CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

TERRORISM

In its broadest sense, terrorism involves the intentional and indiscriminate use of violence to create fear or
terror among masses of people, typically for religious or political purposes. This term is primarily used to
describe violence targeted at non-combatants during peacetime or in war. The terms "terrorist" and
"terrorism" were first used during the French Revolution in the late 18th century but became more widely
known in the 1970s due to media coverage of conflicts in Northern Ireland, the Basque Country, and
Palestine. The prevalence of suicide attacks increased from the 1980s onwards, exemplified by the September
11 attacks in New York and at the Pentagon in 2001.1

There isn't a widely agreed upon definition for "terrorism." Because it's a highly charged term, often
associated with something morally wrong, it's frequently used by both governments and non-state groups to
criticize or condemn opposing groups.2 Various types of political organizations, including right-wing and left-
wing groups, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, have been
accused of engaging in terrorism to achieve their goals. Different states have passed laws regarding
"terrorism" as a crime, but there isn't a universal consensus on whether or not "terrorism," in some form,
should be considered a war crime.3

According to the Global Terrorism Database maintained by the University of Maryland, College Park, more
than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, resulting in at least 140,000 deaths, were recorded between 2000
and 2014.4

RATIONALE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Terrorism has been used throughout history by states and sub-state organizations for various political
purposes. By its very nature, terrorism involves "a ferocious violence of humans against humans". The aim of

1
Reuven Young, Defining Terrorism: The Evolution of Terrorism as a Legal Concept in International Law and Its
Influence on Definitions in Domestic Legislation, 29 B.C. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 27 (2006) and H.O. Agarwal,
“Combating International Terrorism”: States Approach’. Paper presented in the Annual Seminar of the International
Association [Indian Branch] at New Delhi held on May 26, 1986.
2
International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, adopted by the General Assembly of the
United Nations in resolution 54/109 of 9 December,1999.
3
R.K.NAYAK, TERRORISM, DRUG TRAFFICKING AND CORRUPTION’, 181 (1st ed., 2004)
4
MICHAEL O'KEEFE & C. A. J. COADY, TERRORISM AND JUSTICE: MORAL ARGUMENT IN A
THREATENED WORLD, 8 (2002)
1
this violence is to create a sense of insecurity among people. This type of violence is often referred to as the
"apex of violence" because those who carry it out pay little attention to ethical or moral considerations. 5

The World Trade Center attack on September 11th, 2001 in New York City, which resulted in the deaths of
more than 3000 people, illustrates this. Since gaining independence in 1947, India has experienced various
forms of insurgency and terrorism. The frequency and impact of these attacks have only increased over time.
India has faced terrorism in Punjab in the early 1980s and ongoing terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir, largely
stemming from cross-border activities with Pakistan.6

Terrorism has manifested through several high-profile incidents in India, including the Mumbai Bomb blasts
in 1993, the Parliament attack in 2001, and the Mumbai attacks in 2008. These events were followed by other
attacks like the one at the German Bakery in Pune in 2010, which was a grim reality check after the Mumbai
attacks.7

India is currently confronted with a significant terrorism challenge that requires urgent attention. It is crucial
to address this issue through political, economic, social, and legislative measures. The government's policies
and actions in this regard need careful examination to assess their effectiveness. 8

Terrorism represents the pinnacle of violence. It not only results in loss of life and property but also
undermines public confidence in law enforcement and the state's ability to combat such threats. It instills fear
among the population, necessitating a deeper study into the root causes of terrorism and the state's response
to it, including legislative measures.9

Although terrorism often involves ideological indoctrination and psychological factors, effective anti-
terrorism policies are essential to combating this menace. Anti-terrorism laws that empower law enforcement
agencies with detention, arrest, and prosecution tools are crucial for detecting and thwarting terrorist threats.
Proper planning and intelligence gathering are vital to prevent such coordinated attacks. 10

Analyzing existing anti-terrorism laws is important to understand their effectiveness, limitations, and
potential for abuse. While no law can entirely prevent terrorism, strong laws can help reduce and neutralize
5
S.C. TIWARI, TERRORISM IN INDIA, 71 (1990).
6
Nola Taylor Redd, World Trade Center: Ground Zero on September 11, 2001, LIVE SCIENCE (Sept. 6, 2012)
https://www.livescience.com/22994-world-trade-center.html (Last accessed on March,03, 2024
7
https://www.millenniumpost.in/putting-blast-behind-german-bakery-reopens-in-pune-27577?NI
8
Dr. V.K. Agnihotri, The Praxis of Indian Parliament: Notice on procedures in the counsel of states, NEW DELHI:
RAJYA SABHA SECRETARIAT, 55 (February, 2011) http://rsintranet.nic.in/intrars/ raxis%20final.pdf (Last accessed
on March 03, 2024
9
S.C. Res. 1566, U.N. SCOR, 59th Sess., 5053rct mtg., at 2, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1566 (2004).
10
Lisa Curtis, After Mumbai: Time to Strengthen U.S.-India Counterterrorism Cooperation, 2217 Backgrounder 1, 3
( 2008).
2
its impact. Understanding why the United States has avoided major terrorist attacks since 9/11, while India
continues to face threats, underscores the importance of effective anti-terrorism measures. 11

AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH STUDY

This research has been aimed at highlighting the various anti-terrorism policies implemented by the
government to combat terrorism and assess their effectiveness. The legislative mechanisms provided under
India's current and past anti-terrorism laws have been discussed, including their effectiveness, drawbacks, and
instances of abuse.12 India has been experiencing a rise in terrorism over the last three decades. It has been
noted that there are no foolproof solutions to completely eradicate terrorism; however, its incidence can be
reduced. Terrorism cannot be addressed solely through anti-terrorism laws and security forces but requires
proper policies such as international and regional cooperation, economic incentives, prevention of alienation,
development initiatives, and good governance.13

Previously, India was fighting terrorism on its own in the international arena, considering it a national issue.
However, by the end of the twentieth century, terrorism had become a global phenomenon. In the twenty-first
century, it has emerged as one of the greatest challenges to national security. Therefore, the research aims to
evaluate existing laws and policies on terrorism and propose improvements. 14

The objectives of this research are as follows:

1. To discuss the causes, origins, and factors contributing to terrorism in India.

2. To examine India’s current legal framework for combating terrorism.

3. To compare India's anti-terrorism laws with those of other countries.

4. To analyze the current anti-terrorism policies in India.

5. To evaluate and discuss the coordination of investigative mechanisms for addressing terrorist
activities.

11
Terrorism: Is Your Cover Affected?". Marsh. January 15, 2015. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021
12
Schmid, Alex P. (2011). "The Definition of Terrorism". The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research. Routledge.
p. 39. ISBN 978-0-203-82873-1. Archived from the original on March 29, 2024.
13
Id.
14
Id.
3
 6. To propose appropriate changes to India's anti-terrorism policy framework.

