Action as Devotion:

The Yoga of Krishna’s Devotee

Hope Susanna Lang

Introduction

The Bhagavadgītā1 makes a subtle, compelling, and vividly poetic case for a meaningful

life that does not require putting all one’s faith in scripture. The case for living a “non-vedic” life

is asserted directly by Krishna when he dismisses Arjuna’s hesitation to fight in the climactic

battle of The Mahābhārata. Even in a narrative full of exceptional and strange beings, the author

of The Mahābhārata shines a spotlight on Arjuna. He is not the strongest hero, nor the most

virtuous, and yet he is the favorite of many key characters throughout the epic; his martial

teacher Drona, his shared wife Draupadi, and even the Supreme being Krishna. The author

describes each of them as showing partiality to Arjuna. In this paper I would like to understand

the ultimate resolution met between Arjuna and Krishna in The Bhagavadgītā. In order to

understand the argument one needs to first have a clear understanding of who receives Krishna’s

divine knowledge. Why Arjuna? What sets him apart from other men? In particular, what sets

him apart from the rest of his brother’s and the ancestral line of the Bharatas? What makes

Arjuna a hero amongst heroes? What earns Arjuna the epithet, “bharat-sattama”- the best of the

Bharatas?

Let us begin by looking at Arjuna’s origin story and early life as it is described in The

Book of the Beginning,2 in order to understand his essential characteristics and exceptionalities.

After these are set out, let us see if these characteristics help us understand the revelations he

receives in The Bhagavadgītā.

1
J.A.B van Buitnen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, (The University of Chicago Press 1981)
2
J.A.B van Buitnen, The Mahābhārata Volume I. The Book of the Beginning, (The University of Chicago Press,
1983)
 Lang pg. 3

Part I

Bharat-sattama: The Best of the Bharatas

Arjuna is the middle son of the five Pāndavas, or sons of Pandu. Although he is his

father’s middle child, he is the youngest son of his mother Kunti. As a young girl Kunti is gifted

a mantra that allows her to call upon any celestial being she may desire. Upon hearing her mantra

the celestial beings are required to fulfill her request. Kunti uses this mantra to conceive her four

sons Karna, Yudhisthira, Bhima, and Arjuna.3 Pandu asks her to share this mantra with his other

wife Madri who successfully uses it to conceive twins Nakula and Sahadeva.4 Kunti’s first

conception is not entirely intentional. Kunti’s first son, Karna, is conceived by the Sun, long

before her marriage to Pandu, who is her only husband. Not being married, Kunti knows this

child will not be accepted as legitimate. Therefore, upon the child’s birth Kunti abandons him to

a river out of fear. As the narrative continues Kunti never publicly acknowledges Karna as her

son, though the opportunity presents itself on more than one occasion. After Kunti marries Prince

Pandu, it is her duty to bear him sons. Early in their marriage, before Kunti and Pandu conceive

their first child, Pandu is cursed by an ascetic.5 The curse was such that he could not participate

in conjugal love without losing his life. Therefore, he asks Kunti to conceive his sons with

another. Kunti makes her mantra known to Pandu and uses it to conceive their three sons. She

and Pandu, knowing their first born will be heir to the throne in Hastinapur decided to call upon

Dharma, the god of law, duty, and justice to father their first son.6 Through this pairing Kunti

gives birth to Yudhisthira, who embodies the virtues of dharma. In the case of their second son

3
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 254 ln 113.35
4
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 258 ln. 115.1-25
5
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 246 ln. 109.5-30
6
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 255 ln. 114.1-5
 Lang pg. 4

Pandu and Kunti decided to call upon Viyu or the Wind, the god of strength. From this match

Kunti gives birth to Bhima who is of unmatched strength.7 For their final son Kunti and Pandu

decide to call upon Indra, who is sometimes called the king of the Gods. Through this pairing

Kunti conceives Arjuna. Unlike the first two sons the request to Indra is prefaced with a year

long asceticism by both Pandu and Kunti.8 Their asceticism demonstrated their religious devotion

to Indra. I argue, this theme of devotion is an essential trait of Arjuna throughout his life, and

perhaps his defining characteristic. The practice of devotion is what gives Arjuna life and is his

guiding force throughout life.

It is through devotion that Arjuna wins the favor of his martial teacher Drona. Drona is a

brahmin who is famous for his martial skills. Drona begins his career as the teacher of both

Pandu’s sons and Pandu’s brother Dhritarashtra’s sons. As the fame of Drona’s martial teaching

spreads, Drona takes on scores of students. The Pandavas all excel beyond the other students but

Arjuna is characterized as skilled above them all. “But Arjuna was the best on every

weapon...Both in weaponry and in devotion to his guru, the Mighty Arjuna was distinguished by

his excellence, even though the arm drills were the same for all; among all the princes he was the

outstanding warrior.”9 Our narrator tells us Arjuna exceeded all his peers because he devoted

himself to Drona. “Arjuna, however, did his best to honor his teacher and made the greatest

effort at mastering arms. He became Drona’s favorite.”10 The fruits of this dedication are

illustrated in the account of Drona’s archery test.

