended this
Congress. Prominent leaders like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin
Franklin participated in it. George Washington was made the
Commander-in-Chief of the American army. As a last attempt, an
Olive Branch Petition was sent to the British king George III, who
rejected it. The king proclaimed that the American colonies were in
a state of rebellion.
Declaration of Independence
In January 1776, Thomas Paine came to America from England
and issued a pamphlet “Common Sense”. It attacked
the idea of hereditary monarchy and advocated
democratic government. More than one lakh copies
of this 50 page booklet were distributed throughout
the thirteen colonies. It inculcated the fighting spirit
among the Americans. On 4th July 1776, the American
THOMAS PAINE Declaration of Independence was adopted by the
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Continental Congress. It was prepared by a committee of five led by

Thomas Jefferson who included the ideals of human freedom in it.
The Declaration of independence laid emphasis on the unalienable
rights of men namely, “Life, Liberty and Pursuit of happiness”.
Important Battles
The war started in 1775, when the first battle was fought
between the British soldiers and the colonial militia at Lexington in
Massachusetts. Soon, George Washington assume the command of
the army of the American colonies. The British
General, Gage won a victory at Bunker Hill.
In 1776 the British forces led by Sir William
Howe defeated Washington in the battle of
Long Island. However, the army of American
colonies commanded by General Gates
defeated British troops at Saratoga in October,
1777. The victory at Saratoga marked a
turning point in the war. The French troops
GEORGE
WASHINGTON under Lafayette came to the help of the
American colonies. Finally, the British troops
under the command of General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington
at Yorktown in 1781. The war came to an end by the Treaty of
Paris in 1783.
Importance of the American War of Independence
· The American colonies became free and the Republic of
the United States of America was established. The first
democratic government with a written constitution in the
world became a reality. The Bill of Rights ensured
fundamental rights to the citizens of the U.S.A.
· The American War of Independence was also called the
American Revolution because it inspired the French

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Revolution. It was not only a war against England but

against aristocracy and reactionary elements. It was also
a fight against colonial domination.
· It introduced new political, social and economic set up in
the United States of America. Democracy with separation
of powers on the model suggested by French thinker
Montesquieu was founded. Capitalism also took strong
roots.
· However, the rights of the sons of the soil, the Red Indians
and the Negroes were not considered at that time.

Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

1. The fundamental causes for the war of American

Independence.

2. The circumstances leading the war such as Granville

measures, Townshend laws and the Boston Tea Party.

3. The Declaration of Independence and its importance.

4. The important events of the war.

5. The importance of the American War of Independence.

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New
Hampspire

Newyork Massachusettes
Conneticut
Rhode Island
Pennsylvania

Delaware
Virginia Maryland
THIRTEEN
AMERCIAN
COLONIES

North
Carolina

South
Carolina

Georgia
Charleston

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. “No Taxation without representation” was the slogan of
revolution in
(a) France (b) China
(c) America (d) Russia
2. The author of “Common Sense”
(a) Voltaire (b) Benjamin Franklin
(c) Thomas Paine (d) Thomas Jefferson
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The First Continental Congress in 1774 was held at …..
2. The Seven Years War came to an end in …..
3. The American War of Independence came to an end by the
treaty of …..
III. Match the following.
1. Stamp Act a. 1764
2. Sugar Act b. 1765
3. Boston Tea Party c. 1767
4. Townshend laws d. 1773
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) The Navigation Acts were passed by the British Parliament
for the benefit of the American colonies.
b) The Quartering Act made it compulsory that the colonists should
provide food and shelter to the English troops.

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c) The Second Continental Congress was attended by the

representatives of the 12 colonies except Georgia.
d) On 4th July 1774, the American Declaration of Independence
was adopted by the Continental Congress.
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1 The victory at Saratoga marked a turning point in American
War of Independence.
2. The British troops under the command of General Cornwallis
surrendered to Washington at Lexington in 1781.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Townshend Laws
2. Boston Tea Party
3. Stamp Act
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Analyse the fundamental causes for the American War of
Independence.
2. Write a note on the Philadelphia Congress.
3. Bring out the importance of the American Declaration of
Independence.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the circumstances leading to the American War of
Independence.

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LESSON 25
FRENCH REVOLUTION

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The causes of the French Revolution.

2. The role of French philosophers.

3. The Fall of Bastille and the beginning of the revolution.

4. The Constituent Assembly and the National Convention.

5. The Reign of Terror.

6. The end of the revolution.

The French Revolution opened a new chapter in the history of

Europe. It marked a turning point in the history of humankind. The
French Revolution put an end to the age old absolute monarchy, feudal
laws and social inequality. It introduced for the first time the idea of
republicanism based on “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”. These ideas
had influenced the entire continent of Europe and also the world.
Causes of the French Revolution
The causes of the French revolution include the political, social
and economic aspects that were prevalent in France before the
outbreak of the revolution.
Political Causes
France was ruled by the Bourbon dynasty. They
firmly believed in the Divine Right theory – as they
were representatives of God, they were answerable
only to God. Louis XIV was a strong and powerful
Louis XVI

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ruler of the Bourbon dynasty. His wars ruined the economy of France.
His successors Louis XV and Louis XVI were weak administrators.
Louis XV foretold at the end of his rule: “After me the deluge”. His
words came to be true. Louis XVI was the most incompetent ruler.
His wife and queen, Marie Antoinette interfered too much into the
administration. She was thoroughly ignorant of the sufferings of the
French people. But she always favoured and protected the interests
of the French nobles. She did not allow the financial reforms to take
place. Because it affected the interests of the nobles and the clergy.
Social Causes
The French society was based on inequality. The society
consisted of three major divisions, the nobles, clergy and the common
people. The nobles had no political power but remained loyal to the
king. They enjoyed many privileges and led a life of luxury. They
were exempted from taxation. The higher clergy owned one fifth of
the lands in France and enjoyed several privileges. Their number in
France was around only five thousand. They lived in palatial houses
and they were exempted from taxes. But the lower clergy were
denied all these privileges. Therefore, they turned against the higher
clergy during the revolution. Both the noble and the higher clergy led
a life of ease and pleasure without bothering about the wretched
condition of the masses.
The majority of the population in France belonged to the third
category. Traders, lawyers, owners of industries, government
servants, peasants and workers were in this category. While the nobles
and the clergy were exempted from paying taxes, the masses paid
all the taxes. Hence it was said : “the nobles fight, the clergy pray
and the people pay”. The taille or land tax was entirely paid by the
peasants. The gabelle or salt tax was a burden on the common man.
The head of each family had to pay the capitation tax. Besides paying
these taxes to the king, they have to pay tithe (tax) to the Church.

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The burden on the peasants was higher than the others because he
had certain other obligations to the nobles. They were forced to use
the mill, wine-press, slaughterhouse and oven of their lords after paying
the usual dues. They were also compelled to render feudal services
to the lords.
Economic Causes
The financial condition of France was very critical during the reign
of Louis XVI. The national debt had increased beyond the limit. The
national income was less than national
expenditure. Hence, the king tried to mobilize
national income by selling important offices of
the government. At last, the king appointed
financial experts Turgot and Jacques Necker as
Director-General of Finances. They tried to
curtail royal expenditure and improve the income
to the government. But their measures did not
receive the support of the nobles. On their advice JACQUES NECKER
the queen Marie Antoinette removed them. Later, Calonne was appointed
to look into the financial crisis. But he was not able to do anything but to
levy fresh taxes. Therefore, Louis XVI was forced to convene the States
General after a gap of 175 years, on May 5th, 1789.
The French Philosophers
The writings and the preaching of the French philosophers
prepared the common people for the revolution.
The most prominent among them were
Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau.
Montesquieu in his book, The Spirit
of Laws advocated the constitutional
form government. He introduced
the idea of separation of
MONTESQUIEU VOLTAIRE

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powers into executive, legislative and judiciary to ensure the effective

functioning of democracy. Voltaire launched a crusade against
superstition and attacked traditional beliefs. He wrote many essays,
poems and dramas creating awareness among the
masses. He advocated the supremacy of reason.
He stood for religious toleration. He strongly
condemned the corruptions in the church. He stood
for a benevolent despotism. Rousseau was the
author of the famous book, Social Contract, which
was considered the Bible of the French Revolution.
ROUSSEAU
He said that the real sovereignty rests with the
people. His famous statement, “Man is born free
and is everywhere in chains” kindled the revolutionary spirit of the
masses. Diderot and D’ Alembert published the Encyclopedia. It
contained several essays and articles written by revolutionary
thinkers. The revolutionary ideas of these philosophers spread
throughout France and created awareness among the masses. The
French intellectuals gave the motto “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”
which became the watchwords of the revolution of 1789.
Impact of the American War of Independence
The independence of the thirteen American colonies from
England provided a boost to the French people. The French captain
Lafayette with his soldiers returned from America after helping the
colonies to secure their independence. His experience in America
along with the fighting spirit for the cause of democracy reached the
ears of the French and inspired them. Therefore, they decided to put
an end to the despotic rule of the Bourbons.
Convening of the States-General
The bankruptcy of French treasury was the starting point of
the French Revolution. Louis XVI was faced with a serious financial
situation. There was also no alternative but to propose new taxes.
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So, Louis XVI summoned the States General on 5th May 1789. The
main purpose for summoning the States General was to get its consent
for the fresh taxes to be levied upon the people. The king also recalled
Necker to head the finance ministry.
National Assembly
The States General consisted of three Estates Chambers. The
first Estate was represented by the nobles, the second the clergy and
the third by the common people. When
the king called for its meeting, each
Estate sat separately. However, the
members of the third estate demanded
a joint sitting and one vote for each
member. As the first and second
Estates did not concede to this
TENNIS COURT OATH
demand, there was a deadlock. On
17 th June 1789, the third Estate declared itself as the National
Assembly. The king got alarmed and prevented them from entering
the hall. But, the members of the National Assembly went to a nearby
Tennis Court and took an oath to frame a new constitution. This is
known as Tennis Court Oath.
On 23 rd June 1789, a special session of States General was
held. The king declared the acts of the Third Estate as illegal. He
also ordered that the three Estates should meet separately. But the
third Estate refused to accept the king’s orders. Hence, Louis XVI
submitted to the will of the third Estate, which represented the
common people. He ordered the three Estates to sit together. Thus
the formation of National Assembly was completed.
Fall of the Bastille
Although the king recognised the National Assembly, he decided
to suppress it. A large number of soldiers were brought to Versailles

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and Paris. Necker, the popular minister

was also dismissed. On hearing this, the
mob of Paris became violent. They
attacked the State prison called the
Bastille, murdered the guards and freed
the prisoners. The fall of the Bastille
was regarded in France as a triumph
FALL OF THE BASTILLE
of liberty. After the fall of the Bastille
the peasants rose against the nobles. Riots began against the
aristocrats all over France. Nobles were attacked and their castles
stormed. They also destroyed the records of their feudal services.
The nobles voluntarily surrendered their feudal rights and the
privileges on 4th August 1789. Feudalism and serfdom were abolished.
The principle of equality was established. Class distinctions were
abolished. There was a shortage for bread in Paris. On 5th October,
a large number of women went to the King’s palace at Versailles to
make a petition. They were not satisfied with the reply of the queen
and hence they brought with them the king, the queen and their son
to Paris.
Work of the National Assembly (1789 - 1791)
The National Assembly styled itself the Constituent
Assembly. It drew up the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The
new constitution drafted by the Constituent Assembly provided for a
limited monarchy to France. The titles of the nobles were abolished.
Judiciary was remodeled. The method of torture was abolished. New
central and local courts were established. Judges were to be elected.
Drastic action was also taken against the church. The monasteries
were suppressed. Absolute religious toleration was proclaimed. The
collection of tithes by the church was abolished. Then, measures
were taken for the nationalization of church properties. After drafting
the new constitution, the National Assembly dissolved itself in 1791.

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Political Clubs
The political clubs sprang up in different
quarters. Of these, the most
conspicuous were the Jacobian Club
and Cordelier Club. The Jacobian
Club was led by Robespierre, a radical
DANTON
democrat. The Cordelier Club was led
by Danton. The Girondists were a
group of eloquent young men and stood for establishing
ROBESPIERRE
a republican form of government. Madame Roland was
a prominent member of the Girondists.
The Legislative Assembly
According to the new constitution, the new Legislative
Assembly met in 1791. When the revolution broke out many of the
nobles managed to escape from France. They carried out propaganda
against the revolution in France and tried to mobilize support from
other countries. Austria and Prussia came forward to help them. To
curtail their activities the Legislative Assembly passed laws. The
king did not approve of these laws and used his veto against them.
King Leopold of Austria issued the famous Declaration of Pilnitz
against the revolutionaries on 27 th August 1791. War broke out
between the revolutionary government and Austria in 1792. The
revolutionary army was defeated. The wrath of the revolutionaries
turned against the French king. On 10th August 1792 the mob attacked
the King’s palace at Tuileries. The king was suspended and elections
were ordered for a National Convention to prepare another new
constitution for the country. This was followed by the “September
Massacres”. The Revolutionary government at Paris led by Danton
massacred 1500 suspected supporters of the French king. Then the
French army defeated the Austrian army at Valmy.

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The National Convention (1792 - 1795)

After the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, the National
Convention met in 1792. It abolished monarchy and declared France
as a republic. The king Louis XVI after a summary trail was found
guilty of treason was guillotined (head cut off) on Sunday, 21st January
1793. Three days later the queen Maire Antoinette was also
guillotined.
Reign of Terror
The National convention divided on the issue of the execution
of the king. The moderates did not agree with the Jacobians, who
formed the majority in the Convention. The Jacobians had set up the
Revolutionary Tribunal to deal with the moderates. It was the
beginning of the Reign of Terror. It was the final phase of the
Revolution. It was also the darkest period of the Revolution. Riots
broke out in many places like Lyons, Marseilles and other cities. In
1793, the first coalition was formed by the European nations against
the revolutionary government.
The Jacobians suspended the constitution and created the
Committee of Public Safety with full powers to deal with the
situation. Robespierre was the leader of this committee. It put down
all the riots staged by the royalists within the country. Many people
were killed on suspicion of being royalists. Soon, Robespierre became
a virtual dictator of France. But, his opponents
turned against him and sent him to the guillotine in
1794.
End of Revolution
With the fall of Robespeirre the Reign of
Terror gradually came to an end. Moreover the
public opinion was strongly against it. The
NAPOLEAN Revolutionary Tribunal was suspended. The

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functions of Committee of Public Safety were restricted. The

Jacobian Club was closed. The National Convention at last took up
its long neglected task of framing of a constitution for the French
Republic. The executive was entrusted to a Directory, consisting of
five members. The legislative power was entrusted to two houses
called the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of the
Ancients. Napolean Bonapartee was then at Paris and he was
entrusted with the task of defending the Convention against the
Parisian mob. He dispersed the mob and saved the Convention and
began his brilliant career. On October 26, 1795 the convention
declared itself dissolved and the Directory took charge of the French
government.
Results of the Revolution
The French Revolution of 1789 inaugurated a new era in the
history of the mankind. The ideas of “liberty, equality and fraternity”
spread to other parts of the world. The Bourbon monarchy was
abolished. The Revolution rejected tyranny, divine right, conservatism,
and feudal vestiges associated with bourbon rule in France. At the
same time it failed to establish a permanent Republic in France. The
French Revolution, after a violent turn led to the emergence of a
great dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

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Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

1. The political, social and economic causes of the French

Revolution

2. The role French thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau and

Montesquieu.