SCOPE OF RESEARCH

The definitions of terrorism and its various aspects have been researched so as to draw effective of anti-
terrorism policies in India. Additionally, the anti-terrorism laws of other nations have been examined and
compared with those in India. The researcher has aimed to cover the different policies implemented by India,
assessing their effectiveness and identifying their shortcomings. 15

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The research has been primarily focused on analyzing terrorism and its various aspects concerning India,
including its solutions, effectiveness, shortcomings, and misuse. A substantial information base exists on this
topic. The main focus of the research has been the current and past anti-terrorism laws. The sources used
include publications on anti-terrorism laws and case studies, emphasizing the necessity and effectiveness of
such laws. This research relies solely on these references. The study is based on doctrinal research alone.
Historical and analytical research methodologies were employed. 16

The research methodology used in this thesis encompasses both primary and secondary sources.

1. Primary sources consist of Indian Acts and legislations, as well as those of other nations, regional
and international agreements, and case laws.

2. Secondary sources include legal literature such as books, articles, and journals by national and
international authors. Government reports, news, and various official websites are also considered
secondary sources.17

LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Myres S. McDougal (1951)

15
Gupta, Manas Sen (May 22, 2017). "The Reason Why Facebook's AI Research Director Did Not Visit Saudi Arabia
Has Set The Internet On Fire". TopYaps. Archived from the original on December 9, 2018.
16
Anti-Teror (sic) Law No. 3713" (PDF). The Financial Crimes Investigation Board of Turkey. Archived (PDF) from the
original on March 3, 2016.
17
Linden, Edward V., ed. (2006). "2". What is Terrorism?. Focus on Terrorism. Vol. 8. Nova Publishers. pp. 23–32.
ISBN 978-1-60021-315-1.
4
The concern that human rights are a proper focus of international law and organization has been
explored. Professor Lauterpacht initiated this exploration by examining "The Subjects of the Law of
Nations," demonstrating that individual human beings have historically been regarded as "subjects"
with both rights and duties in international doctrine and practice.

2. "The Problem of the applicability of Existing International Provision of Human Rights to

individuals, who are citizens of the country in which they live," (1976)

This article has been instrumental in studying how various international Human Rights Provisions
apply to individuals within their respective countries. It includes discussions on different human
rights and their impact on individuals' lives.

3. M.K. Nawaz and Gurdip Singh (1979)

The focus of this article is international terrorism and what measures should be taken to control it. It
suggests that modern terrorism is a form of warfare against legal democracies, with terrorists aiming
to dismantle democratic institutions. The article emphasizes that combating international terrorism is
a collective responsibility that democratic states must unite to address.

4. Jack Donnelly (November 1984)

This book elucidated the concept related to the Convention on Human Rights. It is highly beneficial
for research scholars and academics conducting research in this area.

5. S. PRAKASH SINHA (1989)

This article aims to demonstrate that the primary values underpinning the international bill of human
rights are individualism and legalism. It argues that these values have historically been central to
Western civilization, unlike other civilizations such as Chinese, Japanese, Indian, African, and
Islamic civilizations. The article calls for a revision of the bill to reflect the diversity of global
civilizations today.

5
6. P.R. RAJESWARI (2000)

This article discusses the issue of terrorism as a major concern for international security, significantly
affecting India, the US, and the broader international community. The article highlights how
terrorism, in various forms like weapons acquisition and cross-border operations, poses significant
challenges transcending national borders.

7. TARA KARTHA (2000) (IDSA)

This article addresses how transnational terrorism has evolved from a peripheral issue in the 1980s to
a critical security challenge. It emphasizes that terrorism can no longer be seen as a distant concern
but is now a direct threat requiring urgent attention.

8. DEREK P JINKS (2001)

In this article, the gradual development of preventive detention laws in India is outlined, with a focus
on their evolution alongside human rights recognition on the international stage.

9. RC Aggarwala (2001)

These books focus on the implementation of Human Rights Covenants, particularly in the context of
India. They provide valuable resources for understanding international law and human rights issues.

10. Dr. VIJAY CHITNIS & OTHERS (2002)

This book serves as a comprehensive reference and research tool on the pressing issue of
international terrorism, which has inflicted significant harm on public life and property, undermining
fundamental values.

11. Dr. Bharat B. Das (December 9-10, 2002)

This book offers pertinent information on terrorism and various anti-terror laws aimed at combating
this menace effectively.

6
12. Y. Lakshmi G Rao (2002)

This article discusses how terrorism violates fundamental human rights. It underscores the
importance of understanding human values in relation to human rights before delving into the impact
of terrorism.

13. International Council on Human Rights Policy on Human Rights (2002)

This report emanates from an international seminar organized by the International Council on Human
Rights Policy in January 2002. It explores the longer-term implications of the September 11, 2001
attacks in the United States and subsequent international efforts against terrorism.

14. Dr. S.K Kapoor (2004)

This book covers provisions related to human rights and various conventions, serving as a valuable
resource for students, research scholars, and academics.

15. B.N Sharma in his book titled “India and Israel against Islamic Terrorism” (2004)

In this book, the author discusses how Palestinians used violent means, including suicide bombings,
to instill terror in Israeli civilians. The book draws parallels with India's struggle against cross-border
terrorism emanating from fundamentalist groups in Pakistan.

16. “Laws of Human Rights and Indian Constitution” in Bimal N Patel (2005)

This book explores the intersection of human rights and fundamental rights within the Indian
Constitution. It is a useful resource for students, academics, and researchers interested in these areas.

