Amity School of Business

Business Mathematics Notes

by Shanu Singh
Set Theory
Note- Learn all the basic concepts related to sets (for theoretical questions)- Refer NCERT
Noes sent in the group.
De morgan’s Law
In set theory, these laws relate the intersection and union of sets by complements.
De Morgan’s First Law or De Morgan's Law of Union: The complement of the union of the
two sets A and B will be equal to the intersection of A' (complement of A) and B' (complement
of B). This is also known as De Morgan's Law of Union. It can be represented as (A ∪ B)’ =
A’ ∩ B’.

De Morgan’s second law or De Morgan's Law of Intersection: The complement of the

intersection of A and B will be equal to the union of A' and B'. This condition is called De
Morgan's law of Intersection. It can be given by (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’.

De Morgan's Law Example

Let us understand De Morgan's law with the help of a simple example.
Let the universal set U = {7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 }.
The two subsets are given by A = {11, 12, 13} and B = {7, 8}.
De Morgan's Law of Union
Example: (A ∪ B) = {7, 8, 11, 12, 13}, (A ∪ B)’ = {9, 10}. A’ = {7, 8, 9, 10} and B' = { 9, 10,
11, 12, 13}. A’ ∩ B’ = {9, 10}. Thus, (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’
De Morgan's Law of Intersection
Example: (A ∩ B) = ∅, (A ∩ B)' = {7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13}. A’ ∪ B’ = {7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13}. Hence, (A ∩ B)’ = A’ ∪ B’

Venn diagram
Venn diagrams are the diagrams that are used to represent the sets, relation between the sets
and operation performed on them, in a pictorial way. Venn diagram, introduced by John Venn
(1834-1883), uses circles (overlapping, intersecting and non-intersecting), to denote the
relationship between sets.
To draw a Venn diagram, first, the universal set should be known. Now, every set is the subset
of the universal set (U). This means that every other set will be inside the rectangle which
represents the universal set.
So, any set A (shaded region) will be represented as follows:

Where U is a universal set.

We can say from Fig. 1 that A ∪ U = U
All the elements of set A are inside the circle. Also, they are part of the big rectangle, which
makes them the elements of set U.
Venn Diagrams of Set operations
A’ is the complement of set A (represented by the shaded region in fig. 2). This set contains all
the elements which are not there in set A.
Figure 2:
Intersection of two sets in Venn Diagram
A intersection B is given by: A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
This represents the common elements between set A and B (represented by the shaded region
in fig. 3).
Figure 3:

Union of Two Sets in Venn Diagram

A union B is given by: A ∪ B = {x | x ∈A or x ∈B}.
This represents the combined elements of set A and B (represented by the shaded region in Fig.
4).
Figure 4:

Complement of Union of Sets in Venn Diagram

(A ∪ B)’: This is read as complement of A union B. This represents elements which are neither
in set A nor in set B (represented by the shaded region in fig. 5).
Figure 5:

Complement of Intersection of Sets in Venn Diagram

(A ∩ B)’: This is read as complement of A intersection B. This represents elements of the
universal set which are not common between set A and B (represented by the shaded region in
fig. 6).
Figure 6:

Difference between Two Sets in Venn Diagram

A – B: This is read as A difference B. Sometimes, it is also referred to as ‘relative complement’.
This represents elements of set A which are not there in set B(represented by the shaded region
in fig. 7).
Figure 7:

Symmetric difference between two sets in Venn Diagram

A ⊝ B: This is read as a symmetric difference of set A and B. This is a set which contains the
elements which are either in set A or in set B but not in both (represented by the shaded region
in fig. 8).
Figure 8:

Venn Diagram Formula

For any two given sets A and B, the Venn diagram formula is used to find one of the following:
the number of elements of A, B, A U B, or A ⋂ B when the other 3 are given. The formula
says:
• n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n (A ⋂ B)
Here, n(A) and n(B) represent the number of elements in A and B respectively. n(A U B) and
n(A ⋂ B) represent the number of elements in A U B and A ⋂ B respectively.