7
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 255 ln. 114.5-15
8
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 256 ln. 114.15-60
9
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 272 ln. 123.40
10
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 270 1n. 123.1
 Lang pg. 5

Everyone of Drona’s students is challenged to hit a decoy bird in a distant tree. Before

they are given the chance to release their arrow from the bow, Drona has them look at the target

and asks them if they see, “the tree, or me, or your brother?”11 Student after student responds that

he sees each; the tree, the bird, and his brothers. With this answer each one is dismissed from the

challenge. Arjuna alone, when asked what he sees responds, “‘I see the bird… but I don’t see the

tree or you,’”12 This is the response Drona was waiting for. This told him, with certainty, that

Arjuna could hit his target. Indeed, Arjuna hit his mark on the first try. This sight, or focus is

unique to Arjuna. But the narrative characterizes this not as sight, but as, lack of sight. It is what

Arjuna does not see that gives Drona certainty of his mastery. This lack-of-sight is echoed in the

account of Arjuna practicing archery in the dark of night: “Then, one day when Arjuna was

eating, a breeze rose and blew out his lamp by which light he was eating. Arjuna went on eating,

nor did his hand fail to find his mouth, so accustomed was it to the motions of handling food.

Realizing now what practice could accomplish, the Pandava started practicing at night. Drona

heard the twang of his drawstring, Bharata, and he rose and came and embraced him..”13

Devotion, dedication, and habituation to the point that one need not rely on their senses are the

characteristics and skills that Arjuna developed with his teacher. These characteristics are

essential for his later challenge, the most significant challenge of his life, and arguably the

climax of the epic- to devote himself entirely to the supreme being Krishna, have faith (free of

senses) in Krishna’s providence, and fight a battle that will bring the destruction of most of his

ancestral line. But this is just the beginning. He is still a young man.

11
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 272 1n. 123.50
12
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 273 1n. 123.60
13
Van Buitenen, “The Origins” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 270 1n. 123.1
 Lang pg. 6

When the bharata sons mastered their martial skills Drona asked King Dhritarashtra if he

would host a celebration in which the graduates would display their mastery of martial skills to

the public. Each of the students are given a celebratory reception but, Arjuna’s reception is of

particular note. Drona expresses his partiality towards Arjuna, “‘Now watch the Partha [Arjuna],

greatest of armsmen, Son of Indra, and match of Indra’s younger brother, whom I love more than

my own son!”14 By making a comparison between Arjuna and his own son, Drona has declared

how dearly he reveres him. Not only does Drona compare Arjuna with a son, but he makes a

point to refer to him here as “Son of Indra.” Drona is drawing attention to Arjuna’s divinity.

Each of the Pandavas has a divine father but Drona chooses to note this in the case of Arjuna,

when presenting him to the public at this ceremony. Our narrator then tells us that amongst the

people in the audience they too begin to refer to Arjuna as “Son of Indra.” “There was a huge

commotion all over the arena, and the musical instruments and the conches exploded with sound.

‘There is the magnificent son of Kunti!’ ‘There goes the middlemost of the Pandavas!’ ‘There is

the son of great Indra, the safeguard of the Kurus!’”15

The martial skills which earned Arjuna Drona’s paternal affection also earned Arjuna his

first wife. The five Pandavas share a wife, the incomparable Draupadi. But although they each

married her, it was Arjuna who won her in a test of skills. Curiously, Draupadi’s father, King

Drupada, designed a challenge such that only Arjuna (or some one with Arjuna’s unmatched

archery skill) could surmount it. “It has always been Yajnasena’s [Drupada] wish to give Krishna

[Draupadi] to the diademed Arjuna, but he did not divulge it. Since he hoped to search out the

Pandanvas, the Pancala had a very hard bow made, well-nigh impossible to bend. He had a

14
Van Buitenen, “The Fire in the Lacquer House” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 277 ln. 125.5
15
Van Buitenen, “The Fire in…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 278 ln. 125.10
 Lang pg. 7

contraption built in the sky, and onto the contraption he had a golden target fixed.”16 By

designing the challenge in this way King Drupada chose the illustrious Arjuna as his daughter’s

match. Arjuna does of course win Draupadi but he does so in the guise of a brahmin. At this

point in the narrative the Pandavas are thought to have been killed in a house fire by their

envious cousin Duryodhana.17 Therefore the Pandavas are in hiding in order to avoid more of