17. REUVEN YOUNG (2006)

This article examines the evolution of the international definition of terrorism and challenges the
common belief that international law lacks a clear definition of terrorism. It suggests that a core
7
definition of terrorism can be discerned from United Nations resolutions and multilateral
conventions.

18. Anil Kalhan (2006) (CJAL)

This article explores the impact of terrorism on human rights and discusses the laws in India designed
to combat terrorism effectively.

19. AG. Noorani (2007)

In this article, it is argued that terrorism is often seen as a tool used by the weak against the might of
the state. The suicide bomber is portrayed as someone driven by desperation and a deep sense of
injustice, willing to make the ultimate sacrifice.

20. Jonathan Cooper (2007) (Manual)

This manual is a product of the ODIHR's efforts to educate senior policymakers on fundamental
human rights standards they must uphold under international law when developing strategies to
combat terrorism and extremism. It serves as a practical resource for policymakers and counter-
terrorism practitioners.

21. Ashok Kumar Ray & B. J. Deb (2007)

This book compiles selected articles from a seminar on terrorism, human rights, and peace initiatives
in North East India. It provides valuable insights for research scholars, focusing on the impact of
terrorism in this region.

22. AJIT DOVAL, Islamic Terrorism in South Asia and India’s strategic Response (2007)

This article discusses the emerging convergence among Jihadist groups in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh, examining its security implications for the Indian subcontinent and the wider world.

8
23. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Human Rights,
Terrorism, and Counter-terrorism (2008)

This fact sheet emphasizes that promoting and protecting human rights and the rule of law are
integral to effective counter-terrorism strategies. It highlights the compatibility and mutual
reinforcement between counter-terrorism measures and human rights promotion.

24. SHYLASHRI SHANKAR (2009)

This book showcases significant judgments by the Indian Supreme Court related to terrorism and
includes relevant terrorism laws.

25. DEEP ANURAG (2009)

This article examines legal principles for victims of terrorism in India, noting that while Indian law
addresses victims of crime, specific provisions for terrorism victims are lacking. It is a valuable
resource for researching terrorism-related legal issues.

25. DEEP ANURAG (2009)

This article explores legal principles concerning victims of terrorism within Indian law. While Indian
legal provisions generally cover victims of crime, there are no specific provisions exclusively
addressing victims of terrorism. It serves as a valuable resource for researching legal issues related to
terrorism.

26. ACHARYA (2010)

This article focuses on terrorism and related laws in India, offering crucial insights for researchers
studying this specific topic.

27. “Enforcement of International Humanitarian Law” (2010)

9
This book provides information on various human rights and their enforcement mechanisms, making
it a valuable resource for research scholars seeking to understand human rights conventions.

28. RUPA SUBRAMANYA DEHEJIA, 2011 (WSJ)

This article investigates the impact of terrorism on economic growth, questioning whether increased
terrorism adversely affects India's economic trajectory. It highlights the immediate economic
consequences of terrorist attacks, such as loss of life and destruction.

29. JOSEPH K. YOUNG, LAURA DUGAN (2011)

This article examines the relationship between democratic regimes and terrorism, exploring why
certain democracies appear to promote terrorism while others do not. It presents an explanation based
on Tsbelis's veto players theory.

30. MICHAEL G. FINDLEY & JOSEPH K. YOUNG (2011)

This article discusses variations in terrorism across political regimes, suggesting that terrorism is
more likely in contexts where governments might abuse power in the future. It also considers the
importance of independent judiciaries in bolstering government commitments.

31. JOSEPH K. YOUNG, MICHAEL G. FINDLEY (2011)

This article employs statistical tests to analyze whether foreign aid reduces terrorism, focusing on the
effectiveness of aid targeted at specific sectors using comprehensive databases.

32. JOSEPH K. YOUNG, MICHAEL G. FINDLEY (2011)

This article addresses the growing attention to terrorism studies and identifies key issues within the
field, including definitional challenges and inappropriate research methodologies. It proposes
solutions, particularly for quantitative terrorism studies.

10
33. “Terrorism and Problem of Protection of Human Rights in India” (2011)

This research examines challenges related to protecting human rights in India, particularly in the
context of anti-terrorism laws. It offers significant recommendations for enhancing the
implementation of human rights and anti-terrorism measures.

34. ARJUN SUBRAMANIAM (2012)

This article discusses India's condition following the 26/11 attack and criticizes the absence of a clear
counter-terrorism policy articulated by the Indian government. It emphasizes the need for India to
define its stance on terrorism to dispel perceptions of being a "soft state."

35. Dr. ASHOK K. JAIN (2013)

This book compiles extensive information on human rights, including international conventions and
declarations. It is a valuable resource for students, teachers, and researchers interested in human
rights issues.

36. Prem Mahadevan (2013)

This book examines the impact of the Mumbai terror attack and similar incidents on terrorism and
counterterrorism efforts in India. The 2008 Mumbai attacks brought international, regional, and
national attention to terrorism issues in India.

37. H.O. Aggarwal (2014)

This comprehensive book covers core areas of human rights law, including a special chapter on
International Humanitarian Law. It includes relevant documents in the appendices, making it useful
for undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well as academicians, research scholars, and
policymakers.

38. URMILA BHARDWAJ (2014)

11
 This article explores terrorism's impact on human rights, particularly useful for research scholars
studying terrorism's effects on human rights.

39. MICHAEL FINDLEY, JAMES PIAZZA, JOSEPH YOUNG (2014)

This article critiques the quantitative terrorism literature for overlooking interstate relations when
analyzing predictors of transnational terrorist attacks. It highlights the limitations of focusing solely
on state, group, or individual-level factors in explaining terrorism patterns.

40. SPITI SARKAR, Human Rights Violations - An Anathema to Society

This article addresses ongoing human rights violations despite legislative measures in India. It
discusses the challenges in combating human rights abuses even with existing legal frameworks.