Some solved Examples

Example 1: In a cricket school, 12 players like bowling, 15 like batting, and 5 like both. Then
how many players like either bowling or batting.
Solution:
Let A and B be the sets of players who like bowling and batting respectively. Then
n(A) = 12
n(B) = 15
n(A ⋂ B) = 5
We have to find n(A U B). Using the Venn diagram formula,
n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) – n (A ⋂ B)
n(A U B) = 12 + 15 - 5 = 22.

Questions for practice

Question 1. In a school there are 30 teachers who teach mathematics or Physics. Of these
teachers, 20 teach Mathematics and 15 teach physics, 5 teach both mathematics and physics.
The number of teachers teaching only mathematics is……..
Question 2. If a set a Contains 60 elements and another set B contains 70 elements and there
are 50 elements in common, then how many elements does A B contain?
Question 3. If X and Y are two sets such that X has 40 elements, X ∪ Y has 60 elements and
X ∩ Y has 10 elements, how many elements does Y have?
Question 4. In a group of 70 people, 37 like coffee, 52 like tea and each person likes at least
one of the two drinks. How many people like both coffee and tea?
Question 5. In a committee, 50 people speak French, 20 speak Spanish and 10 speak both
Spanish and French. How many speak at least one of these two languages?

Question
Draw appropriate Venn diagrams for each of the following :
(i) (A∪B)′ (ii) A′∩B′
(iii) (A∩B)′ (iv) A′∪B′
Solution
(i) The Venn diagram for (A∪B)′. The shaded portion represents (A∪B)′..

(ii) The Venn diagram for A′∩B′. The shaded portion represents A′∩B′.

(iii) The Venn diagram for (A∩B)′. The shaded portion represents (A∩B)′.
(iv) The Venn diagram for A′∪B′. The shaded portion represents A′∪B′.

Relation
A relation in mathematics defines the relationship between two different sets of information.
If two sets are considered, the relation between them will be established if there is a connection
between the elements of two or more non-empty sets.
Let P and Q be two non- empty sets. A binary relation R is defined to be a subset of P x Q from
a set P to Q. If (a, b) ∈ R and R ⊆ P x Q then a is related to b by R.
If sets P and Q are equal, then we say R ⊆ P x P is a relation on P
Examples:-
(i) Let A = {a, b, c}
B = {r, s, t}
Then R = {(a, r), (b, r), (b, t), (c, s)}
is a relation from A to B.

(ii) Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = A

R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
is a relation (equal) on A

Therefore, we can say,

‘A set of ordered pairs is defined as a relation.’
This mapping depicts a relation from set A into set B. A relation from A to B is a subset of A
x B.
The ordered pairs are (1,c),(2,n),(5,a),(7,n). For defining a relation, we use the notation where
set {1, 2, 5, 7} represents the domain.
set {a, c, n} represents the range.
Types of Relation
Empty Relation
An empty relation (or void relation) is one in which there is no relation between any elements
of a set. For example, if set A = {1, 2, 3} then, one of the void relations can be R = {x, y}
where, |x – y| = 8. For empty relation,
R=φ⊂A×A

Universal Relation
A universal (or full relation) is a type of relation in which every element of a set is related to
each other. Consider set A = {a, b, c}. Now one of the universal relations will be R = {x, y}
where, |x – y| ≥ 0. For universal relation,
R=A×A

Identity Relation
In an identity relation, every element of a set is related to itself only. For example, in a set A =
{a, b, c}, the identity relation will be I = {a, a}, {b, b}, {c, c}. For identity relation
I = {(a, a), a ∈ A}
Reflexive Relation
In a reflexive relation, every element maps to itself. For example, consider a set A = {1, 2,}.
Now an example of reflexive relation will be R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1)}. The reflexive
relation is given by-
(a, a) ∈ R

Symmetric Relation
In a symmetric relation, if a=b is true then b=a is also true. In other words, a relation R is
symmetric only if (b, a) ∈ R is true when (a,b) ∈ R. An example of symmetric relation will be
R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} for a set A = {1, 2}. So, for a symmetric relation,
aRb ⇒ bRa, ∀ a, b ∈ A

Transitive Relation
For transitive relation, if (x, y) ∈ R, (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R. For a transitive relation,
aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc ∀ a, b, c ∈ A

Equivalence Relation (Important)

If a relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive at the same time, it is known as an
equivalence relation.