3. The fall of Bastille and the beginning of the revolution.

4. The Constituent Assembly and its role in framing the

constitution.

5. The National Convention and its activities.

6. The Reign of Terror under Robespierre.

7. The end of the revolution and the results

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The King of France at the time of 1789 Revolution was
(a) Louis XII (b) Louis XIV
(c) Louis XVIII (d) Louis XVI
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. …… was the author of the book “Social Contract”.
2. In the States General, the first Estate was represented by ……
III. Match the following.
1. Encyclopedia a. Danton
2. September Massacres b. D’ Alembert
3. Reign of Terror c. Montesquieu
4. The Spirit of Laws d. Robespierre
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
correct.
a. King Louis XVI issued the Declaration of the Rights of
Man.
b. Madame Roland was a prominent member of the Cordelier
Club .
c. King Leopold of Prussia issued the famous Declaration of
Pilnitz.
d. The Jacobians suspended the constitution and created the
Committee of Public Safety.

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V. State whether the following statements are True or

False.
1. Marie Antoinette was the wife and queen of Louis XVI.
2. The idea of Separation of Powers was proposed by
Montesquieu.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. National Assembly
2. Rousseau
3. Reign of Terror
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Examine the contributions of the French philosophers to the
French Revolution.
2. Write a note on the results of the French Revolution.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the causes of the French Revolution of 1789.
2. Trace the course of the French Revolution of 1789.

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LESSON 26
AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS

Learning Objectives

Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The process of agricultural revolution.

2. The causes for the Industrial Revolution.

3. Scientific inventions in different sectors of industrial

production.

4. Merits and demerits of the Industrial Revolution.

Agricultural Revolution
The term agricultural revolution refers to the radical changes
in the method of agriculture in England in the 17th and 18th centuries.
There was a massive increase in agricultural productivity, which
supported the growing population. The Agricultural Revolution
preceded the Industrial Revolution in England. During the Agricultural
Revolution, four key changes took place in agricultural practices.
They were enclosure of lands, mechanization of farming, four-field
crop rotation, and selective breeding of domestic animals.
Prior to the agricultural revolution, the practice of agriculture
had been much the same across Europe since the Middle Ages. The
open field system was essentially feudal. Each farmer engaged in
cultivation in common land and dividing the produce.
From the beginning of 12 th century, some of the common fields
in Britain were enclosed into individually owned fields. This process
rapidly accelerated in the 15th and 16th centuries as sheep farming
grew more profitable. This led to farmers losing their land and their

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grazing rights. Many farmers became unemployed. In the 16th and

17th centuries, the practice of enclosure was denounced by the
Church, and legislation was drawn up against it. However, the
mechanization of agriculture during the 18th century required large,
enclosed fields. This led to a series of government acts, culminating
finally in the General Enclosure Act of 1801. By the end of the
19th century the process of enclosure was largely complete.
Great experiments were conducted in farming during this
period. Machines were introduced for seeding and harvesting.
Rotation of crops was introduced by Townshend. The lands became
fertile by this method. Bakewell introduced scientific breeding of farm
animals. The horse-drawn ploughs, rake, portable threshers, manure
spreaders, multiple ploughs and dairy appliances had revolutionized
farming. These changes in agriculture increased food production as
well as other farm outputs.
Industrial Revolution
The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used by European
scholars – Georges Michelet in France and Friedrich Engels in
Germany. It was used to describe the changes that occurred in the
industrial development of England between 1760 and 1820. The
Industrial Revolution had far-reaching effects in England.
Subsequently, similar changes occurred in European countries and in
the U.S.A. the Industrial Revolution had a major impact on the society
and economy of these countries and also on the rest of the world.
This phase of industrial development in England is strongly
associated with new machinery and technologies. These made it
possible to produce goods on a massive scale compared to handicraft
and handloom industries. There were changes in the cotton and iron
industries. Steam, a new source of power, began to be used on a
wide scale in British industries. Its use led to faster forms of
transportation by ships and railways. Industrialisation led to greater
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prosperity for some, but in the initial stages many people including
women and children had experienced poor living and working
conditions. This sparked off protests and the government was forced
to enact laws to improve the conditions of workers.
Causes for the Industrial Revolution
! England’s advantageous geographical location.
! The precedence of agricultural revolution.
! New inventions and the introduction of machinery.
! The enterprising spirit of British entrepreneurs.
! Growth of capital in England.
! Colonial possessions of England, which supplied raw
materials and served as markets
Scientific Inventions
Textile Machinery
The primary cause of the Industrial Revolution was the scientific
inventions. The earliest mechanical inventions came in the textile
industry. Spinning was the slowest process in the manufacturing of
cloth. The invention of flying shuttle by Kay in 1733 improved weaving.
In 1764, Hargreaves invented the ‘spinning jenny’. This machine could
spin eight threads at the same time, instead of one. Arkwright
improved the ‘spinning jenny’ in 1769. Compton improved it still further
in 1779. In 1785, Cartwright invented the power loom. Whitney, an
American, speeded up the process (1792) with a cotton gin, which
automatically removed seeds from the fiber of the cotton. The
invention of the sewing machine by Elias Howe, in 1846, accelerated
the production of clothing and made possible the modern clothing
industry. Thus, one invention followed another, not only in textile
industries but also in many others. In this way, the present-day
complex machinery has evolved.
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Steam Engine
Heavy machinery could not function with
out power to operate it. The invention of the steam
engine provided the practical solution. The first
practical application of steam to machinery was
made by James Watt in 1765. He devised the first
closed cylinder with a piston pushed back and forth JAMES WATT
by steam. This has been extensively used in textile machinery.
Development of Transport
There is a close relationship between the development of
industry and improvement in transportation. Industrializaion depends
largely on the bringing of raw materials to factories and on the
disposing of manufactured goods in a wide market. As late as the
17th century, highways were poorly kept. A pack horse was the only
possible means of travel on land. In the second half of the 18th century,
John McAdam (1756-1836) built a type of hard-surfaced road in
England. The only important change made in this method was the
substitution of a tar composition for mud as a binder. France copied
the English methods, and under the patronage of the government
many highways were built.
The heavy expenses involved in the building and upkeep of
highway encouraged the development of inland waterways. During
the second half of the 18th century and the early part of the 19 th
century thousands of miles of artificial water route were dug in
England, in France, and in the United Slates. In 1761, a canal was
built in England from Worsley to Manchester to carry coal from the
mines to the furnaces.
There were serious drawbacks in the river and canal
transportation. The rate of travel was slow and the expense of
construction and maintenance was high. Geographical factors limited

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the extent to which water

transportation could be utilized.
Railroads provided a solution for these
problems. The first tracks were made
of wood and the first cars were horse
drawn, but the introduction of iron for
LOCOMOTIVE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON
rails and the application of Watt’s
steam engine for traction power
revolutionized the whole procedure. George Stephenson constructed
the first practical locomotive in [Link] Stockton and Darlington
railroad started operation in England in 1825. The era of railroads
had begun.
Communication
Modern transportation and business enterprises are much
dependent on rapid and efficient communication. Before the
perfection of the telegraph, carrier pigeons and
semaphores were the speediest methods available. The
electric telegraph depended upon earlier basic
researches made by Faraday, Volta, Ampere, and
Franklin. It was invented independently in Germany,
England, and the United States, by Steinheil,
Wheatstone, and Morse, respectively. Telegraphic G R A H A M B E L L
equipment was widely installed after 1845. A cable from America
to Europe was laid under the Atlantic Ocean in 1866. By the close of
the 19th century, all the important commercial centers in the world
had telegraphic communications. The penny post was established in
1840. The Universal Postal Union, to aid international mail service,
was adopted in 1875. Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876.

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Lighting
In industry, transportation, social activities, amusements, and
cultural pursuits, artificial light plays a very important role. In 1784, a
burner was devised for oil lamps, which was later used for kerosene
lamps. Gas for artificial illumination was introduced and widely used
by the middle of the 19th century. Davy, in 1821, worked out the
theory of the electric arc. Edison, in 1879 invented the electric bulb.
Iron and Steel
The coal and iron industries replaced old technologies of wood,
water and wind. In 1709 Darby introduced coal for charcoal in blast
furnace. John Smeaton invented the blast furnace
with a rotary fan. For the new machinery, a better
grade than ordinary cast iron was needed. Henry
Cord and Peter Onions introduced puddling and
rolling Process in 1784. In 1740 steel was produced
at Sheffield by Huntsman. Later, Henry Bessemer
invented a faster and cheaper method of producing
steel. The first iron bridge was constructed in 1777. EDISON
The first iron ship was made in 1790.
Merits of Industrial Revolution
Urbanisation
The factory system introduced by the Industrial Revolution
created cities and urban centres. In England, cities like Manchester,
Birmingham, Leeds, and Sheffield arose. People left their rural homes
and gathered around these cities by the hundreds and thousands in
quest of work and wages. The population of Manchester increased
six fold within a half century.

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Machinery
The introduction of power machinery rapidly increased
production of goods.
Intellectual Movement
The intellectual encouragement had also been great. Schools,
colleges, newspapers, libraries, and the radio had been dependent on
the capitalistic system for their rapid development. Many intellectual
like Marx, St. Simon emerged as a result of the Industrial Revolution.
Large Employment
The starting of new industries provided employment to many
men and women.
Demerits of Industrial Revolution
New Social Problems
The rapid growth of industrial cities created problems that were
difficult to solve. Accommodation, sanitation, and health were not
provided adequately. Sickness and crime prevailed. Women and
children were employed for cheap labour. They worked for 12 to 14
hours per day.
Capitalism
The establishment of the factory system increased the amount
of money in circulation. However, money concentrated in the hands
of a few people.
Class Division
The Industrial Revolution divided society into two distinct
groups: the rich middle class (bourgeoisie), composed of
manufacturers, merchants, mine owners, bankers, and professional
men, on the one hand, and the wage-earning class (proletariat),
composed of mill workers and factory workers, on the other. This
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gap between employer and employee gave rise to many economic

and social problems.
Growth of Colonialism and Imperialism
The Industrial Revolution had strengthened colonialism because
the colonies were useful to obtain raw materials and sell the finished
products. So, larger territories were captured thus paving way for
imperialism.

Industry Name Invention Year

John Kay Flying Shuttle 1763
Textile Hardgreaves Spinning jenny 1764
Machinery Richard Arkwright Water Frame 1769
Samuel Crompton
Spinning Mule 1779
Edmund Cartwright
Ely Whitney Power Loom 1785
Elias Howe Cotton Gin 1792
Sewing Machine 1846

Coal and John Smeaton Blastfurnance 1760

Iron Henry Bessemen Steel 1850
Industries Sir Humphrey Davy Safety Lamp 1816
Field of James Watt Steam Engine 1736-1819
Power George Stephenson Locomotive 1781-1848
Field of John Mc Adam He used a mud
Transport birder to build a 1756-1836
type of hard
surface road

Comm- Alexander Graham Telephone 1876

unication Bell

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Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

1. The meaning and the process of Agricultural Revolution.

2. The causes for the Industrial Revolution.

3. Scientific Inventions that contributed to the growth of

Industrial Revolution.

4. Growth of different industrial sectors such as textiles and

transportation.

5. The merits and demerits of industrial revolution.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Rotation of crops was introduced by
(a) Harvey (b) Townshend
(c) Mac Adam (d) Hargreaves
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Alexander Graham Bell invented …….
2. The electric bulb was invented by ……
III. Match the following.
1. Flying Shuttle a. Hargreaves
2. Spinning Jenny b. Elias Howe
3. Power Loom c. Kay
4. Sewing Machine d. James Watt
5. Steam engine e. Cartwright
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
correct.
a. Bakewell introduced scientific breeding of farm animals
b. The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used Georges Michelet
in Germany.
c. John McAdam introduced railways in England.
d. Edison invented the steam engine in 1879.

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V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

1. Industrialization depends largely on the bringing of raw materials
to factories and on the disposing of manufactured goods in a
wide market.
2. John Smeaton constructed the first practical locomotive in 1814.
3. The Universal Postal Union was adopted in 1875 to aid
international mail service.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. John McAdam
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Examine the causes for the Industrial Revolution.
2. Discuss the process of Industrial Revolution in England.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the scientific inventions that contributed to
the growth of Industrial Revolution.
2. Analyse the merits and demerits of the Industrial Revolution.

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LESSON 27
FIRST WORLD WAR

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The concepts of colonialism, imperialism and their impact.