Duryodhana’s plotting. I am interested in the implications of Arjuna winning Draupadi as a

brahmin rather than a warrior. The characteristic that set Arjuna apart from his peers as a student

of the martial arts had been his devotion to Drona- almost a religious devotion. It is an interesting

metaphor to dress him as a religiously superior caste for the archery challenge that echoes so

closely the challenge of his youth. The difference here is, rather than setting him apart from his

brothers, and other youths studying under Drona, Arjuna is being set apart from all the barons,

the royal warrior princes and kings, who hope to win Draupadi. It is not enough that Arjuna is

partially divine and a great warrior. In this account much emphasis is placed on the tension

between the brahmin class and the baron class and Arjuna is cleverly employed as the might of

the brahmin class. The barons declared that allowing a brahmin to be a bridegroom choice is

adharmic.18 With the justification of preserving dharma, the barons insight a battle. The two sides

are equally matched with Karna on one side and Arjuna on the other. In order for the aggressions

to end, Krishna who is recognized as the incarnate supreme being, intervenes. He proclaims,

“‘The maiden was won according to the law.’”19 The baron’s response to Krishna is one of

defeat, “There upon the battle-wise kings turned away from the battle, and all the good princes

went wonderingly back to their land ‘The arena had become dominated by the brahmins, the

16
Van Buitenen, “Draupadi’s Bridegroom Choice” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 348 ln. 175.10
17
Van Buitenen, “The Fire in the Lacquer House” The Mahābhārata Volume I.
18
Van Buitenen, “Draupadi’s Bride…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 354 ln.180.5
19
Van Buitenen, “Draupadi’s Bride…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 356 ln. 30
 Lang pg. 8

brahmins have chosen the Daughter of the Pancalas!’”20 The Pandavas may not actually be

brahmins but the reader may be subtly urged to associate a victory by Arjuna with a victory for

brahmins and a religious life. As if he is a bridge between baron and brahmin. He earns this

dualism through his devout character and going on to be the recipient of the infinite truth of

Krishna.

Once Draupadi had been fairly won and safely allowed to join her new bridegroom, she

and the Pandavas returned to Kunti, the Pandavas’ mother, in the brahmin village they were

occupying. Arjuna announced their return to Kunti and that he had brought something with them.

Without seeing the addition to their party, Kunti instructs, “Now you share that together.”21 Kunti

quickly realizes her mistake when she sees Draupadi. Rather than merely correcting herself, the

words that have been spoken have power and permanence outside of herself. Her words must be

obeyed so that she is not left to have spoken an untruth and committed a sin. Now the reason for

this complex exchange is obscure and a subject for another paper. For our purposes let us accept

that to ensure their mother does not commit the sin of lying Arjuna insists that Yudisthira and

Bhima marry Draupadi before him and the twins each marry her after.22 Arjuna’s insistence

demonstrates his determination to preserve integrity in the world even if it means sharing the

most precious of things. And so it is agreed each brother shall marry Draupadi.

In order to share Draupadi’s time fairly between all the brothers, they each agree to

rotate her time. Additionally they take a vow that if any of them dishonor his brother’s time with

Draupadi and witness them together, he who witnesses shall be banished for twelve months.

20
Van Buitenen, “Draupadi’s Bride…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 357 ln.181.30-35
21
Van Buitenen, “Draupadi’s Bride…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 356 ln.182.1
22
Van Buitenen, “Draupadi’s Bride…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 358 ln.182.10
 Lang pg. 9

“…they all together made a covenant with one another… ‘If one of us sets eyes on the other

when he is sitting with Draupadi, he must live in the forest like a hermit for twelves months.’”23

After the covenant is made Arjuna finds himself in a predicament. A Brahmin hysterically asks

Arjuna for his help to stop robbers from stealing from him. Being an honorable and lawful ruler,

Arjuna is determined to help the man. Unfortunately the Panduva’s weapons are housed in

Yudhisthira’s quarters, which was at that moment occupied by Yudhisthira and Draupadi. Arjuna

had to decide between allowing an injustice to take place in the kingdom or enduring a period of

exile. Ultimately, Arjuna decides to preserve dharma for this brahmin and risks witnessing his

brother and wife together.24 Again, he is embodying a tension between the dharma of castes,

Brahmin and Baron. Arjuna retrieves the weapons and restores order but did indeed witness that

which he had vowed not to. In order to hold himself accountable for the transgression he asks

Yudhisthira, “Assign me my vow, I have violated the covenant by looking at you. I shall go and

live in the forest, for that was the compact we made.”25 Yudhisthira cast no blame on Arjuna and

treated the situation diplomatically. He told Arjuna, “Why,... If I am the authority, listen to my

word prince sans blame. The injury you did me by entering, hero, I forgive entirely and I bear

you no grudge.”26 Resolutely, Arjuna declared that he must abide by the vow and leave his family

and home. Like many accounts in the Mahābhārata, it is not immediately clear what is the most

just and dharmic action. Though Arjuna took a vow, his need to enter the room was entirely

justified and understood by Yudhisthira. It cannot be an accident that the brother on the receiving

end of Arjuna’s transgression is the son of Dharma. Often, and in this account in particular our

narrator chooses to refer to Yudhisthira as “King Dharma,”27 in order to highlight his role as

23
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn in the Forest” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 398 ln. 204.25
24
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 399 ln. 205.1-20
25
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 399 ln. 205.25
26
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 399 ln. 205.25
 Lang pg. 10

dharma in the world and in the narrative. As the son of Dharma, Yudhisthira is the incarnation of

law and justice. Read in this way, Yudhisthira is the measure with which one can determine what

is just and unjust in the world. According to Yudhisthira, Arjuna’s transgression is forgivable.