CHAPTERIZATION

OUTLINE

1. Introduction to Terrorism

- Definition of Terrorism

- Characteristics and Goals of Terrorism

- Impact of Terrorism on Society

- The Global Perception of Terrorism

- Key Terms and Concepts

2. History of Terrorism

- Origins and Evolution of Terrorism

- Historical Examples of Terrorism

- Impact of Historical Events on Modern Terrorism

- Notable Terrorist Acts Throughout History

12
3. Main and Richest Terrorist Organizations in the World

- Overview of Major Terrorist Organizations

- Sources of Funding for Terrorist Groups

- Global Reach and Influence of Leading Terrorist Organizations

- Strategies and Tactics Employed by Notable Groups

4. Terrorist Attacks in India

- Overview of Terrorist Incidents in India

- Major Terrorist Attacks in Different Regions of India

- Impact of Terrorism on Indian Society and Economy

- Response and Counter-Terrorism Measures by Indian Authorities

5. Timeline of the Naxalite-Maoist Insurgency

- Historical Context of Naxalite-Maoist Insurgency in India

- Key Events and Developments in the Naxalite Movement

- Government Responses and Efforts to Address the Insurgency

6. Action Process to Combat Terrorism at the International Level

- International Efforts to Combat Terrorism

- United Nations Initiatives and Resolutions Against Terrorism

- Global Counter-Terrorism Strategies and Cooperation

7. Conclusion and Suggestions

- Summary of Key Findings and Insights

- Recommendations for Effective Counter-Terrorism Policies

- Future Outlook and Challenges in the Fight Against Terrorism

13
The chapterization outlines the structure for organizing content related to terrorism, covering definitions,
historical context, major terrorist organizations, specific incidents in India, the Naxalite-Maoist insurgency,
international responses, and concluding with a summary and recommendations. Each section can be
expanded with detailed information and analysis to create a comprehensive chapter-based publication on
terrorism.

DEFINITIONS OF TERRORISM:

There is no universal agreement on the definition of terrorism. Different definitions are used by various legal
systems and government agencies. Furthermore, an agreed upon and legally binding definition has been
reluctant to be formulated by governments. These difficulties stem from the politically and emotionally
charged nature of the term18.

In the United States of America, for instance, terrorism is defined in Title 22 Chapter 38 U.S. Code § 2656f
as "premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational
groups or clandestine agents. It involves the use of violence or threat of violence in the pursuit of political,
religious, ideological, or social objectives. It can be committed by governments, non-state actors, or
undercover personnel serving on behalf of their respective governments. It extends beyond the immediate
target victims and is also directed at targets consisting of a larger spectrum of society. It is both malaprohibita
(i.e., crime that is made illegal by legislation) and malainse (i.e., crime that is inherently immoral or wrong). 19

The following criteria of violence or threat of violence fall outside of the definition of terrorism:

 Wartime or peacetime acts of violence committed by a nation-state against another nation-state

regardless of legality or illegality that are carried out by properly uniformed forces or legal
combatants of such nation-states.20
 Reasonable acts of self-defense, such as the use of force to kill, apprehend, or punish criminals who
pose a threat to the lives of humans or property.21
 Legitimate targets in war, such as enemy combatants and strategic infrastructure that are an integral
part of the enemy's war effort.22
18
Gardam, Judith Gail (1993). Non-combatant Immunity as a Norm of International Humanitarian, Martinus Nijhoff
ISBN 0-7923-2245-2.
19
Trapp, K. N. (2023). "The ICJ and International Terrorism". Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law Online. 26
(1): 534–576. doi:10.1163/18757413_02601022 (inactive January 31, 2024).
20
Ticehurst, Rupert. The Martens Clause and the Laws of Armed Conflict 30 April 1997, International Review of the
Red Cross no 317, p. 125-134 ISSN 1560-7755
21
Smelser, Neil J.; et al. (2002). Terrorism: perspectives from the behavioral and social sciences, National Academies
Press, 2002, ISBN 0-309-08612-4, ISBN 978-0-309-08612-7
22
Primoratz, Igor (2004). Terrorism: The Philosophical Issues. Palgrave Macmillan.
14
  Collateral damage, including the infliction of incidental damage to non-combatant targets during an
attack or attempting to attack legitimate targets in war. 23

There are many reasons why there is no universal consensus regarding the definition of terrorism. Angus
Martyn in a briefing paper for the Australian Parliament has stated that "The international community has
never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and
1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term foundered mainly due to differences of opinion
between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and
self-determination.24 These divergences have made it impossible to conclude a Comprehensive Convention
on International Terrorism that incorporates a single, all-encompassing, legally binding, criminal law
definition of terrorism. In the meantime, the international community adopted a series of sectoral conventions
that define and criminalize various types of terrorist activities 25. In addition, since 1994, the United Nations
General Assembly has condemned terrorist acts using the following political description of terrorism:
"Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or
particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of
a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to
justify them."26

A 2003 study by Jeffrey Record for the United States Army quoted a source (Schmid and Jongman 1988) that
counted 109 definitions of terrorism that covered a total of 22 different definitional elements. Record
continued "Terrorism expert Walter Laqueur also has counted over 100 definitions and concludes that the
'only general characteristic generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of
violence.' Yet terrorism is hardly the only enterprise involving violence and the threat of violence. So does
war, coercive diplomacy, and bar room brawls.

STATE TERRORISM

In civilization, there's a well-established but often unspoken hierarchy. Violence committed by those higher
up the hierarchy towards those lower down is usually unseen, unnoticed. If it is noticed, it's usually
justified.27 Violence by those lower down towards those higher up is unimaginable, and if it does happen, it's

23
Khan, Ali (Washburn University - School of Law. 1987). A Theory of International Terrorism, Connecticut Law
Review, Vol. 19, p. 945, 1987
24
Record, Jeffrey (December 2003). Bounding the Global War on Terrorism, December 1, 2003 ISBN 1-58487-146-6.
25
JUST Response - Ayatollah Taskhiri - Definition of terrorism". justresponse.net. Archived from the original on March
4, 2016
26
Sydney siege would have been extremely hard to predict, inquest told". The Guardian. Australian Associated Press. 26
August 2015. Archived from the original on 30 March 2016.PD
27
Harlan K. Ullman and James P. Wade, Shock And Awe: Achieving Rapid Dominance (National Defense University,
1996), XXIV.
15
met with shock, horror, and often the idolization of the victims. For instance, consider an infant crying in
Shanghai's South Station after the Japanese bombing on August 28, 1937.28

State terrorism, unlike conventional terrorism, involves acts committed by governmental agents or forces. 29 It
entails the utilization of state resources as part of a state's foreign policies, such as employing its military to
carry out terrorist acts. Examples of state terrorism include historical events like the German bombing of
London, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, and the British and American bombing of Dresden during
World War II. According to Professor Michael Stohl, terrorism is often employed by states in international
relations, with the state being more likely to engage in terrorism than insurgents. He also highlights the use of
coercive diplomacy, such as the first strike option, where the implied threat of nuclear weapons is used to
manipulate crises30. Stohl suggests that the use of state terrorism has evolved following World War II,
particularly influenced by the presence and use of weapons of mass destruction. This has led to the
normalization and acceptance of such violent behavior by states as a form of foreign policy 31.