2. The causes for the First World War.

3. The course of the First World War.

4. The end and results of the First World War.

COLONIALISM
Colonialism is the extension of a nation’s sovereignty over
another territory beyond its borders. Colonizers generally dominate
the resources, labor, and markets of the colonial territory. They also
impose socio-cultural, religious and linguistic aspects on the conquered
population.
European colonialism began in the 15th century with the “Age
of Discovery”. This was led by Portuguese and Spanish explorations
of the Americas, and the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India,
and East Asia. By 17 th century, England, France and Holland
successfully established their own overseas empires, in direct
competition with each other and those of Spain and Portugal. Spain
and Portugal were weakened after the loss of their New World
colonies. But Britain, France and Holland turned their attention to
the Old World, particularly South Africa, India and South East Asia,
where colonies were established. The industrialization of the 19th
century led to what has been termed the era of New Imperialism.
The fight among the European countries to control and establish new
colonies led to the First World War.
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There are different types of colonies. Settler colonies, such

as the original thirteen states of the United States of America, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand and Argentina arose from the emigration of
peoples from a mother country. This led to the displacement of the
indigenous peoples.
Colonies of dependencies came into existence due to the
conquest by foreign countries. Examples in this category include the
British India, Dutch Indonesia, French Indo-China , and the Japanese
colonial empire.
Plantation colonies such as Barbados, Saint-Dominguez and
Jamaica, where the white colonizers imported black slaves - who
rapidly began to outnumber their owners- led to minority rule, similar
to a dependency.
Imperialism
Imperialism is a policy of extending control or authority over
colonized countries. The term is used to describe the policy of a
nation’s dominance over distant lands. The “Age of Imperialism”
usually refers to the Old Imperialism period starting from 1860, when
major European states started colonizing the other continents. The
term ‘Imperialism’ was initially coined in the mid 1500s to reflect the
policies of countries such as Britain and France who expanded into
Africa, and the Americas. Imperialism refers to the highest stage of
capitalism which made it necessary to find new markets and
resources. This theory of necessary expansion of capitalism outside
the boundaries of nation-states was shared by Lenin and Rosa
Luxemburg.
Economic Market
Industrial Revolution created the need among the European
countries to find new markets for their industrial goods. Similarly,
they had to find raw materials for their industries. This dual need

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pushed the European countries to compete with each other to establish

their political control over Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Improvement in Communications
Advancement in science and technology led to improvement in
transport and communication. Steamships, Railroads, roadways were
improved. This helped imperialism to have a firm hold over the
conquered territories.
Rise of Extreme Nationalism
The late 19th century was a period of intense nationalism. Many
nations developed myths of superiority over other peoples. Each
country wanted to have colonies to add to its prestige and power.
Writers and speakers in England, France and Germany opened
institutions to promote the idea of imperialism. European countries
took great pride in calling their territories as empires.
The ‘Civilizing Mission’
In the minds of many Europeans, imperialist expansion was
very noble. They considered it a way of bringing civilization to the
‘backward peoples of the world. Explorers and adventurers, as well
as missionaries helped in spreading imperialism.
US Imperialism
The United States has enjoyed its status as a sole superpower.
Beginning at the end of World War II, the U.S. largely took over
from the United Kingdom certain roles of influence in the Middle
East. Several Middle Eastern nations such as Egypt, Iran, Iraq,
Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel have all been
directly or otherwise substantially influenced by U.S. policy.

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First World War (1914 -1919)

CAUSES
System of Alliances
There were many causes for the World War I. The most
important cause was the system of secret alliances. Before 1914
Europe was divided into two camps. It was Germany which created
the division in European politics before World War I. In order to
isolate France, Germany entered in to an alliance with Austria.
Bismarck formed the three Emperors League by making alliance
with Russia. Later Germany did not care for Russia. Hence Russia
left. But Germany continued its alliance with Austria alone. This
was known as Dual alliance. After Italy joined in this alliance, it
became a Triple alliance.
In the meantime Russia began to lean towards France. In
1894 there came Franco-Russian alliance against Austro-German
alliance. It was at this time England followed a policy of splendid
isolation. She also felt that she was all alone. First she wanted to
join with Germany. When this became a failure, she entered into an
alliance with Japan in 1902. In 1904 she made alliance with France.
In 1907 Russia joined this alliance. This had resulted in Triple
Entente. Thus Europe was divided into two camps. The secret
nature of these alliances brought about the war of 1914.
Militarism
The countries in Europe had been increasing their armies and
navies. This was the main reason for universal fear, hatred and
suspicions among the countries of Europe. In Europe, England and
Germany were superior in Navy. There were competitions between
these two countries in naval armaments. For every ship built by
Germany, two ships were built by England.

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Narrow Nationalism was also a cause for the war. The love
of the country demanded the hatred of another. For instance, love of
Germany demanded the hatred of France. Likewise the French
people hated the German people. In Eastern Europe narrow
nationalism played a greater role. The Serbians hated Austria-
Hungary.
The desire for the people of France to get back Alsace-Lorraine
was also a cause for the outbreak of First World War. It was Bismarck
who had taken away Alsace-Lorraine from France and annexed them
with Germany in 1871. The result was that there grew animosities
between these two countries. It was this reason that forced Germany
to take steps to isolate France by making alliances with other
countries.
William II, the Emperor of Germany himself was a cause for
the First World War. He wanted to make Germany a stronger power.
He was not prepared to make any compromise in international affairs.
He was mistaken in assessing Great Britain’s strength. It was a
misunderstanding of the British character by William II that was
responsible for the war.
Prussian spirit by Germany was also a cause for war. The
Prussians were taught that war was a legal in the world. War was
the national industry of Prussia. The younger generation of Germany
was indoctrinated with such a philosophy of war.
Public Opinion
The position of public opinion by the newspapers was also a
cause. Often, the newspapers tried to inflame nationalist feeling by
misrepresenting the situations in other countries. Ambassadors and
cabinet ministers admitted the senseless attitude of the leading news
papers in their own countries.

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The desire of Italy to recover the Trentino and the area

around the port of Trieste was also a cause for war. The Italians
considered that these areas were inhabited by Italians. But they
were still part and parcel of Austria-Hungary. They cried for the
redemption of these territories. Italy also entered into a competition
with Austria to control the Adriatic Sea. As Austria was not prepared
to put up with the competition, there arose bitterness in the relations
of these two countries.
The Eastern Question was also a factor for the war. This
complicated the situation in the Balkans. The misrule of Turkey
resulted in discontentment. There was a rivalry between Greece,
Serbia and Bulgaria for the control of Macedonia which had a mixed
population. On the occasion of Bosnian crises Russia supported
Serbia. Pan Slavism also created complications.
The questions Bosnia - Herzegovina in the Balkans was also
similar to the problem of Alsace-Lorraine. Bosnia and Herzegovina
were given to Austria-Hungary by the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
This was strongly opposed by Serbia. A strong agitation was started
in Serbia to separate these provinces from Austria-Hungary and unite
them with Serbia. This created rivalry between Serbia and Austria-
Hungary. This became very keen after 1909. Serbia also received
moral support from her big brother Russia (The Serbs and Russians
belong to Slav Race).
Immediate Cause
The immediate cause was the assassination
of Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand who was heir to
the Austrian throne. Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand
and his wife were assassinated by Serbians in the
Bosnian capital Sarajevo when they paid a visit to
this city on 28th June 1914. The news of this murder
shocked many countries. Austria-Hungary was ARCH DUKE FERDINAND

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already sick of Serbia and she decided to take advantage of the new
situation to crush her. The murder of their crown prince and his wife
resulted in an ultimatum being sent to Serbia for immediate compliance
of certain terms. Serbia’s reply did not pacify Austria-Hungary.
Hence, Austria-Hungary backed by Germany declared war on Serbia.
Russia mobilised her forces in favour of Serbia.
Course of the War
During the war Germany and her allies were called Central
Powers. England and her allies were called Allied Powers. Germany
entered the war to defend Austria. Shortly all the powers in the
hostile camps were automatically drawn into the war. Turkey and
Bulgaria joined the war on the side of Germany. Italy left the Triple
Alliance and joined the opposite camp with the idea of recovering
Italian territories under Austrian control.
England joined the war against Germany. There was bitter
fighting on the French soil. The Battle of Verdun decided the
fortunes of the war in favour of the Allies. Germany started
submarine warfare in a large scale. All the laws relating to naval
warfare were thrown out.
Russia fought on the side of Allies up to 1917. The Bolshevik
regime wanted peace with Germany. Thus the Brest-Litovsk Treaty
was signed between Russia and Germany.
The Lusitania ship was drowned by a German
submarine and consequently many Americans lost
their lives. This resulted in the declaration of war
against Germany by the U.S.A. In spite of best
efforts, Germany could not stand and ultimately she
surrendered in November 1919. KAISER WILLIAM

The German Emperor Kaiser William lost all hopes of winning

the war. He abdicated his throne and fled to Holland. The German

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army signed the armistice agreement on November 11, 1918 to mark

their surrender to the Allies. The allies of Germany had earlier
suffered defeat at the hands of the Allied powers.
Results of the War
The Great War took a heavy toll of lives. It is estimated that
about ten million lives were lost and twenty million people have been
wounded. People all over the world suffered untold miseries. There
was a large scale damage to civil property.
It is estimated that the direct cost of the war reached just over
two hundred billion dollars and the indirect cost more than a hundred
and fifty billion dollars.
A large variety of deadly weapons such as incendiary bombs,
grenades and poison gases were used. Tanks, submarines and
aircrafts were also used.
The war wrought its havoc on the economics of the participating
countries. It may be remembered that about 25 nations had joined
the allies at the time of the outbreak of war. The victors felt the
devastating effects of the war even before the cessation. All these
nations were burdened with the national debts. The world economy
was in shambles.
Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles on 28th
June 1919. It was a dictated peace and Germany had by then become
even too weak to protest. She lost everything. Germany and her
allies suffered most since they had to pay heavy sums to the victorious
allies as reparation debts.
Austria Hungary signed the Treaty of St. Germaine. Hungary
signed the Treaty of Trianon with the allies in 1920. Bulgaria had
accepted the Treaty of Neuliy in 1919. Turkey, which sided with
Germany during the war, signed the Treaty of Sevres in 1920.

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Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be to explain

1. The rise of colonialism and its impact.

2. Imperialism and its impact on the world politics.

3. The system of alliances and other causes for the First World
War.

4. The role of USA in the First World War and the victory of the
Allied powers in the war.

5. The Treaties concluded at the end of the First World War

and the results of the war.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Which one of the following was grouped under the settler
colonies?
(a) British India (b) Indo-China
(c) 13 American colonies (d) Indonesia
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The Three Emperors League was formed by …..
2. The Congress of Berlin was convened in the year …..
III. Match the following.
1. Treaty of Versailles a. Austria-Hungary
2. Treaty of Saint Germaine b. Turkey
3. Treaty of Sevres c. Germany
4. Treaty of Nueliy d. Bulgaria
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a. When Italy joined Dual Alliance it became Triple Alliance.
b. Austrian Prince Francis Ferdinand was assassinated in Austrian
Capital.
c. During the First World War the world was divided in to Allied
Powers and Axis Powers.
d. After the War Bulgaria joined the Treaty of Trianan.

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V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

1. The Triple Alliance was concluded between Germany, Italy
and Austria-Hungary.
2. William II was the emperor of Germany during the First World
War.
3. The immediate cause of the First World War was the
assassination of Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand.
4. The Brest-Litovsk was signed between Russia and Italy.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Colonialism
2. Imperialism
3. Triple Entente
4. Treaty of Versailles
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Discuss the impact of colonialism.
2. Trace the course of the First World War.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Enumerate the various causes of the First World War.
2. Examine the results of the First World War.

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LESSON 28
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1917

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. Causes of the Russian Revolution.

2. The rise of Socialists in Russia.

3. The Course of the Russian Revolution.

4. The end of the revolution and its results.

The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a very important political

event of the 20th Century. For the first time, Karl Marx’s idea of
socialism and Proletariat revolution became a reality. Russia was a
big and powerful country. Even Napoleon Bonaparte could not
conquer Russia in 1812. However, during the beginning of the 20th
Century Russia was no longer a powerful country. During this time
Russia was ruled by the Romanov dynasty. Tsar Nicholas II ruled
Russia at the time of the Revolution. During his rule Russia faced
serious domestic and international problems. Eventually, a series of
political events led to the overthrow of the Tsarist rule by October
Revolution of 1917. Bolshevik Party headed by Lenin led the
revolution. Thus, Russia became USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics], which lasted until its disintegration in 1991.
Causes of the Russian Revolution
Political
Politically the Tsar’s rule was very weak. Russia fought a war
with Japan in 1904-05. Small Asian Country Japan defeated the mighty
European country Russia in the Russo-Japanese war. This lowered
the international and domestic prestige of Russia.
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The Tsars believed in the divine right theory

of kingship. Tsar Nicholas II was autocratic in
his administration. The people had many
grievances. The members of zemstoves and
Dumas wanted liberal reforms from the Tsar. But
Tsar was not prepared to sanction any reforms.
Meantime, the working class of St. Petersburg
went on strike. The striking workers went on a TSAR NICHOLAS II
procession to Tsar’s place to present a petition to
redress their grievances. They were led by father
Gapon. When the workers reached Tsar’s palace
the guards fired on the unarmed crowed. This event
is known as “Bloody Sunday” as it took place on
a Sunday, 22nd January 1905. This is also known
as 1905 Revolution. This event was indeed a
RUSPUTIN prelude to the October Revolution of 1917.
The Tsarist court was under the evil influence of Rusputin.
The Tsarina was strongly under his influence and at times the
administration was affected by his influence. Hence, the nobles
poisoned Rusputin to death.
Economic
The economic causes of the Russian Revolution largely
originated in Russia’s slightly outdated economy. Russia’s agriculture
was largely based on independent peasants. They did not own modern
machinery. Russian agriculture suffered from cold climate. Russia’s
agriculture season was only 4-6 months. The famine of 1891 had left
many peasants in poverty. The rapid industrialization of Russia also
resulted in urban overcrowding and poor conditions for urban industrial
workers. Between 1890 and 1910, the population of the capital of St
Petersburg increased from 1,033,600 to 1,905,600, with Moscow
experiencing similar growth. In one 1904 survey, it was found that an

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average of sixteen people shared each apartment in St Petersburg,

with six people per room. There was also no running water, and piles
of human waste were a threat to the health of the workers. Hence,
the workers in general were in a discontented situation.
Rise of Socialist Party
One of the most important events in the history of socialist
movement was the formation in 1864 of the International Working
Men’s Association or the First International.
During the short period of its existence, the
International exercised a tremendous influence on
workers’ movements in Europe.
To unite the socialist parties in various
countries into an international organisation, a
Congress was held in Paris on 14 th July 1889, the
centenary of the French Revolution of 1789. The
KARL MARX
result of this Congress was what has come to be
known as the Second International. The formation of the Second
International marked a new stage in the history of socialism.
On the first of May 1890, millions of workers all over Europe
and America struck work and held massive demonstrations. Since
then the first of May is observed as the international working
class day all over the world.
In Russia when the workers’
organizations were set up they were dominated
by Marx’s ideas on socialism. In 1883, the
Russian Social Democratic Party was formed
by George Plekhanov, a follower of Marx. This
party along with many other socialist groups
was united into the Russian Social Democratic
Labour Party in 1898. However, the party was GEORGE PLEKHANOV

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soon split over questions of organization and policies. One group which
was in a minority called the Mensheviks [Russian it means minority].
The majority party was called as the Bolsheviks.
The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir
Ilyich Ulyanov, popularly known as Lenin. He is
regarded as one of the greatest leaders of the
socialist movement after Marx and Engels. He
devoted himself to the task of organizing the
Bolshevik Party as an instrument for bringing about
revolution. His name has become inseparable from
the revolution of 1917. The Russian socialists,
LENIN including Plekhanov and Lenin, had played an
important part in the Second International.
Besides the Menshevik and the Bolshevik parties, which were
the political parties of industrial workers, there was the Socialist
Revolutionary Party which voiced the demands of the peasantry.
World War I
Russia had a very adverse history of military failures. Even
before the outbreak of the First World War, Russia had lost a war
with Japan in 1904–05. Most of Russia’s fleet was sunk by the
Japanese in that war. While the Russian army enjoyed some initial
successes against Austria-Hungary in 1914, Russia’s deficiencies
— particularly regarding the equipment of its soldiers and the lack of
advanced technology (aeroplanes, telephones) proved the causes for
Russia’s failures.
Russia’s first major battle was a disaster. In the 1914 Battle
of Tannenberg, over 120,000 Russian troops were killed, wounded,
or captured, while Germany suffered only 20,000 casualties.
Whatever nationalistic or patriotic support the Russian government
had gained in the early stages of the war had been lost.