He need not suffer the punishment. If this is the case, is it virtuous or foolish for Arjuna to banish

himself?

Perhaps his choice is neither, and rather to exile himself is the action (karma) he chooses

because it is his personal dharma to end up in the forest for a period. To say it another way; if all

action is determined by and for the sake of a supreme being (which is the revelation Arjuna is

given by Krishna in The Bhagavadgītā,)28 then Arjuna’s actions, and the narrative of his life,

perpetuates a cosmic order. This can appear to be at odds with an individual’s self interest, but

we will address this in Part II of this paper. Whatever the case, the incident is the catalyst for

Arjuna to begin an odyssey. Like Odysseus, Arjuna’s journey is filled with seductive divinities

and demonic monsters.

The recurring themes in “Arjuna’s Sojourn in the Forest,” are religious devotion, and

conquest; both sexual conquest and heroic. Our narrator tells us before Arjuna leaves, “he is

consecrated for the hermit’s life and went forth to live in the forest.”29 We are told as he traveled

through the forest, “great-spirited brahmins, great scholars of the Veda, followed him; and those

who ponder upon the supreme Soul and pure devotees of the blessed lord… Surrounded by

them… the scion of Pandu went forth, like Indra surrounded by the Maruts.”30 The religious life

27
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 399 ln. 205.25
28
See Part II
29
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 400 ln. 205.30
30
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 400 ln. 206.1
 Lang pg. 11

and its many devotees make up his entourage. His journey is spent making stops at each

sanctuary he can find in the forest. In addition to this, his stops often require his masculine gifts.

Early in the chapter Arjuna is the victim of a successful seduction by the Snake Princes Ulupi.

Though Arjuna is filled with kama (erotic love) at the site of her, he is meant to be practicing

austerities (which include celibacy) during his exile. Yet, Ulupi convinces him to lay with her.

Ulupi’s fundamental argument is that she will not live if she does not have him and she declares,

“Observe the highest Law of all by giving life…”31 Since Ulupi initiated the seduction she is the

sexual conqueror, but Arjuna’s irresistible masculine beauty is the cause of her desire. This

caveat allows Arjuna to remain faultless but still be portrayed as a paradigm of masculine beauty.

Once he returns from the snake world he continues his religious deeds. Arjuna’s next sexual

conquest is of another princess, Citrangada.32 Her father asks that Arjuna take her so that she can

continue the royal line. Arjuna stays with her for 3 months until she conceives a child. Arjuna’s

third conquest begins as a heroic battle with a crocodile. When Arjuna conquers the crocodile it

transforms into, “a beautiful woman decked with all the ornaments, fairly blazing with

beauty...celestial and delightful.”33 The crocodile was an Apsara named Varga. She, together

with four other Apsaras, had been transformed into crocodiles as punishment for tempting a

powerful ascetic in the woods. Varga accounts, “...we all saw a brahmin of strict vows, a

handsome man who was doing his studies all by himself in solitude. The forest, my prince, was

illuminated with his austerities, and like the sun he set the whole region alight.... We sang and

laughed and tempted the brahmin, but he gave us no thought...in anger the brahmin cursed

us…”34 The brahmin left them with a prophecy that, “a certain superior man shall pull you out,

31
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 401 ln. 206.30
32
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 402 ln. 207.15
33
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 403 ln. 208.10
34
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 403 ln. 208.15
 Lang pg. 12

and you shall all regain your own bodies.”35 This prophecy strengthens the reading that indeed

there was a cosmic necessity for Arjuna to break the vow with his brother, so that he could fulfill

his dharma in the forest.

Arjuna’s last adventure while a hermit is, “The Abduction of Subhadra.”36 Although this

is another account of a sexual conquest this section is distinct from those listed before. While the

proceeding accounts are examples of Arjuna’s heroic gifts being used and then allowing him to

move forward on his journey, “The Abduction of Subhadra” had lasting consequences. She

becomes his second wife. The account begins with Krishna, the incarnate Supreme Being, and

his entourage, finding Arjuna in the forest. The two princes are cousins through Kunti, Arjuna’s

mother, and spend time refamiliarizing themselves and living luxuriously in the forest until

Krishna invites Arjuna to his home. At Krishna’s home Arjuna meets Subhadra, Krishna's sister.