Function and its types

Let A & B be any two non-empty sets; mapping from A to B will be a function only when
every element in set A has one end and only one image in set B.
Example:
Another definition of functions is that it is a relation “f” in which each element of set “A” is
mapped with only one element belonging to set “B”. Also, in a function, there can’t be two
pairs with the same first element.

Types of Functions based on Set Elements

Types of functions based on set elements depend on the number of relationships amongst the
elements in the domain and the codomain. The different types of functions depending on the
set elements are as discussed below.
1. One–One Function or Injective Function
The one-to-one function is also termed an injective function. Here each element of the domain
possesses a different image or co-domain element for the assigned function.
A function f: A → B is declared to be a one-one function if different components in A have
different images or are associated with different elements in B.

2. Onto Function or Surjective Function

A function f: A → B is declared to be an onto function if each component in B has at least one
pre-image in A. i.e., If-Range of function f = Co-domain of function f, then f is onto. The onto
function is also termed a subjective function.

3. Bijective Function or One One and Onto Function

A function f: A → B is declared to be a bijective function if it is both one-one and onto function.
In other words, we can say that every element of set A is related to a different element in set
B, and there is not a single element in set B that has been left out to be connected to set A.

4. Many-One Function
Any function f: A → B is said to be many-one if two (or more than two) distinct components
in A have identical images in B. In a many-to-one function, more than one element owns the
same co-domain or image.

5. Into Function
Any function f: A → B is said to be an into function if there exists at least one element in B
which does not have a pre-image in A. i.e., If the Range of function f ⊂ Co-domain of function
f, then f is into.
To summarise we can say that the into function is precisely opposite in features to an onto
function. That is here certain elements in the co-domain do not own any pre-image. This states
that the elements in set B are excess and are not equated to any elements in set A.
6. Constant Function
A constant function is a significant form of a many-to-one function. In this function, all the
domain elements possess a single data/ image.
A constant function is the sort of function that presents the same value of output for any
presented input. It is represented as, f(x) = c, where c is a constant. For example, f(x) = 6 is a
constant function.
OR
The constant function is mathematically expressed as f: R→R and is represented as f(x) = y =
c, for x ∈ R and c denotes a constant in R. The domain of the function f signifies R and its
range is a constant, c. Sketching a graph, we obtain a straight line that is parallel to the x-axis
as displayed above.

Exponential Functions
An exponential function is mathematically expressed as
The exponential function is mainly employed to determine exponential decay/ exponential
growth. The most commonly used exponential function base is e.
Logarithmic Functions
The representation of the Logarithmic functions
Depending upon the base the function can be a decreasing(value of b lies between 0 to 1)
function or an increasing(value b is greater than 1 ) function. Logarithmic functions are also
the inverse of exponential functions.

Composite Function
Composition of Function is the process or operation that combines two or more functions
together into a single function.
Example: If, f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 3. Then calculate the composition g(f(x)) and f(g(x)).
Solution:
g(f(x)) = g(x2) = x2 + 3
Similarly, we can easily calculate the f(g(x)) or (f∘g)(x) where g(x) is computed first.
f(g(x)) = f(x + 3) = (x + 3)2

Example: If f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = (2x)2 find, f(g(x)) and g(f(x))

Solution:
For f(g(x))
Given, g(x) = (2x)2 = 4x2
Thus, f(g(x)) = f(4x2) = 4x2 + 2
Now for g(f(x))
Given, f(x) = x + 2
Thus, g(f(x)) = (2(x+2))2 = (2x + 4)2
⇒ g(f(x)) = 4x2 + 16 + 8x