O Soil – a mixture of mineral grains, organic material, water, and gas.

Mineral grains include

clay, silt, sand, and rock fragments.

Types of Soil:

1. Clay – fine grained and close packed that water and air do not flow readily through
sandysoil.
2. Loam – most fertile soil, a mixture especially rich in sand and silt with generous amountsof
organic matter.
3. Humus – essential component of most fertile suits, decomposed organic litter.Soil Erosion

→ O Horizon – first layer of the soil (loose and

partly decayed organic matter)
→ A Horizon – mineral matter mixed with some
humus.
→ E Horizon – light colored zone of leaching.
→ B Horizon – accumulation of clay from above.
→ C Horizon – partially altered parent material

Land Degradation – deterioration or loss of fertility or productive capability of the soil.

Factors which Deplete Mineral Context of the Top Layer or Damage or Reducethe
Fertility of the Soil:

A. Soil Erosion – Loss or removal of superficial layer of the soil by action of water,
wind, or by activities of man.
Affects by:

1. Distribution, intensity and amount of rainfall

2. Slope of the ground
3. Nature of the soil
4. Vegetation cover
5. Soil mismanagement
6. Soil Pollution

B. Salination and Water Logging – Increase in the concentration of soluble salts in

the soil.
2 processes of Salination

1. Due to poor drainage of irrigation and flood waters, the salts dissolve in these water
accumulates on the soil surface.
2. In summer, salts from deeper strata are drawn up by capillary action and get deposited on
the surface.

Process of Salinization
1. Irrigation water contains small amounts
of dissolved salts behind
2. Evaporation and transpiration leave
salts behind
3. Salt builds up in the soil.

Process of Waterlogging:
1. Precipitation and irrigation water percolate downward
2. Water table rises.

C. Shifting Cultivation (“Slash-and-Burn”) – land is cleared and the vegetation is burned,

providing a source of nutrients from the ash.

D. Desertification – result due to erosion of the top soil and loss of productivity.

Factors:
1.Wind carries sand dunes
2.Excessive Grazing – allowing livestock to directly consume the growing forage;
grasses, legumes, and forbs excessively, in a pasture or range land.

Causes of Desertification:
1.Overgrazing
2.Deforestation
3.Erosion
4.Salinization
5.Soil Compaction
6.Natural Climate Change

Consequences:
1.Worsening Drought
2.Famine
3.Economic Losses
4.Lower Living Standards
5.Environmental Refugees
E. Farming – Some fertilizers can make it difficult for microorganisms in the soil to produce
nutrients naturally. Fertilizers also add to water pollution when rainwater draining from fields
carries the excess nutrients to rivers, lakes, and oceans.

F. Urbanization

G. Construction and Development – Some of the soil at construction sites washes or blows
away because its protective plant cover has been removed. The soil that is washed or
blown away ends up in nearby lowly areas, in rivers and streams, or in downtown lakes or
reservoirs. The build-up of soil on riverbeds raises the level of the rivers and may cause
flooding, which fills up lakes and reservoirs.

H. Waste Disposal – Every human produces a certain amount of personal waste products by
way of urine and feces. A large amount of this is dumped directly into landfills, where the
biological waste pollutes the soil and water. This is because our bodies are full of toxins
and chemicals which are now seeping into the land and causing pollution of soil.

I. Mining – Some methods of mining cause soil loss. By exposing rocks and minerals to the
air and to rainwater, these forms of mining speed up the rate of chemical weathering. In
mining operations that expose sulphide minerals, the increased chemical weathering
causes a type of pollution known as acid drainage. Sulfide reacts with the air and the water
to produce sulfuric acid. Then, the acid water drains from the mines, polluting the soil in
surrounding areas.

J. Intensive Agriculture

K. Oil Spill on Land

Different Soil Conservation Methods and

Practices

1. Tree Planting – Roots of trees firmly hold on the soil making it stagnant, preventing soil
erosion. Soil under a vegetative cover is saved from erosion due to wind as this cover acts
as a wind barrier.