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In 1915, Nicholas had taken direct command of the army. The

superior German army - better led, better trained, better supplied -
was effective against the ill-equipped Russian forces. By the end of
October 1916, Russia had lost between 1.6 and 1.8 million soldiers,
with an additional two million prisoners of war and one million missing.
Thus, a total of nearly five million men lost. These were heavy losses.
Mutinies began to occur in the Russian army. Soldiers went hungry
and lacked shoes, munitions, and even weapons.
Nicholas was blamed for all these crises. As this discontent
grew, the State Duma issued a warning to Nicholas to grant
constitutional form of government. Nicholas ignored them. As a result,
Russia’s Tsarist regime collapsed a few months later during the
February Revolution of 1917.
February Revolution
The February Revolution was the result of the political,
economic and social causes mentioned above. On the eve of the
February Revolution there was food shortage in the city. People
protested against war.
As the protests grew, various political reformists (both liberal
and radical left) joined together against the Tsar regime. In February
the protests in Petrograd turned violent as large numbers of city
residents rioted and clashed with police and soldiers. There was also
total strike. Eventually the bulk of the soldiers garrisoned in Petrograd
joined the protesters.
On 12th March, 1917 the capital city of Petersburg (renamed
Petrograd and now Leningrad) fell into the hands of the revolutionaries.
Soon the revolutionaries took Moscow, the Tsar Nicholas II gave up
his throne and the first provisional Government was formed on 15
March.

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The fall of the Tszar is known as the February Revolution

because, according to the old Russian calendar, it occurred on 27
February 1917.
Kerensky’s Provisional Government
The most important demands of the people were fourfold: peace,
land to the tiller, control of industry by workers,
and equal status for the non-Russian nationalities.
The Provisional Government under the leadership
of Kerensky did not implement any of these
demands and lost the support of the people. Lenin,
who was in exile in Switzerland at the time of the
February Revolution, returned to Russia in April.
Lenin gave his “April Theses”. This promised KERENSKY

people what they wanted.

Under his leadership the Bolshevik Party put forward clear
policies to end the war, transfer land to the peasants and advance
the slogan “All power to the Soviets”. Lenin and his trusted associate
Leon Trotsky led the October Revolution.
October Revolution of 1917
The unpopularity of the Kerensky’s government led to its
collapse on 7th November 1917, when a group of soldiers occupied
the Winter Palace, the seat of the Kerensky Government. An All-
Russian Congress of Soviets met on the same day and assumed full
political power. This event which took place on 7 November is known
as the October Revolution because of the corresponding date of the
old Russian calendar, 25 October.
Results of the Revolution
Russia withdrew from the First World War. Later, formal peace
was signed with Germany later. The estates of the landlords, the

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Church and the Tsar were confiscated and transferred to peasants’

societies to be allotted to peasant families to be cultivated without
hired labour. The control of industries was transferred to committees
of workers. By the middle of 1918, banks and insurance companies,
large industries, mines, water transport and railways were nationalised.
Foreign debts were refused and foreign investments were confiscated.
A Declaration of the Rights of Peoples was issued conferring the
right of self-determination upon all nationalities. A new government,
called the Council of People’s Commissars, headed by Lenin was
founded. These first acts of the new government began the era of
socialism.
The first Soviet constitution was adoped on July 10, 1918.
It created the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Later,
on December 30, 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
came into being. However, soon the new Soviet state was involved
in a civil war. The officers of the army of the fallen Tsar organised
an armed rebellion against the Soviet state. Troops of foreign
powers—England, France, Japan, the United States and others—
joined them. War was fought till 1920. By this time the ‘Red Army’
of the new state was in control of almost all the lands of the old
Czarist empire. Indeed, a revolutionary wave lasted until 1923.

Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be to explain
1. The political, social and economic causes of the Russian
Revolution.
2. The role of the Socialist led by Lenin in the Russian
Revolution.
3. Course of the revolution and the end of Tsarist regime in
Russia.
4. The formation of USSR and the results of the Russian
Revolution.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The Bolshevik Party in Russia was headed by
(a) Karl Marx (b) Tsar Nicholas II
(c) Lenin (d) Engles
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The Russian Socialist Democratic Party was formed by ……
2. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republic came into existence in
the year …..
III. Match the following
1. Tsar Nicholas a. Provincial Government
2. Bloody Sunday b. Lenin
3. ‘April Thesis’ c. 1905
4. Krenskey d. Romanov Dynasty
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) The February revolution in Russia was led by Lenin.
b) The Menshevik government was led by Kerensky.
c) The Bolshevik party was a moderate political force.
d) Tsar Nicholas II supported the Mensheviks.
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. Russian withdrew from the First World War in the middle.
2. The trusted associate of Lenin was Leon Trotsky.

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VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

1. Bloody Sunday
2. The Bolsheviks
3. October Revolution
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Discuss the role of Lenin in the Russian Revolution.
2. Write a note on the February Revolution.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the causes for the Russian Revolution of 1917.
2. Discuss the course of the Russian Revolution of 1917.

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LESSON 29
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The establishment of the League of Nations.

2. The organs of the League of Nations.

3. The achievements of the League of Nations.

4. Causes for the failure of the League of Nations.

Establishment of League of Nations

The out break of the First World War made the leaders of the
world to establish an international organisation for preventing future
wars. The Treaty of Versailles also provided a
Covenant for the establishment of an
international organisation to maintain peace and
security in the world. The founder of this
organization was President Woodrow Wilson of
USA. It was his idea to create a world
organization to maintain peace and prevent
future wars. President Woodrow Wilson’s
Fourteen Points underline the creation of a
WOODROW WILSON
general association of nations. It was Woodrow
Wilson who worked hard during Paris negotiations to bring about the
birth of the League of Nations. The League was actually established
in 1920 and its head quarters was shifted from Paris to Geneva in
Switzerland. Thus, the League of Nations came into being. However,
League failed to prevent the Second World War.

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Aims of the League

The League aimed at preventing wars through peaceful
settlement of disputes among member nations. Secondly it desired to
preserve and protect the independence of member-nations by
promoting international understanding and co-operation.
Organs of the League
The League set upon itself the task of achieving the above
aims through its organs-mainly the Assembly and the Council. To
begin with, all those powers who worked for the defeat of Germany
and her allies became the members of the League.
The Assembly
This supreme body consisted of the representatives of the
various states which were the members of the League. Every
member state was given the right of one vote in the Assembly. All
decisions of the Assembly were required to be unanimous. It acted
as International Legislature.
The Council
It originally consisted of four permanent members and four
other members elected by the Assembly. In 1926, Germany was
also given a permanent seat in the council. The number of non-
permanent members continued to increase and ultimately it reached
the figures of eleven. Of the two, the assembly was certainly stronger.
The Secretariat
It was located at Geneva. The
Secretary General was the prominent figure.
He was appointed by the Council but the
approval of Assembly was essential. The staff
of the Secretariat was appointed by the
SYMBOL OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS Secretary General in consultation with the

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Council. The member states had to pay towards the expenses of the
Secretariat..

ORGANISATION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

The Secretariat The Assembly

The League of
Nations
The League
Permanent Court of
Council
International Justice

The International
Labour Organisation

The Permanent Court of International Justice

It consisted of 15 judges with its head quarters at The Hague.
It gave judgments on questions involving the interpretation of
international law, treaties and other mutual obligations. The judges
of the court were elected for nine years.
The International Labour Organisation
It was also attached to the League of Nations with its
headquarters at Geneva. Its object was to improve the labour
conditions in various parts of the world. Its governing body consisted
of the representatives of the government, employers and workers.

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Mandate system
It was set up by the League. The territories captured from the
Central Powers and Turkey were not restored to them. The
administration of those countries was given to various powers under
the supervision of the League of Nations.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Aaland Islands
These islands lie between Sweden and Finland. Both Finland
and Aaland once belonged to Sweden. On the ownership of Aaland
Islands, there came a dispute between Sweden and Finland in 1920.
A special Commission of the League investigated the case and settled
the dispute in favour of Finland.
Mosul Boundary Dispute
This was a question related to the frontier dispute between
Turkey and the Great Britain’s mandated territory of Iraq. Both the
parties claimed Mosul Villayet which was rich in oil. Both failed to
come to an agreement on this boundary line. Ultimately the League
Council gave its final judgment on the subject. . In June 1926, a
treaty was made between Turkey and Great Britain by which a small
part of the Villayet was given to Turkey. The revised boundary was
recognised as definite. Some royalty from Mosul oil fields were
given to Turkey.
Eupen and Malmady
In 1920 and 1921 Germany protested to the League of Nations
against the decision of giving Euphen and Malmady to Belgium.
The League Council discussed the matter in September 1920 and
wrote to the government that its decision regarding the transfer of
Euphen and Malmedy to Belgium was final.

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Curfu Incident
In August 1923, an Italian general and two officers were
murdered on Greek soil. The Italians demanded apologies and
reparations too for the crime. Greece refused to accept the demands
of Italy. Hence Italy occupied the island of Curfu. In this dispute
Britain and France mediated and brought about a compromise
between Italy and Greece.
Dispute between Greece and Bulgaria
There was a border dispute between Greece and Bulgaria. In
1925 a Greek army commander was murdered. The Greek army
marched in to Bulgaria. The League Council requested Britain and
France to investigate this affair. The Greek forces were withdrawn
and Greece was asked to pay compensation to Bulgaria for violation
of her territory on a scale to be fixed by a League Commission.
Dispute between Great Britain and France
In 1921, there was dispute between France and Great Britain
over the nationality question in Tunis and Morocco. The matter went
to the Court of International Justice. However the dispute was
decided by mutual negotiations between the foreign ministers of the
two countries.
Non-political Work
The League did also a lot of non-political work. A slavery
convention met at Geneva in 1925. In 1932 it was decided to set up
a permanent Slavery Commission. The Financial Commission
was responsible for the issue and supervision of various League Loans
for Austria, Hungary, Greece etc. The league also set up in 1923 the
Health Organisation with a Health Committee and a secretariat.
It did good in fighting diseases such as Malaria, Smallpox, Rabies,
Cancer, Tuberculosis and heart diseases etc. It helped nations to

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improve national health. It organised technical conferences. The

League did commentate Common Wealth work in the field of control
of traffic in dangerous drugs, peasant reforms, suppression of trade
in obscene literature .
Causes for the Failure of League of Nations
The League failed in its main object of maintaining peace in
the world. In spite of its efforts for two decades, the whole world
was involved in war again in 1939. There are many causes for its
failure.
The major powers like USA and USSR were not members of
the League of Nations. This was a serious defect.
It was unfortunate that the Covenant of the League of Nations
was made a part and parcel of the peace settlement. It would have
been better if it had been kept separate. There were many states
which considered the Treaty of Versailles as a treaty of revenge and
were not prepared to ratify the same. By not ratifying the treaty,
they were refused to be members the League. The absence of great
powers [USA and USSR] in the international organisation weakened
the League. Japan, Germany and Italy had left the League.
There was also a feeling among the nations that the League of
Nations was fully dominated by the victorious countries of World
War I especially of France and England. The result was that the
other states began to doubt about the working of the League of
Nations.
The countries like Germany were humiliated by the victorious
countries. Germany was compelled to pay war reparations when it
was suffering from economic difficulties. Hence there were no
chances of peace.
After World War I, in Europe there came situations for the rise
of dictatorships in Italy, Japan and Germany. Japan in the Far East
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conquered Manchuria. The League was not also in a position to

condemn the action of Japan. Japan was also prepared to give up the
membership of the League.
Likewise in Italy there was Fascist Dictatorship. This had
preached the people of Italy narrow nationalism. Italy captured
Abyssinia. When the League questioned the conquest of Italy on
Abyssinia, it left the League.
Germany too was not prepared to accept the commitments
under the Treaty of Versailles. In Germany too there was Nazi
dictatorship. Hitler preached pseudo patriotism. He also spoke about
the superiority of German race over other races. He wanted to expand
Germany’s sway over Austria and Poland. He made conquests over
these countries. Defying the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles
he increased the armaments. When this was questioned in the
League, Germany left the League.
Small nations lost their faith on the working of the League.
They felt that the League of Nations had no power to control the
aggressive activities of the big powers.
France’s insistence of forcing Germany to pay the war
reparation at the time of its economic crisis had disastrous effects on
the politics of the country. This contributed to the downfall of the
Weimar Republic. This led to the rise of Hitler in Germany and the
latter was responsible for the failure of the League.
The birth of the League of Nations on the ruins of the First
World War was welcomed. However, the member states of the
League did not cooperate. As a result the League failed in its mission.
Thus, the Second World War broke out. Finally, UNO was established
on the disintegration of the League.

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Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be to explain

1. The formation of the League of Nations.

2. The role of Woodrow Wilson in its formation.

3. The achievements of the League of Nations in establishing

world peace.

4. Causes for the failure of the League of Nations.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Name the person responsible for the founding of the League
of Nations
(a) George Washington (b) Harry Truman
(c) F.D. Roosevelt (d) Woodrow Wilson
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The League of Nations was established in the year …..
III. Match the following.
1. Headquarters of the League of Nations a. The Hague
2. Court of International Justice b. Curfu Incident
3. Italy c. Turkey and Iraq
4. Mosul Boundary d. Geneva
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) The U.S.A did not join the League of Nations.
b) The League of Nations succeeded in preventing the world war.
c) The League of Nations successfully prevented Japanese attack
on Manchuria.
d) Hitler and Mussolini did not respect the decisions of the League
of Nations.
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. The mandate system was set up by the League of Nations.
2. The League of Nations was replaced by the United Nations
Organization.