Our narrator tells us, “No sooner did he see her than Arjuna fell in love.”37 Krishna notices

Arjuna’s absorbance and says, “‘Can it be that the heart of a forest dweller is turned topsy-turvy

by love?... If your mind is set on her, I myself shall speak to father.”38 Krishna then suggests to

Arjuna to abduct her instead, “The baron’s marriage is the bridegroom choice, bull of men but

that is dubious, Partha since one’s own sentiments have no influence on the outcome. Forcible

abduction is also approved as a ground of marriage for barons… Abduct my beautiful sister by

force…”39 Krishna and Arjuna arrange her abduction. It is a success though Krishna does have to

pacify those who find the abduction offensive. But Subhadra reciprocates Arjuna’s affection and

is happy to be his bride. Therefore, the only offense left to amend is hurting Draupadi for

35
Van Buitenen, “Arjuna’s Sojourn…” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 404 ln. 209.10
36
Van Buitenen, “The Abduction of Subhadra” in The Mahābhārata Volume I.
37
Van Buitenen, “The Abduction of Subhadra” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 406 ln. 211.15
38
Van Buitenen, “The Abduction of Subhadra” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 406. ln. 211.15
39
Van Buitenen, “The Abduction of Subhadra” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 407 ln. 211.20
 Lang pg. 13

choosing another wife. When Arjuna arrives back home, Draupadi is reasonably upset to find

Arjuna has returned with a new wife. Draupadi refuses to listen to his justifications and so

Arjuna takes action, “Hurriedly, Arjuna had Subhadra, who was wearing a red silk skirt, change

into a cow maid’s dress…the glorious Bhadra [Subhadra] .... hastened to greet Draupadi: ‘I am

Bhadra, your serving maid!’”40 Draupadi is softened by Subhadra’s display. It demonstrated that

Subhadra accepts a hierarchy in which Draupadi is the first wife.

This arc of events around the forest is clearly wrapped up with Arjuna’s relationship to

the feminine. In each account our narrator goes out of his way to demonstrate that Arjuna is

desired by the woman as much, if not more, than he desires them and insists it is never his own

plan to be the agent of seduction. It is either the woman’s, her father’s, or her brother’s. The text

is then urging the reader to see these acts as part of Arjuna’s dharma. Whether the reader is

convinced by the narrator’s urgings or not, there is no doubt that is the goal. Arjuna’s

relationship with the feminine is a rich topic and could be the subject of a whole work but, I will

conclude my inquiries here.

The final characteristic I would like to analyze is Arjuna’s relationship to the divine and

Krishna through the chapter, “The Burning of the Khandava Forest.”41 This chapter is dense with

much to analyze and could also be paper in its own right, but I will focus on how the challenge

posed in this chapter is parallel to Arjuna’s later challenge in The Bhagavadgītā.

40
Van Buitenen, “The Fetching of the Gift” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. pg. 409 ln. 213.15-20
41
Van Buitenen, “The Burning of the Khandava Forest” in The Mahābhārata Volume I. The Book of the Beginning,
 Lang pg. 14

In the guise of a brahmin Agni, the god of fire, asks Arjuna and Krishna together to help

him consume the Khandava Forest, so that he may be cured of an ailment by the medicinal herbs

that dwell in the forest. Agni has been attempting to do this alone but has been stopped by Indra,

Arjuna’s father, using rain storms to put out his flames. Arjuna and Krishna accept the challenge

and begin to help Agni destroy the forest. Krishna is Arjuna’s charioteer and moves him about

the forest as Arjuna blocks Indra’s attempts to pacify the flames and destruction. Indra’s

motivation changes from being determined to end the violence into awe at his son’s adroitness.

Indra then acknowledges that Krishna, as the supreme being, must want Agni to consume the

forest and so he allows the forest to burn. The parallels between this and The Bhagavadgītā are

as follows: 1. Arjuna is asked to use his martial skills to bring great destruction to innocent lives.

2. The challenge requires him to fight directly against his kin (in this case Indra). 3. He must

have faith in the divine and take the challenge head-on with Krishna at his side. It is as if this is a

preliminary test, or perhaps a narrative foreshadowing, that Arjuna has the necessary qualities to

go on to the battle of the barons.

Here ends the accounts of Arjuna in “The Book of the Beginning.” We can see from the

early years of his life what characteristics make Arjuna a great hero. Arjuna’s patronage

endowed him with the nature of devotion. His upbringing molded and directed his dedication

towards martial skills and vedic scriptures. In adulthood he honored the brahmins and preserved

truth and law even if that sacrificed his own pleasure. Most importantly, he found faith in the

divine and Krishna above all when isolated in the forest. Devotion, integrity toward truth and

law, religious dedication and faith are ideals that Arjuna embodies. For these qualities he is the

best of men. He is the best of the bharatas.