2. Terraces Building – A terrace is a levelled section of a hilly cultivated area. It prevents

rapid surface runoff of water. Terracing gives the landmass a stepped appearance, slowing
the washing down of soil. Dry stonewalling is a method used to create terraces in which
stone structures are made without using mortar for binding.
 3. No-Till Farming – Tilling is the process of preparing soil for plowing. No-Till farming is a
way of growing crops without disturbing it through tillage is highly recommended. The
process of tilling is beneficial in mixing fertilizers in the soil, making rows and preparing the
surface for sowing. However, Tilling can lead to compaction of soil, loss of organic matter in
the soil and the death of soil organisms. No-Till farming is a way to prevent that from
happening.

4. Contour Plowing – The method of plowing across the contour lines of a slope. This
practice of farming on slopes considers the slope gradient and the elevation of soil along
slope lines. Helps in slowing the water runoff and prevents soil from being washed away
along the slope. Also, helps in percolation of water in the soil.

5. Crop Rotation – Continuous cultivation of the same crop leads to imbalance in the fertility
demands of the soil and the build-up of some pathogens. Crop rotation is a method of
growing a series of dissimilar crops in an area. Therefore, with crop rotation, it helps
improve soil structure and fertility.

6. Maintaining Soil pH – Soil pH is an indicator of the level of nutrients in soil. The

contamination of soil by addition of acidic or basic pollutants and due to acid rains has an
adverse effect on the soil pH. Maintaing the correct value of soil pH is thus essential for soil
conversion. A pH of 7 is neutral, 6 below is acidic, and 8 above is basic.

7. Water the Soil – Watering soil is a good measure of soil conversion. This prevents soil
erosions caused by wind.

NITROGEN CYCLE

→ Atmospheric Nitrogen cannot be

used directly by plants and animals →
Nitrogen needs to get converted to
nitrogenous compounds → This process
is called Nitrogen Fixation.

RHIZOBIUM - Rhizobium bacteria live in nodules of leguminous plants. They contain an

enzyme called nitrogenase that converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3)
using energy from the plant.
NITRIFYING BACTERIA - Nitrifying bacteria are like tiny chefs in the soil. They take ammonia,
and turn it into nitrates. This process is called nitrification and is a key part of the nitrogen
cycle.

NITROGEN FIXATION can also occur by lightning strikes. The intense energy breaks apart
nitrogen gas, allowing it to combine with oxygen and form nitrates. These nitrates are then
washed into the soil, where plants can use them to grow.

→ Plants take these nitrates from

the soil
→ Plants use these nitrates to make
proteins.
→ Animals eat plants to eat protein.
→ Dead plants and animals release
nitrogen.
→ It comes back to the
sky/atmosphere.

TYPES OF WASTES & WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

Kinds of Waste

A. Solid Waste. This type of waste is in solid form like domestic, commercial, and
industrial wastes such as plastics, styrofoam, paper, scrap iron, and sludge from a wastewater
treatment plant or air control facility.

• Paper rubbish – this refers to all newspapers, packaging materials, cardboard, and
other paper products. Paper is recyclable.

• Metals and Tins – you can easily find tins and metals at home because food
containers and household materials are made from most metals are recyclable so
take them to scrap yard or recycling depot after use

B. Liquid Waste. This type of waste is in liquid form such as chemicals, oils, and
wastewater from ponds and manufacturing industries. It includes sewage as well as wastewater
from industrial processes and agricultural processing.

• Refers to all grease oil, sludges, wash waters, waste detergents and dirty wter that
have been thrown away.
 • They are hazardous and poisonous to our environment and are found in industries
and households. Wastewater as it is often called is any waste that exists in liquid
form.

C. Gaseous Waste. This type of waste is in gaseous form which usually originates from
chopping and dissolution operations. As an example, volatile radionuclides are discharged to
the stack after scrubbing with sodium hydroxide and filtration through charcoal filter devices.
Electrostatic precipitation, wet scrubbers and gaseous waste treatment are some ways of
minimizing gaseous waste.

D. Organic Waste. Refers to rotten meat, garden, and food wastes. This type of rubbish
is commonly found in homes. With time, they decompose and turn into manure, by the actions
of microorganisms on them. But be careful, you should not dispose of them anywhere you like.
When decomposing organic wastes produces methane so it must not be thrown away with
regular waste. Instead, get a green bin and dispose of this type of waste properly.