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VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

1. International Labour Organization
2. Mandate System
3. Curfu Incident
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Give an account of the formation of the League of Nations.
2. Describe the important organs of the League of Nations.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the achievements of the League of Nations.
2. Analyse the causes for the failure of the League of Nations.

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LESSON 30
RISE OF FASCISM AND NAZISM

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The rise of Fascism in Italy and its causes.

2. Mussolini’s foreign policy.

3. The rise of Nazism in Germany and the factors contributed

to it.

4. Hitler’s foreign policy and its effects.

Mussolini and the Fascist Italy

Causes for the Growth of Fascism in Italy
Italy attended the Paris Peace Conference with great
expectations. The secret Treaty of London which was signed in
1915 with the Allies gave Italy great hope. At Paris, Orlando
presented the demands of Italy. But the US President Woodrow
Wilson rejected the Treaty of London. Italian claims over territories
on the Adriatic Sea, some Turkish provinces and Albania in the Balkan
were all turned down. Thus Italy gained nothing in the Paris Peace
Conference. “Italy had won the war but had lost peace”.
Italy was disappointed. The representatives of Italy were forced
to boycott the conference. They felt that the Allies had purposely
deceived Italy. This discontentment created a feeling of revolt among
the middle class youth. They decided to form an organization and
unite in order to avenge their national humiliation and treachery.

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Economic Condition
During the war, Italy was forced to spend huge amount more
than her national income. Unemployment prevailed. People believed
that government was responsible for such a situation. They wanted
n alternative government. The rise of the Fascist Party was also a
result of above dissatisfaction.
Spread of Socialism
The unemployment problem, poverty and inflation helped the
spread of Socialism. The believers in Marxism had a political party
called Social Democrats of Italy. In the 1919 election they gained
156 seats out of 574. This party helped a lot for the rise and
development of Fascism in Italy.
Rise of Mussolini
Benito Mussolini was the originator of the idea of Fascism.
He was born in 1883. Mussolini’s father an ironsmith, was a follower
of Socialism. Hence, Mussolini was influenced
by the socialistic ideology. He was a school
teacher a trade unionist and a journalist. He was
imprisoned in 1908 for revolutionary ideas. In
1912 he started the editing of Avanthi, a socialist
journal. He was a bitter opponent of the Church.

MUSSOLINI
When the First World War broke out, the
Italian Government decided not to take part in the
War. But Mussolini propagated that the Italian Government should
immediately join the war in favour of the Allies. For that Mussolini
was punished. But later Italy was forced to join the war on the side
of the Allies. As a result Mussolini became popular. He also
participated in the war as a soldier.
The Bolshevik Revolution took place in Russia in 1917. The
people of Italy also were influenced by the revolution. The
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communists of Italy also were planning for a massive revolution.

Mussolini, who was a staunch opponent of Bolshevism, decided to
start a new party to fight Communism. In march 1919 the Fascist
Party was established under his leadership. The members wore
black shirts and were equipped with arms. The party had its own
flag. The members were well disciplined and Mussolini was their
chief commander.
In the first party convention of Milan, Mussolini announced the
programmes and Charter of demands of the party. They were:
· Nationalisation of factories
· Confiscation of surplus money from the capitalists
· Universal Franchise
· Forfeiture of the Church property
· Eight hours work in factories
· Framing of a new constitution.
These demands of the Fascist Party soon achieved popularity
in Italy. The number of members increased very rapidly. In 1919
there were only seventeen thousand members in the party. The
number increased to 3 lakhs in 1922. The Fascists captured the offices
of the Socialist and the Communist parties by force.
In October 1922, the Fascist Party had its party convention at
Naples. A Charter of Demands was passed at the convention. They
include induction of Fascist members in the Cabinet, new election to
the Legislatures and the adoption of a vigorous foreign policy. But
the government refused to concede. The Fascists therefore marched
on to Rome, under the leadership of Mussolini. They captured all the
government officers. The government asked the king Victor
Immanuel III to promulgate martial law. Mussolini was invited to
form the ministry.

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Mussolini as the Prime Minster of Italy

Mussolini was an action oriented Prime Minister. He took the
following steps for the reorganization of administration.
" The dacoits living in the interiors of Naples and Sicily were
crushed.
" The economic and social conditions of the labourers were
improved.
" Trade Unions were abolished.
" The entire powers of the Parliament were snatched.
" Members faithful to the leader alone were appointed as
ministers and officers.
Elections were conducted under the basis of the changed law.
The Fascist Party got a complete majority in the National Parliament.
After elections, Mussolini adopted some measures to crush opponents.
! All local bodies were suspended.
! Only Fascist lawyers were allowed to practice.
! In 1926, all political parties were banned.
! The cabinet system of government came to an end.
! Freedom of the Press was curtailed.
! Unlimited powers were given to the police department.
! Members of the opposition parties were imprisoned.
Mussolini as the Dictator
Rule of one leader and one party was the ideology of Fascism.
He had no faith in democracy and hated the majority. He believed in
the supremacy of the state. The individual had no right. The individual
was merely a means to recognise the existence of the state.

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NAZISM IN GERMANY
After the First World War, harsh peace was imposed on
Germany and other defeated countries. This had created intense
nationalist upsurge in Germany. The economic breakdown and the
rise of socialist parties paved the way for the rise of Hitler and Nazism
in Germany. Similarly such situation arose in Italy and Japan. This
resulted in the Axis formation. The aggressive foreign policy of Hitler
led to the Second World War.
Germany at the End of World War I
At the end of the World War I, the German King William was
forced to abdicate A republic was proclaimed in Germany. Friedrich
Ebert, the leader of the Social - Democratic Party formed a
temporary government. This was followed by an election to the
Constituent Assembly. The Social Democratic Party emerged as
the largest party. The session of the Constituent Assembly was
held in the city of Weimar. A new constitution was drafted. This is
known as Weimar Constitution.
The Revolt of the Royalists
The Treaty of Versailles was very harsh and humiliating to Germany.
It suffered territorial loss. The policy of disarmament was imposed. The
war reparation was enormous. Germany was held responsible for the
World War. This affected the sentiments of the Germans. A group of
people opposed the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
In March 1920, the royalists under the leadership of Dr. Kapp
revolted. But he failed and surrendered before the republican
government. The second such revolt was led by Ludendorff. He
was assisted by Hitler. Ludendorff and Hitler were arrested and
imprisoned for 5 years. It was during this jail life, Hitler wrote the
famous book Mein Kampf which later became the Bible of the
Nazi party.

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Economic Crisis
The post war Germany posed a disastrous financial crisis. For
the payment of reparation, the government was forced to take loans.
Factories were closed. Trade and commerce were deteriorating.
Heavy taxes were imposed. To meat the financial crisis the
government had no other option but to issue more and more paper
currencies. This resulted into inflation. Unemployment was rampant.
Reparation
According to the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles,
Germany, which was held responsible for the First World War, had to
pay a heavy amount of compensation. The Reparation Commission
fixed the amount as 660 million pounds. There was opposition against
these provisions. Most of them argued that, since Germany was not
responsible for World War I, there was no need to pay the heavy
amount of war indemnity.
Dawes Plan
The financial crisis in Germany forced the Weimar Republic to
make an appeal to the allies for the reduction of the amount of
reparation. As a result a committee consisting of ten members was
formed under the chairmanship of Dawes, an eminent finance
specialist of U.S.A. The committee made some amendments to the
provision of the Treaty of Versailles. This known as Dawes Plan
The financial burden of Germany was reduced to certain level. When
the problem of reparation again appeared in 1929 the Young
Committee made a plan to solve it.
Hitler and the Nazi Germany
Adolph Hitler was born in April 1889 in a very humble family
in an Austrian village. On account of poverty he could not get proper
education. His father wanted to make his son a government

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employee. But Hitler was very fond of art from

his early days. So he went to Vienna at the
age of 18 to learn the art of painting and
architecture. While he was in Vienna, he
happened to witness the behavior of the Jews.
He felt that the Jews were the moral enemies
of individualism, nationalism and racialism.
Further he felt that the Jews were the
supporters of the Marxian ideology. Thus his
anti- Jews ideas developed at very early age.
Hitler was opposed to democracy and believed
in the supremacy of the German race.

HITLER During the First World War Hitler joined

the army and participated in the war. In
recognition of his service and bravery shown during the war, he was
honoured with the award of the ‘Iron Cross’. He believed that the
Jews and the communists were responsible for the defeat of Germany.
He therefore undertook a programme to avenge the defeat. He began
to work as a spy in Munich. He also started a new party with the
cooperation of his friends. National Socialist German Labour
Party was launched.
Nazi Party
To carryout his programmes, Hitler started the National
Socialist Party or Nazi Party. ‘Swastika’ was made the symbol of
Nazi Party. By the year 1932, the membership of the Nazi Party
increased to 70 lakhs. To attract the young people to his party, Hitler
started ‘Hitler Young Society.’ Also he formed two military bodies.
The members were wearing brown shirts with a red armband carrying
a black Swastika. Another division was called as the ‘Black Shirts’.
They were the body guards of the Nazi party leaders.

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In 1932, Hitler contested for the post of President. But he was

defeated with a few votes against Hindenburg. But in the general
election conducted in the same year, his party became the largest
party in the parliament. According to the provisions of the constitution
as a leader of the majority party in the Reichstag, Hitler was made
the Chancellor. Thus he formed the Nazi Government.
He established the dictatorship of the Nazi Party. Communist
party was banned and its leaders were arrested. The civil rights of
the people were suspended. The Weimar Republic came to an end.
Hitler declared the establishment of the Third Reich. The flag of the
Nazi Party became the National flag. The Parliament was dissolved.
The powers of the parliament were transferred to Hitler.
Anti- Jew Policy
In Germany, the Jews enjoyed a privileged position due to their
wealth and education. He believed that they were anti- nationals.
Hitler now made several efforts to crush the Jews. Anti- Jew Laws
were passed. They were denied German citizenship. He adopted
very harsh and repressive measures for the economic and cultural
boycott of the Jews.
Military Reforms
Hitler reorganised his military on the basis of German
nationality. Germans alone were admitted into the military service.
He established a totalitarian type of government so that he could
follow an aggressive foreign policy.
Foreign Policy of Hitler
Hitler did not approve the Treaty of Versailles. It was a dictated
peace. Hence it was a humiliating one. The German people accepted
the policy of Hitler and accepted him as their leader. The important
aspects of his foreign policy are given below.

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German came out of the League of Nations

Following the League of Nations Disarmament Conference on
February 3, 1932 Hitler announced the withdrawal from the League.
He started the process of rearming Germany.
Rearmament
As mentioned above, after the Geneva Disarmament
Conference, Hitler withdrew from the League of Nations. Now he
was free to rearm Germany. On March 16, 1935, Hitler announced
compulsory military training for all German people. He also aimed to
have the air force equal to that of England and France. He announced
that the reason for the increase in the strength of the army was self-
defence. But France and England had natural suspicion over these
actions of Hitler. Therefore they convened a meeting at Stressa in
Switzerland and condemned the behaviour of Hitler. But their
condemnation did not affect Hitler from rearmament.
Militarization of Rhineland
Rhineland was to be demilitarised, according to the Treaty of
Versailles. On March 7, 1936, Hitler sent his army into the heart of
Rhineland and started the construction of fortifications. France
opposed this move of Germany. But England was a silent spectator
to this action of Hitler. Thus a golden opportunity to stop the
aggressive behaviour of Hitler was lost by both England and France.
The Spanish Civil War
A Republic had been proclaimed in Spain in 1931. In 1936 the
conservatives under General Franco started a Civil War against the
Republic. Now Germany and Italy supported Franco whereas Russia
supported the Republicans. The Republicans were defeated and the
dictatorship of Franco was established. The net result of the Spanish
Civil War was that it helped Italy and Germany to come closer and
later their friendship was converted into a treaty.
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Rome- Berlin -Tokyo Axis

In October 1936, On the basis of an agreement Germany
approved Italian control over Abyssinia and Italy granted permission
to Hitler to annex Austria with Germany. Hitler was antagonistic
towards Russian Communism. Therefore Hitler in November 1936,
signed an Anti- Commintern Pact with Japan, another enemy of
Russia. In November 1937, Italy was admitted into the alliance.
This Anti Commintern pact was otherwise called as Rome –Berlin-
Tokyo Axis. This Axis was formed against England, France and
Russia. This was the beginning of Second World War.
Nazism grew in Germany under Hitler. It stood for aggressive
nationalism, authoritarianism and the leadership principle. On
becoming Germany’s Chancellor in 1933, Hitler undertook a
rearmament programme. His aggressive foreign policy led to the
Second World War. Similarly, Mussolini organized the Fascist
movement in Italy. He believed in dictatorship, aggressive foreign
policy and colonial policy. Thus, he emerged as the Il Duce or supreme
commander. The emergence of dictatorship in Europe paved the way
for Second World War.

Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be to explain

1. The factors led to the rise of Fascism in Italy.

2. The principles of Fascism and Mussolini’s aggressive foreign

policy.

3. Growth of Nazism in Germany and its principles.

4. Hitler’s foreign policy and the formation of Rome-Berlin-

Tokyo Axis.

5. The impact of the rise of Fascism and Nazism.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Which among the following journal was edited by Mussolini?
(a) New Italy (b) Mein Kamph
(c) Avanti (d) Risorgimento
2. The Nationalist Socialist Party was founded by
(a) Hitler (b) Mussolini
(c) Kaiser William II (d) Karl Marx
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Fascism was the principle of ……
2. Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was signed in the year ….
III. Match the following.
1. Treaty of London a. 1917
2. Fascist Party b. 1936
3. Anti- Commintern Pact c. 1915
4. Bolshevik Revolution d. 1919
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) Mussolini was influenced by the socialist ideology.
b) Mussolini was a staunch supporter of the Church.
c) Swastika was made as the symbol of the Fascist Party.
d) The members of the Fascist Party wore Red Shirts.

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V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

1. The aggressive foreign policy of Hitler led to the Second World
War.
2. Hitler was the author of Mein Kamph.
3. The Spanish Civil War was started under the leadership of
Dr. Kapp.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Fascism
2. Nazism
3. Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Briefly discuss the causes for the growth of Fascism in Italy.
2. What were the reasons for the rise of Hitler in Germany?
3. Discuss the foreign policy of Hitler.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the rise of dictatorships in Germany and
Italy.
2. Analyse the principles and growth of Nazism in Germany.

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LESSON 31
SECOND WORLD WAR

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The causes for the Second World War.

