Telecom Switching – Complete Notes
for Competitive Exams
13. Network Control and Management, Subscriber Access
🔧 Network Control and Management
Network control and management ensures the network runs efficiently, reliably, and
securely.
Network Management Functions (FCAPS Model):
- Fault Management: Detect, isolate, correct network faults.
- Configuration Management: Provision and configure devices.
- Accounting Management: Usage tracking for billing or auditing.
- Performance Management: Monitor throughput, delay, utilization.
- Security Management: Control access, detect breaches.
Standards:
- SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
- TMN (Telecommunication Management Network – from ITU-T)
Subscriber Access
- Refers to how end-users connect to the telecom network.
- Known as the “last mile” or access network.
Access Technologies:
- Copper (POTS, DSL)
- Coaxial Cable (Cable modem)
- Fiber (FTTH/B)
- Wireless (Wi-Fi, LTE, 5G)
14. Techniques: ISDN, DSL, Wireless Connectivity
🖧 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
- Digital transmission over traditional telephone lines.
- Channels:
- B (Bearer) – 64 kbps for voice/data
- D (Delta) – 16/64 kbps for signaling
- Types:
- BRI (Basic Rate Interface) – 2B+D
- PRI (Primary Rate Interface) – 23B+D (USA), 30B+D (Europe)
🌐 DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
- High-speed internet over twisted-pair copper.
- Types:
- ADSL – Asymmetric (faster download)
- VDSL – Very high data rate DSL
- Uses frequency multiplexing (voice + data simultaneously)
📡 Wireless Connectivity
- Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Short range wireless LAN.
- Bluetooth: PAN (Personal Area Network).
- WiMAX (IEEE 802.16): Broadband over long range.
- 5G/4G/LTE: Cellular-based broadband wireless access.
15. Cellular Networks and Mobile Telephony
📶 Cellular Network Architecture:
- MS (Mobile Station)
- BTS (Base Transceiver Station)
- BSC (Base Station Controller)
- MSC (Mobile Switching Center)
- HLR/ VLR (Databases for subscriber info)
Generations:
- 1G – Analog voice
- 2G – GSM, digital voice + SMS
- 3G – WCDMA, UMTS (Voice + Data)
- 4G – LTE, full IP-based high-speed broadband
- 5G – Ultra-high speed, low latency, IoT support
Techniques:
- Frequency Reuse
- Handoff (hard/soft)
- SIM-based identity
16. Fiber Optic Communication Systems, Optical Network Standards
🔦 Fiber Optic Communication
- Data transmitted using light over optical fibers.
- Advantages:
- Very high bandwidth
- Low attenuation
- Immune to EMI
Components:
- Transmitter: LED/Laser diode
- Receiver: Photodiode
- Fiber Types: Single-mode (long distance), Multi-mode (short)
💡 Optical Network Standards
- SONET/SDH – High-speed synchronous optical networks.
- GPON/EPON – Used in FTTH (Gigabit Passive Optical Networks).
- DWDM – Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (multiplexing multiple optical signals).
17. Telecommunication Traffic Engineering and Analysis Delay Systems
📊 Telecommunication Traffic Engineering
- Analyzes network load and designs systems to handle demand efficiently.
Key Concepts:
- Traffic Intensity (in Erlangs): A = λ × h
- Grade of Service (GoS): Blocking probability
- Erlang-B formula: Calculates blocking in loss systems.
- Erlang-C: For queuing systems (call centers).
Delay Systems:
- Focus on delay in transmission or processing.
- Queuing theory used to analyze these systems.
18. Voice-over-IP (VoIP)
🎤 VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)
- Converts voice to IP packets and transmits over IP networks.
Protocols:
- SIP (Session Initiation Protocol): Call setup
- RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol): Media transmission
- H.323: Older ITU standard
Advantages:
- Cost-effective
- Scalable
- Integrates with multimedia
Challenges:
- Latency, jitter, packet loss
- QoS mechanisms like DiffServ, MPLS needed
🛠 Codecs:
- G.711, G.729, G.723 used to compress voice for IP networks