RELIGIOUS TERRORISM

Throughout history, terrorist acts have been carried out on religious grounds with the aim of spreading or
enforcing a particular system of belief, viewpoint, or opinion. The validity and extent of religious terrorism
are determined by an individual's or group's interpretation of the teachings of that belief system. According to
the Global Terrorism Index by the University of Maryland, College Park, religious extremism has surpassed
national separatism and become the primary driver of terrorist attacks worldwide. Since 9/11, deaths from
terrorist attacks have increased fivefold. The majority of recent incidents are linked to groups with a religious
agenda. Before 2000, nationalist separatist terrorist organizations such as the IRA and Chechen rebels were
responsible for most attacks. While the number of incidents from nationalist separatist groups has remained
relatively stable, religious extremism has grown. The prevalence of Islamist groups in Iraq, Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Nigeria, and Syria is the main factor behind these trends.32

Four of the most active terrorist groups since 2001 are Boko Haram, Al Qaeda, the Taliban, and ISIL. These
groups have been particularly active in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria, and Syria. 80% of all terrorism-
related deaths occurred in one of these five countries. Terrorism in Pakistan has become a significant issue.
From the summer of 2007 until late 2009, over 1,500 people were killed in suicide and other attacks on
28
"Shock and awe – Overview". Oxford University Press. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
29
A Dossier of Civilian Casualties in Iraq 2003–2005". Iraq Body Count. July 18, 2005
30
Ullman, Harlan K. and Wade, James P. Rapid Dominance: A Force for All Seasons. Royal United Services Institute in
Defense Studies, 1998.
31
Branigin, William. "A Brief, Bitter War for Iraq's Military Officers". Washington Post, October 27, 2003.
32
Mark Juergensmeyer. From Bhindranwale to Bin Laden: The Rise of Religious Violence. Presentation at Arizona State
University/National Bureau of Asian Research Conference, October 14–15, 2004 "Religion and Conflict in Asia:
Disrupting Violence".

16
civilians, attributed to various causes including sectarian violence, the easy availability of weapons and
explosives, the existence of a culture promoting violence, and the presence of ideologically driven Muslims. 33

In 2013, in Lahore, 50 Muslim scholars issued a collective fatwa against suicide bombings, the killing of
innocent people, bomb attacks, and targeted killings, declaring them as forbidden. 34

In 2015, the Southern Poverty Law Center released a report on terrorism in the United States, finding that
during that period, more people were killed by non-Islamic domestic terrorists than jihadists. 35 The ultra-right
wing Christian Identity movement, characterized by virulent racist and anti-Semitic ideology, has been
associated with hate crimes, bombings, and other terrorist acts. Its adherents believe in a theology that
diverges from traditional Anglo-Israelism and holds themselves to "God's laws," rejecting what they perceive
as "man's laws" represented by governments they consider to be controlled by Jews and the New World
Order.36

CRIMINAL TERRORISM

Any intentional or planned criminal acts aimed at inducing fear in the public, a group of people, or
individuals for political reasons are never justifiable under any circumstances, regardless of any political,
philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious, or other motives that may be employed to support the
crime and its gains.37

POLITICAL TERRORISM

Political dissent refers to any expression designed to convey dissatisfaction with or opposition to the policies
of a governing body. Such expression may take forms from vocal disagreement to civil disobedience to the
use of violence. In most democratic countries, non-violent demonstration and disagreement with the
government are regarded as fundamental human rights. Historically, repressive governments have sought to
punish political dissent.38 The protection of freedoms that facilitate peaceful dissent has become a hallmark of
free and open societies. Repression of political dissent is considered as an attempt to stifle public discourse
33
Robert A. Pape. It's the Occupation Stupid. Foreign Policy magazine, October 18, 2010
34
Dingley, James; Kirk-Smith, Michael (Spring 2002). "Symbolism and Sacrifice in Terrorism". Small Wars &
Insurgencies. 13 (1): 102–28. doi:10.1080/714005406. S2CID 143826088.
35
Schmid, Alex P. (October 7, 2020). Brunton, Gillian; Wilson, Tim (eds.). "Discussion 1 - Revisiting the wicked
problem of defining terrorism". Contemporary Voices: St Andrews Journal of International Relations. 1 (1). Issue title:
Terrorism: Its Past, Present & Future Study - A Special Issue to Commemorate CSTPV at 25. doi:10.15664/jtr.1601.
ISSN 2516-3159. Text may have been copied from this source, which is available under a Attribution 4.0 International
(CC BY 4.0) Archived October 16, 2020, at the Wayback Machine licence. (Per this page Archived April 11, 2021, at the
Wayback Machine.
36
Hassan, Riaz (2010). Life As a Weapon: The Global Rise of Suicide Bombings. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-
58885-0.
37
Williamson, Myra (2009). Terrorism, war and international law: the legality of the use of force against Really aj 2001.
Ashgate Publishing. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-7546-7403-0. Archived from the original on March 29, 2024
38
Burgess, Mark. A Brief History of Terrorism, Center for Defense Information.
17
about government lies, corruption, or ineptitude. Several cases of oppression of political dissent in the United
States were listed in a report on the World Socialist Website from 2013. For example, a high school student
was arrested and charged under "terrorism" laws for posting lyrics on Facebook that make references to the
Boston Marathon bombing.39

U.N. GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION

A 1996 non-binding United Nations Declaration was adopted to Supplement the 1994 Declaration on
Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism. This declaration, which was annexed to the UN General
Assembly Resolution 51/210, described terrorist activities in the following terms:

"Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons, or
particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of
a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious, or any other nature that may be invoked to
justify them."