2. The rise of dictatorships and other causes for the war.

3. The course of the Second World War.

4. Results of the Second World War.

The First World War came to an end in 1918 and the Paris
Peace conference was held in 1919. Many treaties including the Treaty
of Versailles were signed in the conference. One of the important
features of this conference was that only the victorious nations alone
were invited. The conference turned out to be a meeting of the victors
to share the spoils of the war. The defeated countries were badly
treated. They also discussed about the establishment of permanent
peace in the world. In order to solve mutual problems among the
nations, under the initiative of the U.S. President Woodrow Wilson,
the League of Nations had been established. But the League failed
to maintain the expected international peace. This ultimately led to
the rise of dictatorships in Germany, Italy and Japan. The formation
of Rome, Berlin, Tokyo Axis led to the Second World War.
Causes of the Second World War
Treaty of Versailles
Germany was defeated in the First World War. She was not
invited to the Paris Peace Conference. Germany was forced to sign
a harsh and humiliating treaty. German territories were taken away
from her. She was deprived of her colonies. Her navy was completely

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disbanded. Her army was reduced

considerably. The Weimar Republic was
not in a position to solve the post-war
problems. The German people decided to
take revenge for their humiliation. In fact,
the Second World War was a war of
retaliation. Therefore, the Treaty of TREATY OF VERSAILLES

Versailles had in itself the seeds of the Second World War.

Rise of Dictatorships
The inter-war period witnessed the rise of dictatorships in
Europe. The inter-war period is otherwise called the period of
dictators. Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan witnessed the rise of
dictators. In Germany, the Weimar Republic was weak. Hitler, the
leader of the Nazi Party took full advantage of the weakness of the
Republican Government and brought the government under his control.
He started aggression. He captured Austria and Czechoslovakia. At
last he attacked Poland and World War II started.
The same condition prevailed in Italy also. Italy felt that it was
deceived in the Paris Peace Conference. Mussolini started the Fascist
Party. In 1922 he captured power and became a dictator. He also
followed an aggressive foreign policy. The spirit of dictatorship arose
in Spain and Japan also. In Spain, General Franco defeated the
Republican Government and established his dictatorship. In this effort,
he was assisted by the armies of Hitler and Mussolini. Japan became
a partner of Hitler and Mussolini by signing the Rome- Berlin -Tokyo
Axis. This alliance disturbed world peace and the Second World War
started.
Militarism
The failure of the disarmament efforts after the First World
War was a major reason for the outbreak of a new War. In the Paris

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Peace conference Germany was forced to disarm itself. The German

Government demanded disarmament of the victorious powers, in the
same way as she had been disarmed. As they refused, Germany
under the dictatorship of Hitler increased its military strength. Owing
to the immense increase in armaments and the development of
militarism, the Second World War became inevitable.
Imperialism
The policy of imperialism was one of the causes for the Second
World War. It was this same feeling of imperialism which played a
dominant role during the First World War. Germany and Japan, who
were more imperialistic than the Allied powers, simply ignored the
decisions of the Paris Peace Conference. They made their efforts to
expand their respective territories. Hitler occupied Rhineland, Austria,
Memel, Czechoslovakia and incorporated them into German territory.
Japan attacked Manchuria and captured it from China. Mussolini
occupied Abysinia and launched a series of aggressive activities.
Colonialism
There was also a race for colonies among the European
countries in order to obtain raw materials and markets for their
industrial growth. This trend continued among these powers even
after the First World War. Germany was deprived of all her colonies
at the Paris Peace Conference. Italy was dissatisfied with the
treatment of Allied Powers. Japan, a powerful Asiatic country wanted
to have colonies to enrich its resources. It is in these circumstances
Germany, Italy and Japan decided to follow aggressive foreign policy.
These aggressive actions ultimately led to the Second World War.
Failure of the League of Nations
After the First World War, the League of Nations was
established to solve controversies among the nations and to maintain
permanent peace and order in the world. Even the members of the

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League failed to respect the provisions of the covenant of the League.

Those who violated the provisions simply walked out of the League,
without any punishment. The League could not contain the Japanese
annexation of Manchuria and Italian invasion of Abyssinia. Hitler’s
activities posed a challenge to the League. Thus, the failure of the
League of Nations to control aggressive countries was a major cause
for World War II.
Dissatisfaction of National Minorities
The Allied powers though posed themselves as the champions
of the principle of self-determination, in actual practice that principle
was not followed by them. In some parts of Central Europe, the
problem of national minorities existed. It is these minority groups
which became the hot beds of discontent and dissatisfaction. German
annexation of Austria and Sudetenland and attack on Poland was
based on this policy of reunion of National minorities.
Mutual differences of the Allies
There was no collective cooperation among the Allies. England
followed a policy appeasement towards Germany. France’s fear of
Germany was opposed by England. The U.S.A., the architect of the
League of Nations, did not join the League. These differences among
the allies failed to check the increasing strength of the dictators.
Course of the War
According to the decisions taken in the Paris Peace
Conference, Poland had been made an independent kingdom. East
Prussia was separated from Germany. Now, Hitler wanted to unite
East Prussia with Germany. Hitler invaded Poland on September 1,
1939. Great Britain declared war against Germany on September 3.
Second World War started.

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In April 1940, Germany captured Denmark and Norway. In

May 1940, Holland and Belgium were conquered. Germany attacked
France and captured it in June 1940.
Italy fought against the British forces in North Africa. Mussolini
attacked Greece and captured it with German support. Yugoslavia
and Crete were occupied by the Germans.
After the fall of France, Britain was left alone. Hence, Hitler
wanted to attack England by air. There was continuous air force
attack on Britain. But the dynamic leadership of Prime Minister
Churchill saved England. Germany could not conquer Britain.
Germany made a mistake of invading the Soviet Union, despite
a non-aggression pact. One of the important battles was the Battle
of Stalingrad. For five months the battle went on. It involved 2 million

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men, 2000 tanks and 2000 aero-planes.

The invading German army was driven
back. In February1943, about 90,000
German soldiers surrendered. This was
a turning point of the war.
In December 1941, Japan
PEARL HARBOUR attacked the Pearl Harbour. This
tragedy dragged the U.S.A. into the
war. General MacArther was made the supreme commander of the
Pacific region. Lord Mountbatten, the Commander of South East
Asia drove the Japanese from Burma.
In Africa, Abyssinia was conquered by the U.S.A. from Italy.
The Italian Somaliland was also conquered. The British General
Montgomery captured Libya from Germans. He also conquered
Tripoli and entered Tunisia. In 1942 Algeria fell. In 1943 Sicily was
captured by the British and U.S. troops. North Africa was cleared
of Italian and German troops. The mainland of Italy was attacked.
There was a revolt in Italy and Mussolini was arrested, but he
managed to escape with German help. In September 1943, Italy
surrendered unconditionally. Mussolini was captured and killed by
his own people in April 1945.
In 1944 the Allied forces entered into France and expelled the
German army from France. After that the Allied forces attacked
Germany from the Southwest. Russia invaded Germany from the
East. On 2 May 1945 Russian army entered Berlin. Hitler committed
suicide. Germany surrendered.
Even after the surrender of Germany, Japan continued the war.
USA dropped two atom bombs on Hiroshima (6 th August) and on
Nagasaki (9 th August). Following this Japan surrendered on 14 th
August 1945.

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The Second World War was over. At the end of the war, some
13 million Europeans were killed and 17 million civilians had died as
a result of the fighting. All major cities were in ruins. Agriculture
was ruined. People of the entire world had to face untold miseries,
directly or indirectly.
Results of the Second World War
! In this war, about 15 Million soldiers and 10 million civilians
lost their lives.
! An important result of the Second World War was that it
brought to an end the colonial Empire of the European
countries in Asia and Africa.
! Multi-polar world became bi-polar world.
! The USA and USSR emerged as Super Powers.
! Cold War started as an ideological war between USA
and USSR

Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

1. The causes of the Second World War.

2. The rise of dictatorships and the formation of the Rome-

Berlin-Tokyo Axis led to the outbreak of the war.

3. The main events of the war and the ultimate victory of the
allied power.

4. Results of the Second World War.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour in the year
(a) 1940 (b) 1941
(c) 1942 (d) 1945
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The U.S.A. dropped the first atom bomb on Hiroshima on ……..
2. The Supreme Commander of the Pacific region was …..
III. Match the following:
1. Mussolini a. Japanese invasion
2. Manchuria b. Nazism
3. General MacArther c. Fascism
4. Hitler d. Supreme Commander
of the Pacific Region
IV. Find out the Statement. One statement alone is correct.
a. Hitler invaded Poland on September 1, 1940.
b. In December 1941, Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour.
c. In September 1945 Italy surrendered.
d. On 2 May 1944 Russian army entered Berlin.
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. Germany was invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference.
2. General Franco was the dictator of Spain.
3. The U.S.A. was an active member of the League of Nations.
4. The Battle of Stalingrad was fought between Germany and
the Soviet Union.

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VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

1. Militarism
2. Imperialism
3. National Minorities
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Trace the main events of the Second World War.
2. Examine the results of the Second World War.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the causes of the Second World War.

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LESSON 32
GROWTH OF ASIAN NATIONS: CHINA AND JAPAN

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

[Link] rise of modern China.

[Link] emergence of the People’s Republic of China.

[Link] rise of modern Japan.

[Link] of Japan as an economic giant.

Rise of Modern China

Asia is generally divided into South Asia, South East Asia, East
Asia and West Asia. China and Japan are part of East Asia. The
People’s Republic of China, which was established in 1949 is the
largest country in East Asia. It is also the fourth largest country in
the world. It has the largest population in the world. It shares its
border with 14 nations in Asia.
China is one of the oldest civilizations in the
world. China was ruled by many dynasties. During
the 19th and 20th centuries, China was ruled by the
Manchu dynasty. China during Manchu rule became
weak. China was called the sick man of Asia. It
became a quasi colony of the western powers. The
European countries came to China for trade and
LIN TSE HSU commerce. China called the Europeans as “Red
Barbarians”. China imposed many restrictions on
European traders. Co-hong (security merchants) was the institution
that controlled the European trade. Particularly the English and
French did not like this. Slowly the English merchants introduced

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opium to the Chinese traders. In due course of time, China imported

large quantities of opium. Opium-eating became a national vice.
Therefore, the Chinese government imposed rules to prohibit opium
trade. The action of Commissioner Lin Tse hsu led to First Opium
War (1839-1842) in which England defeated China. The war came
to an end with the Treaty of Nanking. In 1856 the Second Opium
War took place. This time Britain, France, USA and Russia fought
against China. The war ended with the Treaty of Tientsin in 1860.
Thus, the western countries established their supremacy in
China. China was partitioned into many economic zones controlled
by western powers. This is known as “the cutting of the Chinese
Melon” (ie., cutting China into many pieces). The failure of Manchu
dynasty led to the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) in China. It was
led by Hung Hsiu-chüan. The rebellion was crushed. China was
controlled by queen Tzu hsi from 1860 to 1908 till her death. Tzu
hsi’s reactionary rule led to revolutionary movements in China.
In 1894-1895 a war broke out between China and Japan. This
is known as the First Sino-Japanese War. The war was fought for
the control of Korea. China was defeated in this war. This led to a
Chinese revolt known as the Boxer Rebellion
against the foreign domination of China. This
rebellion was also suppressed with the help of the
western countries.
However, during this time an intellectual
emerged as the undisputed leader of China. He was
Dr. Sun Yat Sen. He is known as the “Morning
Dr. SUN YAT SEN
Star” of China. He mobilized young revolutionaries
and started the 1911 Revolution in China. This revolution ended the
Manchu rule in China. New flag, new calendar were adopted. China
for the first time became a republic. Yuan Shih Kai became the
President of the Chinese Republic.

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During the First World War, Japan captured the Shantung

Province from China. After the War, at the Peace Conference at
Versailles China wanted to get back her territory of Shantung
province. But the allied countries gave Shantung to Japan.
Immediately, the May Fourth Movement started in China.
Following this once again Dr. Sun Yat Sen assumed control of
China. He started the Kuomintang Party. With the Russian help he
wanted to introduce reforms in China. It was during this period the
Chinese Communist Party of China was started. Mso Tse Tung
and Chou –en-lai were the original founding members of the
Communist Party of China.
In 1924 Dr. Sun Yat Sen passed away. The leadership of the
Kuomintang party was assumed by Chiang Kai Shek. In the beginning
there was an understanding between the Kuomintang and the
Communists. But, soon both became rivals. Chiang wanted to
exterminate Mao’s Communist Party. Mao retired to northern China.
It is known as the Long March. There the Communists established
their control. In 1945 a civil war broke out between
the Communists and the Kuomintang. Finally, Mao
established the People’s Republic of China in
October 1949. Chinag Kai Shek fled to Taiwan,
which is known as Nationalist China. During the
Cold War Era the USA supported the Nationalist
China . Hence, the Nationalist China became a
member of the UNO until [Link] Peoples
Republic of China was admitted as a member in MAO TSE TUNG
the UNO only in 1971.
Mao Tse Tung introduced the economic reform known as the
Great Leap Forward. In 1966, Mao launched the Cultural
Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution those who were against
Mao were removed from the Communist Party and imprisoned.

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After Mao’s death in 1976 and the Gang of Four were

arrested. Following this Deng Xiaoping quickly captured power from
Mao’s successor Hua Guofeng. Deng introduced many economic
reforms including the relaxation of government control over the
Chinese economy. Thus China moved from a planned economy to a
mixed economy. As a result of the changing economic scene
China formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.
JAPAN
Japan was the only country which was not colonized by the
European countries in Asia. Though it was geographically a small
country, it became a powerful country. Japan like the western countries
followed a policy of imperialism in Asia. It possessed great military
strength. Today Japan is an economic giant.
Japan followed a policy of isolation for more than 200 years. It
was broken by Commodore Perry of the U.S.A. on 8th July 1853.
His mission paved the way for Japan’s trade with the West. During
this period the Tokugawa Shoguns controlled Japan. Perry’s mission
led to the restoration of the Japanese Emperor to full authority. This
is known as the Meiji Restoration.
The Meiji Restoration had initiated many reforms in Japan.
The feudal system was abolished. Western legal system was adopted.
Constitutional Monarchy, as in Britain, was introduced according to
the Meiji Constitution. Japan was fully modernized.
Soon Japan followed a policy of militarism and imperialism.
Japan defeated China in 1894-95. Subsequently, it defeated the biggest
European country Russia in 1904-05. During the First World War
Japan captured the Chinese territory of Shantung which was leased
to Germany. It also imposed the 21 Demands on China. Thus, at the
end of the First World War Japan emerged as a superior military
power. Hence, in order to control Japan’s Navy the Washington

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Naval Conference was held in 1921-22. But this was only a

temporary measure.
In 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria and established a puppet
regime. In 1937 once again Japan invaded China. Finally, it joined
with Germany and Italy and formed the axis. In 1941 Japan attacked
the Pearl Harbour and the U.S.A. entered the Second World War in
support of Britain and France and Russia.
On August 6 th and 9th two atom bombs were dropped by the
U.S.A. on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan
surrendered to the U.S.A.
General MacArthur and Emperor Hirohito
After the war, Japan was placed under control of the Supreme
Commander, Gen. Douglas MacArthur. The new constitution took
effect on 3rd May 1947. The United States and 45 other Allied nations
signed the San Francisco Peace Treaty in September 1951.
Following the treaty, Japan was made an independent nation once
again.
From the 1950s to the 1980s, Japan’s
history consists mainly of its rapid development
into a major economic power. The U.S.A.
provided the latest technology to Japan. Thus,
Japan rapidly rebuilt its heavy industrial sector.
Japan soon emerged as a significant power in
MACARTHUR
many economic spheres, including steel making,
car manufacture and the manufacture of electronic goods.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the
cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in
closely-knit groups called keiretsu emerged. For examples
Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa are
some of the powerful companies.