E. Recyclable Waste. All discarded items like metals, furniture, organic Waste that can
still be recycled fall under this category. Not all items are recyclable, so you have to be careful
when putting things into the recycling bin if you are not sure whether an item is recyclable or not
then check the items packaging.

F. Hazardous Waste. Includes flammable, toxic, corrosive, and reactive materials in a

nutshell. They are wastes that post a significant or potential threat to our environment.

Classifications of Waste
1. Biodegradable - These wastes can be degraded: Examples: paper woods fruits
2. Non- biodegradable - These wastes cannot be degraded: Examples: bottles
plastics machines cans
3. Hazardous - Substances unsafe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally or
economically and have the following properties: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, and
toxicity
4. Non-hazardous - Substances safe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally,
and economically. These substances usually create disposal problems.

The main objective of waste management is to reduce the quantity and type of
hazardous substances used to avoid adverse impact on human health and the environment.
Transformation of waste into usable secondary products can be done through recycling,
reusing, repurposing, reducing, and recovering. Thus, the waste generated from different
industries and societies must be classified to apply the correct form of management.
Wastes According to Generation (Origin)

1. Municipal Solid Wastes - Solid wastes that include household garbage, rubbish,
construction and demolition debris, sanitation residues. packaging materials, trade
refuges, and others managed by any municipality.
2. Industrial Wastes - Liquid and solid wastes that are generated by manufacturing
and processing units of various industries like chemical, petroleum, coal, metal, gas,
sanitary, and papers.
3. Agricultural Wastes - Wastes generated from farming activities. These substances
are biodegradable. mostly
4. Fishery Waste - generated due to fishery activities like fish viscera, fish bones, and
scales. These are extensively found in coastal and estuarine areas.
5. Radioactive Wastes - Wastes containing radioactive materials. These are
commonly by-products of nuclear processes. Sometimes industries that are not
directly involved in nuclear activities may also produce some radioactive waste such
as radioisotopes and chemical sludge.
6. E-Wastes - Electronic wastes generated from any modern establishments. They
may be described as discarded electrical or electronic devices. Some electronic
scrap components such as CRTs may contain contaminants such as lead, cadmium,
and beryllium or brominated flame retardants.
7. Biomedical Wastes - Solid or liquid wastes including containers, intermediate or
end products generated during diagnosis, treatment, and research activities of
medical sciences.

Bioremediation is the process of using biological microorganisms to breakdown hazardous

materials and substances into less toxic or nontoxic products. There are several branches of
bioremediation, including contaminated soil, oil spill cleanup, and crime scene cleanup.

VERMICOMPOSTING - a natural process whereby earthworms convert waste material with

rigid structures into compost.

WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

Garbage accumulation has never been much of a concern in the past but due to globalization
and industrialization there is a need for a more efficient waste disposal method

LANDFILLS - Residues from waste incineration or waste that is not suitable for material
recycling or thermal treatment are deposited in landills that are compliant with the legal
requirements. If the waste does not fulfil the requirements for landfilling, it must be pre-
treated.
 INCINERATION – Incineration is the process of controlled combustion of garbage to
reduce it to incombustible matter such as ash and waste gas. The exhaust gases from
this process may be toxic hence it is treated before being released into the environment
This process reduces the verdure of waste by 90 per cent and is considered as one of
the most hygienic methods of waste disposal In some cases the heat generated is used
to produce electricity However some consider this process not quite environmentally
friendly due to the generation of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon
monoxide

WASTE COMPACTION - The waste materials such as cans and plastic bottles are
compacted into blocks and sent for recycling:
This process prevents the oxidation of metals and reduces airspace need thus making
transportation and positioning easy

COMPOSTING - All organic materials decompose with time Food scraps, yard waste
etc.- make up for one of the major organic wastes we throw away every day. The
process of composting starts with these organic wastes being buried under layers of soil
and then are left to decay under the action of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi

RECYCLING - Collecting throwaway materials and turning them into useful products

SOURCE REDUCTION - Waste prevention is the practice of eliminating waste before it

is created or essentially using less material to get the job done. It incorporates the
design manufacture purchase or use of materials and products to reduce the amount or
toxicity of whatis thrown away

Ways of Disposing Hazardous Waste

• Recycling: A few hazardous wastes can be recycled to form other products. For
example, circuit boards and lead-acid batteries can bind to other pollutants and later
used as pavement fillings Chemical levels are reduced when hazardous wastes are
converted to new products
• Incineration and Destruction: Another way of disposing of hazardous waste is to
destroy or incinerate them Incineration reduces the amount of hazardous waste and
can also generate energy for use in the process
• Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis, in a very high-temperature arc under inert conditions. is an
excellent way to dispose of hazardous waste This process is used to avoid the
dangers of combustion and is preferable when dealing with PCBs. organic waste and
pesticides
 • Disposing in a landfill A landfill is a disposal facility where rubbish is placed in
Land treatment facilities are not landfills.

Several waste disposal practices in the country include concentration and contain or also
known as isolation specifically for solid waste. Landfills and dumps minimize the impact of waste
on the environment. Landfill is a place to dispose of waste material by burying or covering it
over with soil and becoming an extending usable land after a few years. Dump is an excavated
piece of land for waste storage and regulated by the government. A dump is smaller than a
landfill. Other useful options are composting, resource recovery and energy recovery.

WEATHERING

Weathering is the process of breakdown of rocks at the Earth’s surface, by the action of
water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, gravity and changing temperatures. There are three
types of weathering: physical weathering, chemical weathering, and biological weathering.

Agents of Weathering

1. Water - Either in liquid or solid form is one of the agents of mechanical weathering. In
liquid form, it seeped into cracks and crevices of rocks and when the temperature dropped, it
freezes and will expand in ice. The ice then works as a wedge which slowly widens the cracks
and splits the rock. When the ice melts, the liquid water performs the act of erosion by carrying
away the tiny rock fragments lost in the split.

2. Salt - In the process of haloclasty, salts served as an agent of weathering. Saltwater

sometimes gets into the cracks and pores of rock. When it evaporates, salt crystals are left
behind and grow in the cracks and pores which cause pressure on the rock and slowly break it
apart.

3. Temperature - Temperature changes can also contribute to weathering through the

process called thermal stress. During thermal stress, rocks tend to expand with heat and
contract with low temperature. As this happens repeatedly, the structure of the rock weakens
and over time crumbles.
4. Plants - Plants also served as agents of weathering. Its contribution takes place when
the seed of a tree being spread in the environment sprouts in soil that has collected in a cracked
rock. As the roots grow, they widen the cracks, eventually breaking the rock into pieces. Over
time, trees can break apart even large rocks. Even small plants, such as mosses, can enlarge
tiny cracks as they grow.

5. Animals - Animals that tunnel underground, such as moles and prairie dogs, also
work to break apart rock and soil. Other animals dig and trample rocks above ground, causing
rocks to slowly crumble.

Types of Weathering

A. Physical Weathering - (Mechanical weathering) Physical weathering is caused by

changing temperatures on rocks, causing the rock to break apart. The process is
sometimes assisted by water. It happens especially in places where there is little soil and
few plants grow, such as in mountain regions and hot deserts. It occurs either through
repeated melting and freezing of water (mountains and tundra) or through expansion and
contraction of the surface layer of rocks that are baked by the sun (hot deserts). There are
two main types of physical weathering:

1. Abrasion. It occurs when rocks surface is frequently exposed to water, wind and
gravity.

2. Freeze-thaw. It occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes and
expands, eventually breaking the rock apart. It occurs in mountainous regions like
the Alps or Snowdonia. It occurs through the following process: Rainwater or snow-
melt collects in cracks in the rocks→ at night the temperature drops and the water
freezes and expands→ the increases in volume of the ice exerts pressure on the
cracks in the rock, causing them to split further open→ during the day the ice melts
and the water seeps deeper into the cracks → at night, the water freezes again.