Antonio Cassese has argued that the language of this and other similar UN declarations "sets out an
acceptable definition of terrorism."

U.N. SECURITY COUNCIL

Acts of crime, including those against civilians, that are committed with the intention of causing death or
serious bodily harm, or the taking of hostages, with the aim of inducing a state of terror in the general public
or in a group of people or specific individuals, intimidating a population, or compelling a government or an
international organization to perform or refrain from performing any action, which constitutes offenses within
the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism, are not
justifiable under any circumstances by considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic,
religious, or other similar nature.40

EUROPEAN UNION

For legal or official purposes, terrorism is defined by the European Union in Article 1 of the Framework
Decision on Combating Terrorism (2002). This decision states that terrorist offenses are specific criminal acts
outlined in a list primarily consisting of severe offenses against individuals and property. These acts, due to

39
Crenshaw, Martha, Terrorism in Context
40
Uwe Steinhoff. On the Ethics of War and Terrorism p. 119 Archived October 4, 2023, at the Wayback Machine
18
their nature or circumstances, have the potential to significantly harm a country or an international
organization when committed with the intention of: intimidating a population severely, coercing a
Government or international organization into performing or refraining from specific actions, or seriously
destabilizing or destroying the fundamental political, constitutional, economic, or social structures of a
country or an international organization.

ACCORDING TO INTERNATIONAL LAW

The definition of the offense in a criminal law treaty serves several purposes. Firstly, it symbolically and
normatively expresses society's condemnation of the prohibited actions. Secondly, it facilitates agreement by
making it easier for states to agree on obligations regarding their domestic jurisdiction. This is because a clear
definition of the crime limits the obligations, reducing the cost of agreement. Thirdly, it provides a common
basis for applying the treaty's obligations in judicial and police cooperation. 41 This is crucial in extradition
treaties where both the requesting and requested states must agree on the punishable crime. Fourthly, it assists
states in creating domestic laws to criminalize and punish the acts defined in the treaty, in line with their
human rights obligations. This is important because states must precisely define prohibited acts before
prosecuting or punishing individuals for committing them, according to the principle of nullum crimen sine
lege.42

1. According to Argentina: During the Argentine National Reorganization Process dictatorship, which
lasted from 1976 to 1983, the definition of "terrorist" was expanded beyond those who set bombs and
carry guns. It was also applied to those who spread ideas opposing Christian and Western
civilization.43

2. According to France: France adopted its first "anti-terrorism" law in 1986. The current legal
definition of "acts of terrorism" in France's penal code, article 421, was established in 2016. It states
that acts of terrorism, if intentional and connected to an individual or group, with the aim of seriously
disturbing public order through intimidation or terror, include deliberate assaults on life or personal
integrity, hijacking of transportation, theft, extortion, destruction, and computer-related crimes. 44

41
The Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, "The Relationship Between International and Localized Terrorism Archived
May 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine", Vol. 4, No. 26, 28 June 2005
42
James M. Lutz and Brenda J. Lutz, Global Terrorism. London: Routledge, 2008, p. 9
43
44
Garrison, Arthur H. (2004). "Defining terrorism: philosophy of the bomb, propaganda by deed and change through
fear and violence". Criminal Justice Studies. 17 (3): 259–279. doi:10.1080/1478601042000281105. ISSN 1478-601X.
S2CID 144223748. Archived from the original on October 20, 2023
19
 3. According to India: In a 2003 ruling (Madan Singh vs. State of Bihar), the Supreme Court of India
adopted Alex P. Schmid's definition of terrorism, defining it as equivalent to wartime crimes during
peacetime. The lapsed Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act provided the following
definition: Terrorism includes acts intended to overawe the government, strike terror in the people,
alienate sections of the population, or disrupt harmony among different groups. These acts involve
the use of explosives, weapons, poisons, or other hazardous substances likely to cause death, injury,
property damage, or disruption of essential services. Additionally, detaining individuals and
threatening harm to compel actions or abstentions is considered a terrorist act. 45

45
Schmid, Alex P. (2004). "Terrorism - The Definitional Problem". Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law.
36 (2). Archived from the original on May 1, 2021. Retrieved April 9, 2021 – via Case Western Reserve University
School of Law.
Cambridge History, p. 31.
20
 Chapter- 2

A History of Terrorism

The term "terrorist," initially coined as "terrorist" by the French philosopher François-Noël Babeuf in 1794,
was first used to denounce the Jacobin regime led by Maximilien Robespierre as a dictatorship. In the years
preceding the Reign of Terror, Paris was threatened with military punishment and complete destruction if
harm came to the royal family, which only strengthened the resolve of the Revolution to abolish the
monarchy.46 Some writers' perspectives on the French Revolution soured after the abolition of the monarchy
in 1792. During the Reign of Terror, which commenced in July 1793 and lasted for thirteen months, Paris was
governed by the Committee of Public Safety, overseeing a regime of mass executions and public purges. 47

Before the French Revolution, ancient philosophers discussed tyrannicide, viewing tyranny as the greatest
political threat to Greco-Roman civilization. Medieval philosophers also pondered tyranny, though some
theologians like Thomas Aquinas made a distinction between usurpers, who could be killed by anyone, and
legitimate rulers who abused their power – the latter, in Aquinas' view, could only be punished by a public
authority. John of Salisbury was the first medieval Christian scholar to justify tyrannicide. 48

General Napoléon Bonaparte quelled the royalist rebellion in Paris on 5 October 1795, paving the way for the
Directory government in front of the Église Saint-Roch on Saint-Honoré Street. 49

Modern terrorism's roots are often traced back to the Jewish Sicarii Zealots who targeted Romans and Jews in
1st century Palestine. Its evolution is followed from the Persian Order of Assassins through 19th-century