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Politically, the postwar Japan has been dominated by one party

- the Liberal Democratic Party. The party remained practically
invincible for almost half a century. Emperor Hirohito died in 1989
and his son Akihito succeeded.
In the 21st century Japan emerged as a strong economic power.
Japan is the only Asian country to be included in the group of
developed countries. Japan is a member of the G8 (Group of developed
countries).

Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

1. The rise of modern China and a brief history.

2. The emergence of the People’s Republic of China and the

role of Mao.

3. The rise of modern Japan and its role in world politics.

4. Growth of Japan as an economic giant in 20th century.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The sick man of Asia
(a) Turkey (b) Japan
(c) Korea (d) China
2. The First Opium War came to an end by the treaty of ……
(a) Nanking (b) Peking
(c) Tienstein (d) Shantung
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The Kuomintang Party was founded by …….
2. The San Francisco Peace Treaty was signed in the year …..
III. Match the following.
1. Hung Hsiu-Chuan a. Cultural Revolution
2. Dr. Sun Yat Sen b. Japanese Emperor
3. Mao Tse Tung c. US Mission
4. Commodore Perry d. Morning Star of China
5. Hirohito e. Taiping Rebellion
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
correct.
1. Dr. Sun Yat Sen led the Taiping Rebellion.
2. Mao Tse Tung became the President of China after 1911
Revolution.
3. Japan was modernized after Meiji Restoration.
4. Japan is not a member of the G 8.

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V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

1. China was controlled by queen Tzu hsi from 1860 to 1908.
2. After Sun Yat Sen Kuomintang party was led by Mao Tse
Tung.
3. Japan was the only country which was not colonized by the
Europeans in Asia.
4. Japan imposed 21 demands on China during the First World
War.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Taiping Rebellion
2. Long March
3. Meiji Restoration
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Write a note on Mao Tse Tung.
2. Discuss the developments in post-war Japan.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Estimate the role of Dr. Sun Yat Sen in the establishment of
modern China.
2. Give an account of the rise of Japan in the modern world.

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LESSON 33
UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The foundation of the UNO.

2. Aims of the UNO.

3. Organization of the UNO.

4. Achievements of the UNO.

5. Non-Political functions of the UNO.

The Second World War proved to be more destructive than the

First World War. For the first time atomic weapon was used. The
people of the whole world were afraid of the consequences of such
wars in future. In order to bring the quarreling countries to talks and
negotiate for peace countries like the USA, the USSR and the UK
wanted a world forum. Although they had failed in their first
experiment during the First World War yet they were firmly committed
to peace. The result of their tireless effort was the birth of the United
Nations Organization.
Foundation of the UNO
After a series of conferences such as the Atlantic Charter, Yalta
Conference and Potsdam Conference finally in 1944 at Dumbarton
Oaks in USA the creation of UNO was finalized. The Charter of the
United Nations (U.N.) was signed by the representatives of fifty one
nations at San Francisco on 26th June 1945.
Delegates of fifty one countries after a long discussion,
accepted the scheme and they published a U.N. Charter. On 24th

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October 1945, the United Nations came into being. The UN

Headquarters is located in New York, USA.
Aims of the UNO
The fundamental aims of the U.N.O. as set forth in the
Charter are :
(i) To maintain and preserve international peace and security.
(ii) To develop friendly relations and harmony among the countries.
(iii) To grant equal rights and self-determination to all countries.
(iv) To solve economic, social, cultural and humanitarian
problems through international cooperation.
(v) To promote respect for human rights, dignity and freedom.
(vi) Not to intervene in the matters which are directly related with
the domestic jurisdiction of any country.
Organization of the U.N.O.
The U.N.O. consists of six main bodies which are as follows :
(i) The General Assembly.
(ii) The Security Council
(iii) The Economic and Social Council
(iv) The Trusteeship Council.
(v) The International Court of Justice
(vi) The Secretariat.
The General Assembly
It is a deliberative body of the United Nations Organization.
This body consistis of five representatives of each member state.
But each member state has only one vote. The main function of this

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Organs of U.N.O.

General Assembly

International Security
Court of Council
Justice

Economic and
Secretariat Social Council

Trusteeship Council

organ is to consider issues relating to international peace and security

and to discuss important international problems. UNO has a Secretary
General. The official languages of UNO are English, French, Spanish,
Russian, Chinese and Arabic. Now [2006] UN has 192 member
countries.
The Security Council
It is the chief executive body of the U.N.O. It consists of
fifteen members - five permanent and ten temporary. Russia, China,
U.S.A., France and Great Britain are the permanent members of the
Security Council of the U.N.O. Its main function is to preserve
peace and security in the world. It can take diplomatic and economic
steps against those nations who violate the constitution of the U.N.O.
Each of the five permanent members has a powerful vote known as
veto.

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The Economic and Social Council

This council is composed of eighteen members (there are
twenty-seven members at present). All members of this council are
elected by the General Assembly. It is directly responsible to the
General Assembly. The fundamental principle of this body is to create
a spirit of universal respect for human rights and to promote a higher
cultural educational standard. Its function is to raise the standard of
living of the people, to assure them employment. The UNO believes
that world peace could be maintained only when the people enjoy a
high economic and social standard of living.
The Social and Economic Council works through the
cooperation of several special committees and commissions. such
as, The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation
Administration (UNRRA), Food and Agricultural Organization
(F.A.O.), International Labour Organization (I.L.O.), International
Bank, World Health Organization (W.H.O.) etc. This organ has
rendered undoubtedly great services to the mankind since 1945.
The Trusteeship Council
This Council is composed of the representatives of permanent
members of the Security Council, representatives of all those states
which hold the administration of colonies and some other
representatives elected by the General Assembly. The main function
of the Trusteeship Council is to preserve the interests of the territories
handed over to it and to help the General Assembly in the
administration of those countries over which the U.N.O. holds
Trusteeship.
The International Court of Justice
It is the judicial organ of the U.N.O. It has its headquarters at
The Hague (Netherlands). It is composed of fifteen judges elected

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by the General Assembly and the Security Council for nine years. Its
main function is to solve the legal disputes of the member states of
UNO.
The Secretariat
It consists of the working staff of the U.N.O. The chief of the
Secretariat is called the Secretary General who is appointed by the
General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
The main function of this body is to assist all bodies of the U.N.O.
Achievements of the U N O
From the very beginning, the United Nations Organization had
to deal with a large number of conflicts and problems in the
international field. The Security Council of the U.N.O. made several
efforts to solve those problems. But the efforts of the Security Council
had been greatly hampered by the free use of the veto power. During
the year 1946-47, Russia exercised the right of veto on twenty-two
occasions. But in spite of this serious handicap U.N.O. has achieved
success in solving many problems. some of them are as follows :
Decolonisation
UNO assisted the colonized countries of Asia, Africa and Latin
America to attain their independence from the colonial masters. This
process is known as decolonization. After the establishment of UNO
the process of decolonization was quickly achieved.
Maintenance of Peace
The main function of UNO had been the maintenance of peace
in the world. UNO achieved peace in the following conflict situations.
The Problem of Iran
On 1st January 1946, Iran presented a complaint against Russia
before the U.N.O. The root cause of the conflict was stationing of

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Russian troops in Iran. U.N.O. took a very strong line as a

consequence of this, the Russian troops were withdrawn from Iran,
which had been stationed there for many years. This was the first
and the most important achievement of the U.N.O.
Syria and Lebanon
Similar complaint was also made by Syria and Lebanon before
the U.N.O. Both of them requested the U.N.O. that British and French
troops should be immediately removed from their respective states.
The Security Council, therefore, made its efforts and at last it
succeeded in securing the withdrawal of British and French troops
from those states.
Indonesia
After the end of the Second World War, the nationalists living
in Indonesia established a republican government. But the Dutch living
in the colonies of Java and Sumatra rose in rebellion against the
nationalists. The Security Council issued a cease-fire order to both
sides. The Dutch agreed to grant full independence to Indonesia.
The Palestine Problem
After the end of the First World War, Palestine had been handed
over to Great Britain under the mandate system. But the struggle arose
between the Arabs and the Jews which created disturbance and tension
in Palestine. After the Second World War U.N.O. appointed a special
committee to study the problem of Palestine. The Committee
recommended immediate partition of Palestine into three parts - an Arab
State, a Jewish State and the City of Jerusalem which was to be governed
by the Trusteeship Council of the U.N.O. Thus, an independent state of
Israel was established for the Jews in 1948.
The Arabs bitterly opposed the plan of the partition of Palestine.
They rose in revolt against the Jews. Consequently, a civil war broke out

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in Palestine between the Arab League and the newly established Israel.
The UNO took effective steps to diffuse the tension in Palestine.
The Kashmir Problem
This problem arose between India and Pakistan. Both of them fell
into a state of great rivalry on this issue. This problem was brought to
the notice of the U.N.O. It made its best efforts to remove hostility and
differences between them. As a result of its mediation, the war was
stopped between India and Pakistan. But this problem could not be solved
permanently. It still awaits a peaceful and permanent solution.
The Problem of Korea
Before the beginning of the Second World War, the whole of
Korea was under the control of Japan. After the Second World War,
Russia and America decided to divide Korea on the 38th parallel
line. On 24th June 1950 the army of the North Korea made a fierce
attack over South Korea. The matter was again brought before the
U.N.O. Hence, the Security Council decided to take some strong
steps against North Korea. UNO sent its army under the command
of an American, General Douglas MacArthur. A treaty was signed
on July 27, 1953 by which the U.N.O. withdrew its military action.
Other Important Problems
UNO tried to bring peaceful conclusion of many other problems
such as Suez Crisis [1956], Cyprus issue [1960], Congo problem
[1960], Gulf War [1990].
Besides, UNO was concerned about arms control and
disarmament, particularly the nuclear disarmament and control of
nuclear weapons.
Non-Political Achievements
UNO has achieved considerable success in non-political
matters. Such as ending racial discrimination [called Apartheid] in

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South Africa, protecting human rights and providing financial

assistance to many developing countries from World Bank, IDA and
IMF.
The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose
stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law,
international security, economic development, and social equity. UNO
was successful in its main objectives, in spite of difficulties and set
backs.

Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be to explain

1. The foundation of the UNO after the Second World War.

2. The aims and objectives of the UNO as an international

organization.

3. The structure of the UNO and its mode of functioning.

4. The achievements of the UNO in settling issues between

nations and promoting world peace.

5. The non-political achievements of the UNO.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The headquarters of the United Nations is located in
(a) Geneva (b) The Hague
(c) New York (d) San Francisco
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The United Nations was founded on ……
2. The judicial organ of the United Nations is …..
III. Match the following.
1. United Nations Charter a. 1956
2. Suez Crisis b. 1960
3. Cyprus Issue c. 1990
4. Gulf War d. 1945
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a. UNO is the first world organization to be established to maintain
world peace.
b. International Labour Organisation has its Headquarters at
Rome.
c. International Court of Justice has 15 Judges.
d. WHO is one of the six main organs of the UNO.

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V. State whether the following statements are True or False

1. The Charter of the UNO was signed by 51 countries at San
Francisco in 1945.
2. Both the Permanent Members and Non-Permanent Members
of the Security Council have Veto power.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Security Council
2. Kashmir Dispute
3. Arab-Israel Conflict
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. State the aims of the United Nations.
2. Write a note on the functions of the UNESCO.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Briefly mention the various functions of the U.N.O.
2. Estimate the role of U.N.O. in maintaining the world peace.

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LESSON 34
THE COLD WAR

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The beginning of the Cold War.

2. The formation of military alliances.

3. The mounting tensions between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R.

4. The end of the Cold War.

The end of the Second World War saw the rise of the U.S.A.
and U.S.S.R. as Super Powers. The strained relationship between
these two countries till the collapse of the U.S.S.R is known as the
Cold War. The term ‘Cold War’ was used for the first time by Bernard
Baruch. Thereafter this term gained popularity through the journalist
Walter Lippman.
The Cold War may be described as the existence of continued
tensions and conflicts between the western world and the Communist
countries in general and between the United States and the Soviet
Union in particular. The Cold War was otherwise an ideological war
or a propaganda war or a diplomatic war. It was neither a condition
of war nor a condition of peace. It was a state of uneasy peace.
Beginning of the Cold War
Even before the end of the Second World War the Soviet Union
had imposed Communist regimes in the East European countries of
Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary and Yugoslavia. Immediately
after the War the Soviet Union brought East Germany under her
influence. West Germany came under the influence of the U.S.A.