3. Exfoliation. It can happen as cracks develop parallel to the land surface due to the
reduction in pressure during uplift and erosion. It occurs typically in upland areas
where there are exposures of uniform coarsely crystalline igneous rocks. The
following is the process of exfoliation.

The rock mass at depth is under high pressure from underlying rocks. It tends to be
uniform and lack fractures. → As progressive erosion occurs, the rock mass is subjected
to progressively lower pressure of overlying rocks which leads to tension in directions at
right angles to the land surface → this tension is relieved by formation of cracks which
follow the land surface. They are flat on plateaus but can be steep on the flanks of
 mountains which are called exfoliation domes → once the crack is developed; water
enters and causes chemical weathering leading to the formation of new low- density
minerals. This enhances the cracks and encourages slabs of rock to detach from the
surface.

B. Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is caused by rainwater reacting with the mineral grains in

rocks to form new minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These reactions occur particularly when
the water is slightly acidic. These chemical processes need water, and occur more rapidly at
higher temperatures, so warm, damp climates are best. Chemical weathering (especially
hydrolysis and oxidation) is the first stage in soil production.

There are different types of chemical weathering, the most important are:

1. Carbonation – carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater and becomes weakly acidic.
This weak “carbonic acid” can dissolve limestone as it seeps into cracks and cavities. Over
many years, the solution of the rock can form spectacular cave systems.

2. Hydrolysis – the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts.
Hydrolysis occurs when acid rain reacts with rock-forming minerals such as feldspar to
produce clay and salts removed in solution. The only common rock-forming mineral not
affected is quartz, a chemically resistant mineral. Therefore, quartz and clay are the two of
the most common minerals in sedimentary rocks.

3. Hydration – a type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically with the rocks,
modifying its chemical structure. Example: H2O (water) is added to CaSO4 (calcium sulfate)
to create CaSO4 + 2H2O (calcium sulfate dihydrate). It changes from anhydrite to gypsum.

4. Oxidation – the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron- rich rocks a
rusty-colored weathered surface.

C. Biological weathering

Biological weathering of rocks occurs when rocks are weakened by different biological
agents like plants and animals. When plant roots grow through rocks, it creates fractures and
cracks that result eventually in rock breakage. It can be classified into:

1. Biological Weathering by Physical Means. Burrowing animals like shrews,

moles and earthworms create holes in the ground by excavation and move the rock
fragments to the surface. These fragments become more exposed to other
 environmental factors that can further enhance their weathering. Furthermore, humans
also indirectly contribute to biological weathering by different activities that cause rocks
to break.

2. Biological Weathering by Chemical Compounds. Some plants and animals

also produced acidic substances that react with the rock and cause its slow
disintegration.

3 types of stresses
1. Tensional stress-pulls the rock apart, making it elongated
2. Compressional stress - squeezes the
rock make it shortened
3. Shear stress-pressure on different sides of rock, making it twisted or crumpled

Folds
A fold is when the earth's crust is pushed up from its sides.

Anticline
● An anticline occurs when a tectonic plate is compressed by movement of other
plates. This causes the center of the compressed plate to bend in an upwards
motion.
● Fold mountains are formed when the crust is pushed up as tectonic plates collide
When formed, these mountains are usually enormous like the newly formed Rocky
Mountains in Westem Canada and the United States

Syncline
● A syncline is similar to an anticline, in that it is formed by the compression of a
tectonic plate. However, a syncline occurs when the plate bends in a downward
motion.
● The lowest part of the syncline is known as the trough.
● To the top right is a diagram of a syncline fold (The bottom of the fold center is the
trough). One of an example of a syncline is in California.

Faults
A fault is when tension and compression associated with plate movement is so great that
blocks of rock fracture or break apart. This process can occur very rapidly, in the form of
earthquakes. The damage caused by this event can be very destructive and cause severe
changes to the earths surface.

● Normal Fault
This occurs when rocks move away from each other due to the land moving apart.
 When the rocks move apart, the side with the less stable tectonic plate drops below
the side with the more stable plate.

● Reverse Fault
Reverse faults are the opposite of normal faults. Rocks are compressed such that
one plate moves up while the other descends below it.
When plates compress and crack, usually the more dense one is forced under the
less dense one. This is similar to the action of the continental crust colliding with the
oceanic crust.