46
'Hamas's Izz al-Din al-Qassam Brigades Archived 2015-01-07 at the Wayback Machine,' Australian National
Security:'Like its parent, Hamas is a multifaceted, well organised and relatively moderate organisation renowned for its
extensive social service networks in the Palestinian Territories.'
47
Godse India's first terrorist". The Times of India (Mumbai edition). Archived from the original on 13 October 2018.
48
Millar, S.N. 'Arab Victory: Lessons from the Algerian War (1954–62)', British Army Review No 145 Autumn 2008, p.
49
49
Reeve, Simon. One Day in September: The Full Story of the 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre and the Israeli
Revenge Operation. Arcade Publishing, 2006. P. 32.
21
anarchists.50 The term "Reign of Terror" is primarily seen as an issue of etymology. Since the 19th century
Anarchist Movement, the term "terrorism" has generally been used to describe violence by non-state actors
rather than government violence.51

In December 1795, Edmund Burke used the term "Terrorists" in describing the new French government
called the 'Directory'. The terms "terrorism" and "terrorist" regained prominence in the 1970s due to conflicts
like the Israeli–Palestinian52 conflict, the Northern Ireland conflict, the Basque conflict, and the operations of
groups such as the Red Army Faction. Leila Khaled was labeled as a terrorist in a 1970 issue of Life
magazine. Numerous books on terrorism were published in the 1970s. The subject gained further attention
after the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings and again after the 2001 September 11 attacks and the 2002 Bali
bombings.

The history of terrorism is intertwined with well-known individuals, entities, and incidents associated,
whether rightly or wrongly, with terrorism. Scholars acknowledge that terrorism is a contested term, and very
few of those labeled terrorists describe themselves as such. It is common for opponents in a violent conflict to
label the other side as terrorists or as practicing terrorism.53

The roots and practice of terrorism can be traced back at least to the 1st-century AD Sicarii Zealots, although
some dispute whether the group, which assassinated collaborators with Roman rule in the province of Judea,
was indeed terrorist. The term 'terrorism' was first used in English during the French Revolution's Reign of
Terror when the Jacobins, ruling the revolutionary state, employed violence, including mass executions by
guillotine, to enforce obedience to the state and intimidate regime enemies. 54 The association of the term
solely with state violence and intimidation persisted until the mid-19th century when it began to be associated
with non-governmental groups. Anarchism, often associated with rising nationalism and anti-monarchism,
50
"Terrorists Hijack 4 Airliners, Destroy World Trade Center, Hit Pentagon; Hundreds Dead". washingtonpost.com.
51
According to Michael Penn, (Japan and the War on Terror: Military Force and Political Pressure in the US-Japanese
Alliance, I.B. Taurus 2014 pp.205–206), Japan initially welcomed the democratic character of the elections that brought
Hamas to power, and only set conditions on its aid to Palestine, after intense pressure was exerted by the Bush
Administration on Japan to alter its policy.
52
Furstenberg, François (28 October 2007). "Opinion - Bush's Dangerous Liaisons". The New York Times
53
effrey Record. Bounding the Global War on Terrorism, December 1, 2003, ISBN 1-58487-146-6. p. 6 (page 12 of the
PDF document) citing in footnote 11: Walter Laqueur, The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass
Destruction, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 6.
54
"Council decision of 21 December 2005 implementing Article 2(3) of Regulation (EC) No 2580/2001 on specific
restrictive measures directed against certain persons and entities with a view to combating terrorism and repealing
Decision 2005/848/EC" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-14
22
was the most prominent ideology linked with terrorism. Toward the end of the 19th century, anarchist groups
or individuals carried out assassinations of a Russian Tsar and a U.S. President. 55

Throughout the 20th century, terrorism remained associated with a wide array of anarchist, socialist, fascist,
and nationalist groups, many of them engaged in 'third world' anti-colonial struggles. Some scholars also
classified as terrorist the systematic internal violence and intimidation practiced by states such as the Stalinist
Soviet Union and Nazi Germany.56

Early instances of terrorism are subject to scholarly debate, whether dating back to the 1st century with the
Sicarii Zealots, the 11th century with the Al-Hashshashin, the 19th century with the Fenian Brotherhood and
Narodnaya Volya, or other periods.57 The Sicarii and the Hashshashin are elaborated upon, while the Fenian
Brotherhood and Narodnaya Volya are discussed in the 19th Century subsection. Other pre-Reign of Terror
events sometimes associated with terrorism include the Gunpowder Plot, an attempt to destroy the English
Parliament in 1605.58

During the 1st century CE, the Jewish Zealots in Judaea Province rebelled, targeting prominent collaborators
with Roman rule. In 6 CE, according to contemporary historian Josephus, Judas of Galilee formed a more
extreme offshoot of the Zealots, the Sicarii ("dagger men"). Their efforts were also directed against Jewish
"collaborators," including temple priests, Sadducees, Herodians, and other wealthy elites. According to
Josephus, the Sicarii would conceal short daggers under their cloaks, blend into crowds at large festivals,
assassinate their victims, and then vanish into the panicked crowds. Their most notable assassination was of
the High Priest of Israel, Jonathan.59

In the late 11th century, the Hashshashin (also known as the Assassins) emerged, an offshoot of the Isma'ili
sect of Shia Muslims. Led by Hassan-i Sabbah and opposed to Fatimid rule, the Hashshashin militia seized

55
Hoffman 1998, p. 83
56
Nazi Terror Begins, United States Holocaust Museum, 20 June 2014
57
Brinkley, Joel (October 6, 1988). "Israel Bans Kahane Party From Election". The New York Times.
58
"Talking with Terrorists: Conversations with the Mau Mau - Peace and Collaborative Development Network".
Archived from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2015-10-31. "Talking with Terrorists: Conversations with the Mau
Mau - Peace and Collaborative Development Network". Archived from the original on 2015-12-08.
59
The Catholic Institute for International Relations (1987). "Right to Survive: Human Rights in Nicaragua" (print). The
Catholic Institute for International Relations.
23
Alamut and other fortress strongholds across Persia. Hashshashin forces were too small to challenge enemies
militarily, so they assassinated city governors and military commanders to create alliances with militarily
powerful neighbors. For instance, they killed Janah al-Dawla, ruler of Homs, to please Ridwan of Aleppo,
and assassinated Mawdud, Seljuk emir of Mosul, as a favor to the regent of Damascus. The Hashshashin also
carried out assassinations as retribution. Under some definitions of terrorism, such assassinations do not
qualify as terrorism since killing a political leader does not intimidate political enemies or inspire revolt. 60