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The Soviet Union blocked all roads to the west-occupied zones in

Berlin. This is known as Berlin Blockade. Thus, a tense situation
developed between the two blocs of the Cold War groups. The West
was now concerned about the Russian influence. The U.S.A. had
then assumed the responsibility of containing Communism. On 5th
June 1947, the Marshall Plan was announced by the U.S.A. by
which economic assistance was to be provided to the western
European nations. It was a step to save the European Continent from
the growing influence of Communism. In response to American
Marshall Plan, the Soviet Union initiated Molotov Plan. On 12th
March 1948, Truman Doctrine [Truman was the President of USA]
was announced and accordingly the U.S.A. provided economic and
the military aid to Greece and Turkey to the tune of 400 million dollars
in order to stop the Soviet influence in those countries.
NATO
The U.S.A. had created a military alliance to prevent further
spread of communism into Western Europe. A beginning in this
direction was made by the signing of the Brussels Treaty in March
1948. Britain, France, Holland, Belgium and Luxemburg signed this
treaty promising military collaboration in case of war. On 4th April
1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed thus forming a military
power bloc, commonly known as the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization or NATO. The U.S.A., Canada, Britain, France,
Holland, Belgium and Luxemburg, Portugal, Denmark, Italy and
Norway became its members. They had agreed to mutually extend
military help in case of an attack on any one of them. It was formed
against the Soviet Union.
Warsaw Pact
Between 1955 and 1958, West Asia remained the centre of
the Cold War. In the series of western military pacts, the Baghdad
Pact was concluded in 1955, later known as Central Treaty
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Organization (CENTO). In response to these western military pacts,

the Soviet Union concluded the Warsaw Pact on 14th May 1955 with
her satellite powers. During this phase a number of military pacts
were concluded, but the tension between East and West was
somewhat reduced.
China
The establishment of People’s’ Republic of China by Mao-Tse
Tung in October 1949 strengthened the Soviet bloc. The U.S.A.
refused to recognize the Communist Government of China. On the
other hand the U.S.A. helped Chiang Kai-Sheik to establish his
Nationalist Government in Taiwan. The U.S.A. recognised the
Nationalist Government as the legal Government of China and made
her as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. The
Communist China or the People’s Republic of China was prevented
by the U.S.A. to become a member in the UNO.
Korean Crisis
In 1950, the arena of the cold war was changed from Europe
to East Asia. After the Second World War Korea was split into
north and south Korea. In the North Korea the Soviet - supported
communist government was formed, while the South Korea had an
American - sponsored government. The two Korean governments
were in conflict with each other. On 25th June 1950 North Korea
attacked South Korea. North Korea was fighting with Soviet weapons
and Chinese troops, while the U.S.A. in the name of U.N. force was
fighting on behalf of South Korea. The Korean War turned the Cold
War into an open armed conflict.
Vietnam War
Cold War was extended to Vietnam also. The fall of Dien
Bien Phu on 7th May 1954 brought the final collapse of France in
Indo-China. By Geneva Agreement, Vietnam was partitioned at the

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17th parallel between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. A conflict

developed between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The U.S.A.
entered the war supporting South Vietnam. Further, in order to contain
Communism in South East Asia, the South East Asia Treaty
Organization (SEATO) was formed in 1954.

Regional Security Arrangement

NATO SEATO WARSAW PACT

Expansion : North Atlantic Treaty Expansion : South East Asian Treaty Year : 1955
Organization Organization

Year : 1955 Year : 1955 Members : Russia, Poland,

Czechoslovakia,
Members :12 + Greece, West Members :U.S.A., U.K., France Hungary and Rumania
Germany, Turkey Australia, Newzealand,
Paksitan, Thailand and
Phillipines

The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

The Soviet Union stationed her nuclear missiles in Cuba, which
was a communist country and Soviet ally. The U.S.A. considered
this as a great threat to her security. John F. Kennedy sent the 7th
Nuclear fleet towards Cuba. This literally brought the two super -
powers to the verge of war. However, the good sense prevailed on
both the sides and the crisis was averted. Subsequently, the U.S.S.R.
dismantled missiles in Cuba.
Decline of Cold War- Détente (Reduction of Tension)
After 1960, the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. had developed equality
in nuclear weapons. Thus any nuclear war would lead to co-destruction.
This awareness led both the super powers to believe in the inevitability

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of peaceful co-existence. They were, therefore, prompted to conclude

the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. This treaty was followed by a
‘Hot Line Agreement’ between Washington and Kremlin.
After the 1970s, the friction between the Soviet Union and
Communist China led to Sino-Soviet rift. The People’s Republic of
China was admitted into the UN. President Nixon of U.S.A. visited
Moscow in May 1972 and concluded the SALT -I Treaty (Strategic
Arms Limitation Treaty). In June 1973, Brezhnev paid a nine-day
visit to the United States and further progress was made in the
direction of strategic arms limitation. This reduction of tension
between the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. is known as era of détente.
End of the Cold War
With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the collapse of
Communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe occurred. The
bi-polar world became unipolar world. On 31 st July 1991, American
President George Bush and Soviet leader Michael Gorbachev signed
the ‘historic’ START - I Treaty in the Moscow Summit. This marks
the end of the Era of Cold War.
The ideological war otherwise known as Cold War was fought
for about five decades since 1945. The world saw the vertical division
of nation states. Military alliances were made. Arms race developed.
Nuclear holocaust threatened the world on many occasions. However,
after the 1970s détente resulted in the gradual relaxation of tension
between the two super powers which ultimately ended with the
dissolution of Soviet Union.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. The meaning of the Cold War and its beginning.
2. The formation of military blocs such as the NATO, CENTO,
SEATO and the Warsaw Pact.
3. The turning of Cold War into real military conflicts such as
the Korean War and the Vietnam War.
4. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet
Union.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The term Cold War was first used by :
(a) Bernard Baruch (b) F.D. Roosevelt
(c) Stalin (d) Churchill
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty was signed in the year
……
III. Match the following.
1. NATO a. 1955
2. CENTO b. 1947
3. SEATO c. 1948
4. Warsaw Pact d. 1949
5. Truman Doctrine e. 1954
IV. Find out the Correct Statement. One Statement alone is
correct.
a. On 5th June 1947, the Truman Doctrine was announced by the
U.S.A.
b. On 4 th April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed.
c. Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) is also known as
Warsaw Pact.
d. When Dien Bien Phu was attacked the Korean War started.

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V. State whether the following statements are True or False

1. During the Cuban Missile Crisis 7th Nuclear Fleet was sent by
U.S.A.
2. USA and USSR concluded the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in
1960.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Cold War
2. Warsaw Pact
3. NATO
4. Vietnam War
5. Korean Crisis
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Trace the beginning of the Cold War.
2. Briefly mention the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the formation of Military Blocs during the
Cold War.
2. Critically examine the impact of the Cold War.

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LESSON 35
WORLD TODAY

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The emerging New World Order.

2. The Nuclear Disarmament.

3. The process of Globalization and the WTO.

4. The menace of Terrorism.

5. The environmental issues facing the world today.

New World Order

The Year 1945 is a landmark in the history of modern world. It
marked the end of multi-polar world and balance of power. The World
saw the emergence of bi-polar world and the rise of Super Powers,
the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. In the 1990s the collapse of Soviet
Union once again changed the existing world order. The New World
Order is witnessing a Uni-polar world, Globalisation, new technologies,
age of information and also global terrorism.
Fall of Soviet Union
Mikhail Gorbachev became the President of
the Soviet Union in March 1985. He instituted a
number of political reforms under the name of
“glasnost”. However, Gorbachev’s relaxation of
censorship and attempts to create more political
openness had the unintended effect of re-awakening
MIKHAIL GORBACHEV
long suppressed nationalist and anti-Russian feelings
in the Soviet Union’s constituent republics.

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Domestically, Gorbachev implemented economic reforms that

he hoped would improve living standards and worker productivity as
part of his Perestroika program. This new Economic Policy
permitted private ownership.
All these reforms led to revolutionary changes in the U.S.S.R.
On 8 December 1991, the leaders of the Russian, Ukrainian, and
th

Byelorussian republics issued a declaration that the Soviet Union was

dissolved and replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS). Gorbachev became president without a country. On 25 th
December 1991, he resigned as president of the U.S.S.R. and returned
the powers of his office over to Boris Yeltsin. The next day, the
Supreme Soviet voted to dissolve itself and repealed the declaration
written in 1922 that had officially established the U.S.S.R. Thus, the
collapse of the Soviet Union took place.
German Reunification
After the Second World War, Germany was divided into two
separate nations. East Germany was fully under the control of the
U.S.S.R. West Germany was supported by the U.S.A. and her allies.
A wall was erected across Berlin to separate these two German
territories. It was the famous Berlin Wall. But with the collapse of
[Link].R, the German reunification took place on October 3, 1990.
The areas of the former German Democratic Republic (East
Germany) were incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany
[FRG] (West Germany). After the GDR’s first free elections on 18th
March 1990, negotiations between the GDR and FRG culminated in
a Unification Treaty.
Nuclear Disarmament
In the history of warfare, nuclear weapons have been used
only twice on 6th and 8th of August 1945, when the United States
dropped atom bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and

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Nagasaki. Since then, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over

two thousand occasions for testing and demonstration purposes. The
countries known to have detonated such weapons are the United
States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, People’s Republic of
China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea.
In order to minimize the risk of future nuclear war the Non-
Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was proposed. The NPT is the most
extensive inspection and control system ever devised to prevent the
diversion of nuclear material form civilian nuclear programmes for
weapon purposes. The idea of Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (NWFZ)
was mooted to convince the countries refusing to join NPT club. The
concept of nuclear weapon free zone means that countries without
nuclear weapons should agree not to produce nuclear weapons and
declare their region free from nuclear weapons. It was followed by
the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) to tighten the control
over nuclear weapons programme.
Globalisation
Globalisation has become an important issue in the national
and international economic field. Globalisation has assumed great
importance in the recent changes in global business environment.
Now business has global-orientation and the whole world has become
just like a global village. Globalisation implies integration of economy
of one nation with the rest of the world economy and liberalising the
rules and regulations for foreign investment in economy. Broadly
speaking the term Globalisation means integration of economies and
societies through cross-country flows of information, ideas,
technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. Cross
border integration can have several dimensions- cultural, social,
political and economic.

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India and Globalization

The economic policy of India since 1991 proved to be a turning
point in the history of Indian economy. In 1991 Indian government
introduced a series of reforms to liberalize and globalize the Indian
economy. These economic reforms move towards the market economy
and globalization. These policies of economic reforms were intended
to integrate the Indian economy with the world economy.
World Trade Organization (WTO)
The origin of World Trade Organization could be traced from
the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944. In this conference, it
was proposed for the creation of an International Trade Organization
to establish rules and regulations for trade between countries. It finally
succeeded in creating the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT). Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under the
GATT. The eighth round - known as the Uruguay Round — which
began in 1986 and concluded in 1995 established the WTO. The main
aim of WTO is to increase international trade by promoting lower
trade barriers and providing a platform for the negotiation of trade.
The World Trade Organization sets the rules for the global
trading system and resolves disputes between its member states. The
WTO headquarter is located in Geneva, Switzerland. There are 149
members in the organization with Vietnam set to join in January, 2007.
The General Council of the WTO is highest decision-making body.
This meets regularly to carry out the functions of the WTO.
One of the criticisms against the WTO is that it favours rich
countries and multinational corporations which affect the smaller
states. Another criticism is the introduction of Trade-Related Aspects
of the Intellectual Property Rights [TRIPs] into the WTO rules and
regulations.

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European Economic Community

The European Economic Community (EEC) was an
organization established (1958) by the treaty between Belgium,
France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany,
known informally as the Common Market. The EEC was the most
significant of the three treaty organizations that were consolidated in
1967 to form the European Community. It is known as the European
Union since 1993. The European Union or EU is an
intergovernmental and supranational union of 25 European countries,
known as member states.
Global Terrorism
The term terrorism means politically motivated violence carried
out against mostly unarmed civilian population by a group of terrorists.
The term international terrorism means
terrorism involving citizens of more than
one country. Today, terrorism is
globalised. Hence, the UN Security
Council, on 28th September 2001 passed
a resolution against terrorism. The UN
Resolution condemned all forms of
WTC ATTACK SEPTEMBER 11, 2001 terrorism such as political, ideological,
ethnic, religious or any other form.
There are several acts of terrorism committed all over the
world. The most violent terrorist attack was made on the Twin Towers
of the World Trade Centre, New York on September 11, 2001 in the
U.S.A. On the morning of September 11, 2001, nineteen terrorists
affiliated with al-Qaeda terrorist organization hijacked four
commercial passenger jet planes in U.S.A. Each team of hijackers
included a trained pilot. The hijackers crashed two of the planes into
the World Trade Center in New York City, one plane into each tower.

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As a result both buildings collapsed. A third plane was crashed into

the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. In this terrorist attack
2,973 people died. They belonged to many countries.
India has been witnessing terrorist violence since 1980, first in
Punjab and then in Jammu and Kashmir and other parts of India.
Nearly 20,000 people have been killed in terrorist violence in Jammu
and Kashmir, involving both shootings and bombings. In the Jammu
and Kashmir India is experiencing cross border terrorism.
The 1992 serial bomb blasts in Bombay were one of the major
incidents of terrorism in India in recent years. The bomb blast in
Lajpat Nagar in Delhi in 1996 had also resulted in a large number of
civilian causalities. There have been many more incidents of bomb
blasts in different parts of the country. An Indian Airlines aircraft
was hijacked to Kandahar, the headquarters of the Taliban. 178
innocent passengers were held hostage there for a week. Indian
government had to make a very difficult decision. It was forced to
release three terrorists from Indian prisons to secure the safety of
the hostages. On 13 th December, 2001 there was an attack on the
Indian Parliament. Hence, India along with U.N. has condemned
terrorism because it violates the human rights of the innocent
citizens.
Environmental Threats
Today the world is much more worried about the environmental
changes that are taking place around the globe. The major threats
identified are: Global warming, Green House Effect and Ozone
depletion. There is awareness among the educated public as well as
general population to reduce the environmental pollution and make
the earth a safe place to live.

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Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

1. The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emerging New

World Order.

2. The Efforts taken to control the proliferation of Nuclear

Arms.

3. The Process of Globalization and its impact on the

contemporary world.

4. The growth of terrorism and its impact on India.

5. The environmental issues that affect the life on earth.

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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The proposal for an International Trade Organization was made
at the
(a) Washington Conference
(b) Vienna Conference
(c) U N Conference
(d) Breton Woods Conference
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The New York Twin Towers of the World Trade Center was
attacked by the terrorists in the year ….
2. The headquarters of the WTO is located in ……
III. Match the Following
1. Gorbachev a. Environmental threat
2. NPT b.1958
3. EEC c. Perestroika
4. Green House Effect d. Nuclear disarmament
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) Michael Gorbachev became the President of the Soviet Union
in 1990.
b) Gorbachev’s economic policy criticized private ownership.
c) He instituted a number of political reforms under the name
‘Glasnost’.

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d) He resigned as the President of the USSR in 1995.

V. State whether the following statements are True or False
1. In 1991 Indian government introduced a series of reforms to
liberalize and globalize the Indian economy.
2. On 13 th December, 2000 there was an attack on the Indian
Parliament.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Nuclear Disarmament
2. World Trade Organization
3. Global Terrorism
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Discuss the events that led to the fall of the Soviet Union.
2. Describe the reunification of Germany.
3. State the main features of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Explain the process and impact of Globalization.
2. Examine the role of WTO in the regulation of global trading
system.
3. Evaluate the impact of Global Terrorism.

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