Part II

Naishkarmya-siddhi: Ultimate Freedom from Action

Now how does this help the reader understand the Bhagavad-Gita?42 When faced with the

impossible task of initiating a battle that will result in the death of his kin, Arjuna uses arguments

based in vedic scripture to justify abstaining from the battle and alternatively living an ascetic

life. Krishna challenges his arguments and makes the case for another sort of life. What is just

action according to Krishna?

The Dilemma: Arjuna’s Doubt

As the tumultuous roar of every kuru hereo’s conch resounded from the two opposing

sides of the battle field the matchless son of Indra, Arjuna, asked his charioteer, the incarnate

eternal being Krishna, to drive his chariot between the two roaring armies. Once his chariot was

fixed between them, suspending the commencement charge, he was suddenly overcome with

hesitation and declared to his companion, “Krsna, when I see all my family poised for war my

limbs falter and my mouth goes dry. There is a tremor in my body and my hairs bristle. Gandiva43

is slipping from my hands and my skin is burning, I am not able to hold my ground and my mind

seems to whirl. And I see contrary portence, Keseva, but I see no good to come from killing my

family in battle.”44 When Arjuna faces the battlefield with his family on each side geared to fight,

42
J.A.B van Buitnen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, (The University of Chicago Press 1981)
43
Arjuna’s bow
 Lang pg. 16

he cannot help but feel compassion. Arjuna foresees that to fight this battle would bring

destruction and suffering to his family.

Therefore, Arjuna’s first objection to fighting is based on its destruction of familial

dharma. He states, “With the destruction of the family the eternal family Laws [dharma] are

destroyed. When law is destroyed, lawlessness besets the entire family...For men who have cast

aside their family Laws a place in hell is assure, as we have been told.”45 His appeal to family-

dharma is sympathetic for most readers but is complicated by his specific caste and the dharma

associated with it. As part of the warrior caste, Arjuna’s dharma is to fight wars. When faced

with a war against his family Arjuna must determine which dharma ought to be prioritized over

the other. At first the reader may have many reasons to sympathize with Arjuna and think that

the dharma to one’s family is higher than the dharma to one’s caste. Perhaps because we feel a

caste does not deserve loyalty as much as family, or perhaps we fall to whichever dharma would

preserve peace, believing peace to be one of the highest goods. Neither of these are valid for

Krishna, but we will address his arguments in full below.

Arjuna’s second objection is that the fratricidal war is only for the sake of material and

reputational gain. “Woe! We have resolved to commit a great crime as we stand ready to kill

family out of greed for kingship and pleasure.”46 Indeed, if gain was the sole motivation for war

it would be a vain pursuit. Arjuna characterizes such action as betrayal and asks, “What use is

kingship and pleasures. What use is kingship to us, Govinda? What use are comforts and life.”47

44
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 71, 23[1].1 ln. 25-35
45
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 73, 23[1].1 ln. 40-45
46
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 73, 23[1].1 ln. 45
47
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 73, 23[1].1 ln. 30
 Lang pg. 17

Arjuna is noting the emptiness of life’s fickle yearnings. Although Krishna will acknowledge

that wealth and reputation are empty he does not concur that such knowledge excuses Arjuna

from the fight. Rather, such knowledge demands that one fight for something higher. The higher

thing will also be discussed in Krishna’s argument.

At the end of Arjuna’s monologue he highlights his internal divide and the options for

action, “It were better that without slaying my gurus I went begging instead for alms in this land

than that I, by slaying my covetous gurus, indulge in the joys that are dipped in their blood.”48

Rather than fighting he indulges the possibility of asceticism thinking it higher or more

honorable than enjoying fruits won through slaughter. On the one hand asceticism is contrary to

his warrior-dharma. On the other hand, Arjuna has gone into a period of seclusion and relative-

celibacy before. Furthermore, and perhaps more intriguing, is that Arjuna is the product of

dedicated asceticism. Before conceiving Arjuna his father Pandu and his mother Kunti both spent

a year in asceticism dedicated to the deity Indra. At the conclusion of which, Indra conceived

Arjuna in Kunti. Arjuna has an outstanding capacity for dedication and worship throughout The

Mahābhārata, therefore a life of asceticism could be a viable option for him. In his own

argument Krishna addresses how Arjuna can channel his dedication.

After admitting all his doubts to Krishna, Arjuna then expresses his inability to know

what he needs to do and asks Krishna for guidance. “My nature afflicted with the vice of despair,

My mind confused over what is law, I ask what is better? Pray tell me for sure, Pray, guide me,

your student who asks for help.”49 Arjuna’s humility to ask Krishna for guidance is ultimately the

48
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā up in the Mahābhārata, pg. 73, 24[2].1 ln. 5
49
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 73, 24[2].1 ln. 5-10
 Lang pg. 18

very lesson Krishna gives him. Krishna’s answer is: in everything act in dedication and trust in

the supreme being. Krishna convinces Arjuna of this by dismantling some of the fundamental

assumptions Arjuna (and any human being) may have.