● Strike-Slip Fault/Tear fault

A tear fault, also known as a transform fault, occurs when two tectonic plates slide in
a lateral motion past each other.
This type of fault causes the most severe earthquakes because they grind against
each other. These earthquakes can either be shallow or deep and cause tremors
over a short or long period of time.
Conservative plate margin
Stress is d

CONTINENTAL DRIFT
● Alfred Wegener was one of several people who thought the continents looked like
they fit together, so he proposed the continental drift theory in 1912.
● According to him, the continents have drifted around the world and have once
formed a giant landmass or supercontinent called pangaea and surrounded by the
vast ocean panthalassa or superocean.
● His studies concluded that at one time all the continents were joined together in one
land mass called Pangaea :

1. Laurasia was the name given to the northern part of Pangaea

2. Gondwanaland was the name given to the southern part of Pangaea
245 Million Years Ago Pangaea existed when some of the earbest dinosaurs were
roaming the Earth, it was surrounded by a sea called Panthalassa, meaning "all sea

65 Million Years Ago By the time the dinosaurs became extinct, Laurasia and Gondwana
had split into smaller pieces
100 Million Years Ago Gradually Pangaea broke into two big pieces. The northern piece is
called Lounasia. The southem piece is called Gondwana
WHERE'S THE EVIDENCE
Wegner had 5 pieces of evidence to prove his continental drift theory:

1. PUZZLE PIECES:
The continents, especially South America and Africa, seemed to fit together like a puzzle.

2. FOSSIL EVIDENCE:
Wegener noticed that plant and animal fossils were found on different continents.

Glossopteris...seed much to large to be windblown

Mesosaurus...lived in
fresh water and could not have lived in salt water

3. ROCK EVIDENCE Huge belts of rocks found in Africa and South America were identical.
Not only were they the same, but they would match up (age, thickness, types) if the
continents were put together.
Matching Mountains The Appalachian
Mountains that disappear off the coast of Newfoundland match mountains in the British
Isles and Scandinavia which are comparable in age and structure.
Anwick

4. GLACIER EVIDENCE:
There is proof that glaciers moved from Africa, through the Atlantic Ocean, and then on
towards South
America. This would be much easier if the Atlantic Ocean were not there
South America
Antarctica

5. CLIMATE EVIDENCE:
● Warm weather plants have been found in the Arctic... but it's not warm there!
● Glacier deposits have been discovered in tropical and desert locations...it's not cold
there, either!
● The continents had to have been at different locations in the geological past.

Sea-Floor Spreading
1. Mid-Ocean Ridge - the longest chain of mountains in the world---these are divergent
plate boundaries.
divergent
3. Sea-Floor Spreading- Harry Hess in the 1960's; the
process that continually adds new material to Lithosphere the ocean floor while pushing
older rocks away from the ridge

• Ocean floor moves like a conveyor belt carrying continents with it.
• New ocean floor forms along cracks in the ocean crust as molten material erupts from the
mantle spreading out and pushing older rocks to the sides of the crack. New ocean floor is
continually added by the process of sea-floor spreading.

8. Subduction -
Process by which the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep- ocean trench and back into the
mantle; allows part of the ocean floor to sink back into the mantle

What is Plate Tectonics

● The Earth's crust and upper mantle are broken into sections called plates
● Plates move around on top of the mantle like rafts

2 Types of Plates
Ocean plates - plates below the oceans
Continental plates - plates below the continents
Divergent Boundaries
Boundary between two plates that are moving apart or rifting
RIFTING causes SEAFLOOR SPREADING

Convergent Boundaries
Boundaries between two plates that are colliding

There are 3 types

Type 1
● Oceanic plate colliding with a less dense continental plate
Subduction Zone: where the less dense plate slides under the more dense plate
VOLCANOES occur at subduction zones
Type 2

● Oceanic plate colliding with another oceanic plate

● The less dense plate slides under the more dense plate creating a subduction zone
called a TRENCH

Transform Fault
Boundaries
Boundary between two plates that are sliding past each other
EARTHQUAKES along faults