Krishna’s Argument:

Krishna’s first point is that the soul is eternal. He assures Arjuna, “You sorrow over men

you should not be sorry for, and yet you speak to sage issues. The wise are not sorry for either

the living or the dead. Never was there a time when I did not exist nor you, or these kings, nor

shall any of us cease to exist hereafter.”50 The death that will result from war is merely of the

individuals’ current life, but will not affect their eternal souls. There is no ultimate death of a

soul. Furthermore, death of each material life is inevitable. Therefore, Arjuna’s desire to spare

them from death is futile. Each soul will find new life again after the catastrophe of war. Since

all souls are eternal and will continue in the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Krishna’s second point is that fleeing from the battle will dishonor Arjuna’s name and

reputation. Those who see him flee will think he did so in fear. Krishna also argues that to shrink

away from battle would be to make an example which lesser men may imitate. Since lower men

imitate great men and Arjuna is a great man. These two arguments are not entirely satisfying.

Honor, reputation, and setting a positive example are not the most exalting motivators after one

has been told one single lifetime is nothing compared to one’s eternal soul. It is possible that

Krishna’s complete argument is meant to give many cases for why Arjuna should fight. So as not

to miss what would be most compelling to Arjuna in the moment; an expedient means, if you

50
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 75, 24[2].1 ln. 10-15
 Lang pg. 19

will. I pose this as an alternative to my own assumption that the argument would need to build

upon itself and be internally consistent.

To stir Arjuna with fervor Krishna exclaims, “Therefore, rise up Kaunteya, resolve upon

battle! Holding alike happiness and unhappiness, gain and loss, victory and defeat, yoke yourself

to the battle, and so do not incur evil.”51 This is a push to take action and exist in a state of

paradox. That is, Krishna urges for action in a state that does not completely dismiss the feelings

Arjuna expounded. Instead, Krishna insists those feelings should not stop him from taking action

nor be the guiding force of his action. It is after these points that Krishna makes a separation

between theory and practice and states, “This is the spirit according to theory; now hear how this

spirit applies in practice, yoked with which you will cut away the bondage of the act.”52 In order

to reconcile Arjuna’s doubt with the required action, i.e. battle, Krishna prescribes these

practices to Arjuna: 1. singleness of mind, 2. indifference to ends, 3. dispossession of

materialism, 4. insight rather than foresight, and 5. devotion through sacrifice. Each of these is

meant to result in an end to “bondage” through the act of “yoking” oneself. How does each

practice end our bondage? What is the discrete difference between bondage and yoking?

1. Singleness of Mind:

The first practice prescribed by Krishna is singleness of mind. He tells Arjuna to

transcend the “domain of the Vedas…beyond the pairs and opposites.”53 To grasp, “the domain

of pairs and opposites,” I ask the reader to imagine concepts such as good and evil, right and

wrong, love and hate. These concepts arise in thought and are applied to our experience. The

51
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 77, 24[2].1 ln. 35-40
52
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 77, 24[2].1 ln. 35-40
53
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 79, 24[2].1 ln. 45-50
 Lang pg. 20

dichotomies then force an account of how to act in (and navigate through) life in the good/right

way rather than the evil/wrong way. The Vedas could be understood as such an account. Krishna

compares the excess of Vedic knowledge to the overflow of water out of a well. “As much use as

there is in a well when water overflows on all sides, so much use is there in all Vedas for the

enlightened brahmin.”54 Krishna is not quite dismissing the Vedas entirely but illustrating that

excess has its imperfections. Particularly, the multitude of Vedas to be understood and

interpreted allows the practitioner to interpret based on their concern for the fruit of their good

action. Thus Krishna weaves the singleness of mind into a relinquishing of concern for fruits i.e.

ends.

2. Indifference to Ends:

For Krishna, concern for ends is necessarily self-interested. Even if one is acting in

adherence to some principle of “good.” If he is concerned with the fruits of his action he is acting

for himself. Krishna instead declares to Arjuna, “Your entitlement is only to the rite, not ever at

all to its fruits.”55Therefore, forethought as a guide for one’s action is entirely disposed of.

Without concern for ends, how does one know how to act? Naturally this is the question that

arises for Arjuna and he asks, “What describes the man who stands in concentration, Kesava?

What does one whose insight is firm say? How does he sit? How does he walk?”56 The

practitioner must replace their desire for fruits and gains with a desire to demonstrate gratitude

and devotion to the eternal being. Therefore in order to have indifference to fruits Krishna’s next

prescription is detaching oneself from material desires.

54
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 79, 24[2].1 ln. 45-50
55
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 79, 24[2].1 ln. 45-50
56
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 79, 24[2].1 ln. 50-55
 Lang pg. 21

3. Dispossession of Materialism:

Material desires fall out of the senses. Therefore, in order to cleanse oneself of material

desires, one must temper their senses. Therefore, rather than indulge in thoughts around that

which one’s senses absorb, Krishna tells Arjuna, “one should sit down, controlling one’s senses,

yoked, and intent on me…”57 Sitting, controlled, and yoked is not the practitioner’s permanent

state but it is the state one needs to relieve oneself from the desires of their senses. By yoking

oneself in thought to Krishna, the practitioner sees the futility of their material desire. Seeing that

these desires are insignificant they are no longer consumed by them. This brings them to a state

of serenity. But serenity is not an end. Serenity allows the practitioner to have insight that their

action is for Krishna rather than their self.

4. Insight vs. Foresight:

The practitioner then has undergone a fundamental shift in perception; that is forethought

or foresight is converted into insight. Their action is not self-guided but divinely guided. Their

action is not for self-interest but divinely interested. Which takes us to the next point in

Krishna’s prescription: what the practitioner’s action, devoted to the divine, involves.

4. Devotion through Sacrifice:

Sacrifice is the action that the devotee of Krishna takes. Krishna explains that sacrifice is

action which lifts the practitioner out of the karmic paradigm of existence, “All the world is in

bondage to the karma of action, except for the action for the purpose of sacrifice…”58 Sacrifice

57
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 81, 24[2].1 ln. 60-65
58
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 83, 24[2].1 ln. 60-65
 Lang pg. 22

here is not merely an offering upon an altar, though this is included. Krishna explains to Arjuna

that sacrifice takes many forms depending on the existence of the performer.

“There are yogins who regard sacrifice as directed at deities; others offer up sacrifice by
sacrificing into the fire that is brahman. Others offer the senses of hearing and so forth
into the fires of restraint, while others sacrifice the objects of sound, etc., into the fires of
the senses. Others again offer up all the actions of the senses and those of the vital
faculties into the wisdom-kindled fire of the yoga of self-restraint… Thus the sacrifices of
many kinds are strung in the mouth of brahman; know that they all spring from action,
and knowing this shall be free.”59

Krishna explains that he has created things such that all beings have a course which their life will

inevitably take. They therefore have a nature i.e. a course they follow naturally. If the being

gains insight that their course and motion is due to and for the sake of the eternal being, and not

for their own sake, then every action they take can be sacrificial. Sacrificial action is taken not

through concern for the practitioner but rather to perpetuate the cycle that the divine has placed

in motion. Krishna states this when juxtaposing the wise man to the ignorant man, “The wise

disinterested man should do his acts in the same way as the ignorant, who are interested in their

actions: but only to hold the world together.”60 Krishna goes on to say sacrifice culminates in the

sacrifice of knowledge. “The sacrifice of knowledge is higher than a sacrifice of substances,

enemy-burner, but all action culminates in a knowledge.”61 Krishna tells Arjuna he can receive

knowledge from wise men and from yoga. It is through yoga that one: 1. yokes themself to

Krishna, 2. meditates on him, 3. sees his eternal and infinite being together with the finite futility

of the material world, 4. is freed from material desire, 5. enters a state of serenity, and 6. can go

on to act with yogic knowledge. “Armed with yoga, pure of soul, master of self and senses,

identifying himself with the selves of all creatures, he is not tainted even though he acts.”62

59
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 89, 26[4].1 ln. 25-30
60
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 85, 25[3].1 ln. 25-30
61
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 89, 26[4].1 ln. 30-35
 Lang pg. 23

At the conclusion of his yogic practice the tethers to the perishable (i.e. dichotomic

interpretation, self-interest, materialism, and forethought) are lifted and laced instead to the

infinite endurance of the divine. In his action Krishna’s devotee is not unlike other human

beings. They need not be an ascetic or a sage. Their daily actions need not be unnatural. It need

only be accompanied by the knowledge that their action is not for themself but instead, for the

course that the eternal being has created. Their action is therefore for the sake of the eternal.

They need not pit one dharmic obligation up against another losing clarity towards action. So

Arjuna must acknowledge these practices and do what has been decreed for him: fight.

Why is Arjuna the recipient of this revelation? By being the product of Kunti’s pairing

with Indra, the God of devotion, Arjuna could be read as an archetype for devotion. But this

archetype does not come without doubt. Arjuna’s doubt springs the revelation on. It is doubt that

causes him to surrender an illusion of what is right and with humility ask the supreme being

what action he should take. To doubt oneself, to call out to the eternal for guidance, when one is

at their most desperate, that may be the most enduring truth of human experience.

62
Van Buitenen, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, pg. 89, 26[4].1 ln. 35-40
 Lang pg. 24

Bibliography

Van Buitenen, J.A.B, The Bhagavadgītā in the Mahābhārata, (The University of Chicago Press, 1981)

Van Buitenen, J.A.B, The Mahābhārata Volume I. The Book of the Beginning, (The University of
Chicago Press, 1983)