The Sons of Liberty was a clandestine group formed in Boston and New York City in the 1770s with a
political agenda of independence for Britain's American colonies. The group engaged in several acts that
could be considered terroristic and utilized these deeds for propaganda purposes. 61

GUNPOWDER PLOT

The Gunpowder Plot, orchestrated by Robert Catesby and his accomplices, aimed to destroy the English
Parliament during its State Opening by King James I on November 5, 1605. A significant quantity of
gunpowder, placed beneath the Palace of Westminster, was procured and positioned by Guy Fawkes. The
intention was to execute a coup by assassinating King James I and the Parliament members, with plans to
manipulate one of the king's children as a puppet monarch and restore Catholicism in England. The plotters
rented a coal cellar beneath the House of Lords in 1604 to store the gunpowder.62

In addition to its main targets, the explosion would have resulted in the deaths of potentially hundreds or
thousands of Londoners, constituting one of Britain's most devastating acts of terrorism, sparking a religious
war. The plot was uncovered by English spymasters, leading to the apprehension of Guy Fawkes with the
gunpowder beneath Parliament. Subsequently, the other conspirators fled to Holbeach in Staffordshire, where
a confrontation with authorities resulted in the deaths of key figures including Robert Catesby, Thomas Percy,
and the Wright brothers. Fawkes and seven others were later tried and executed in January 1606. The
Gunpowder Plot, remembered annually in Britain on November 5 through fireworks displays and bonfires,
typically featuring effigies of Guy Fawkes and the Pope, is often likened to modern religious terrorism
incidents, such as those perpetrated by Islamic extremists in the United States. 63

60
Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: Harper Perennial,
2004. p.104
61
"Preparing the Battlefield" Seymour Hersh. New Yorker, July 7, 2008.
62
"Profile: Hamas Palestinian movement". BBC News. 9 May 2011.
63
Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: Harper Perennial,
2004. p.104
24
EARLY 20TH CENTUARY

In the early 20th century, Nathuram Godse, the assassin of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948, is noted as the first
terrorist of independent India. Revolutionary nationalism drove political violence throughout the 20th
century, often targeting Western colonial powers. Groups like the Irish Republican Army fought against
British rule in the 1910s, while Zionist organizations like Hagannah, Irgun, and Lehi opposed British
authority in Palestine during the 1930s. Similarly, the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt employed bombings and
assassinations in efforts to challenge British control. The women's suffrage movement in the UK also resorted
to terrorism tactics before World War I, including civil disobedience and destruction of property. Political
assassinations were frequent, claiming the lives of figures such as King Umberto I of Italy in July 1900 and
US President William McKinley in September 1901. Russia witnessed widespread political violence in the
early 20th century, with notable figures like Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin falling victim to assassination.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie in 1914 triggered a chain of
events leading to World War I. Furthermore, in the 1930s, both the Nazi regime in Germany and Stalin's rule
in the Soviet Union employed state terror tactics on a massive scale, with dissenters labeled as "terrorists." 64

64
Weinberg, Leonard (2013), Democracy and Terrorism: Friend or Foe, New York: Routledge.
25
 Chapter-3

The Main and Richest Terrorist Organization in the World

Money is the fuel for any organization's operations, whether it's for constructive purposes like building
homes or selling goods, or for carrying out horrific violent acts. A terrorist organization, similar to a
legitimate business, requires capital to sustain its activities. This includes funding general operations, paying
salaries to members, establishing training camps, procuring weapons and destructive materials, arranging
transportation, and more.

However, unlike legitimate businesses, terrorist groups cannot depend on loans or issuing stocks or bonds to
finance their activities. Instead, they resort to underground operations, circumventing and evading the
financial laws of the economic world.

Here is a compilation of some of the world's wealthiest - and most dangerous - terrorist organizations and
how they generate their funds. This list, compiled by Forbes Israel, draws from interviews with security
experts and counter-terrorism specialists, along with reports and analyses from various international NGOs,
academic and governmental institutions, and think tanks. It sheds light on the estimated financial standing of
the top ten wealthiest terrorist organizations identified by the State Department's list of Designated Foreign
Terrorist Organizations.

1. ISIS

ISIS, in its quest for the establishment of an Islamic State in several regions, has become the richest terror
organization known to the world. It is estimated that ISIS controls around $2 to $3 billion annually. The
organization generates its income through various means such as oil trade, kidnapping for ransom, collection
of protection and taxes, bank robberies, and looting.

26
Significant income is derived from oil smuggling, with ISIS controlling vast oil reserves in Syria and major
oil and gas reserves in Iraq. Despite selling oil at reduced prices on the black market, ISIS earns
approximately $3 million per day. Looting during occupations also contributes to their wealth, with valuable
assets stolen from banks, museums, and ancient sites

Another revenue stream for ISIS is kidnapping foreigners and demanding ransom payments from
governments, totaling around $125 million in recent years. Additionally, the organization controls extensive
territories in Iraq and Syria, covering about a third of Iraq's land and a quarter of Syria's, which includes
strategic assets like agricultural areas, factories, power plants, and dams.

However, ISIS has yet to fully exploit its economic potential due to the lack of an organized system for tax
collection and resource utilization in the territories under its control. Establishing such a system would
further enhance ISIS's financial capabilities.

2. HAMAS

Hamas's main sources of funding include taxes, fees, financial aid, and donations, particularly from Qatar.

The purpose of Hamas is the militant struggle against the state of Israel and the establishment of a Palestinian
Islamic state from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River. Hamas was propelled into prominence with its
militant coup and takeover of the Gaza Strip in 2007. Within a short span, Hamas transformed from relying
on donations to becoming a significant economic entity. Approximately 15% of Gaza's economy now funnels
into Hamas's coffers through taxes on goods and consumer items, as well as licensing fees. Previously
allocated to the Palestinian Authority, taxes now flow to Hamas.

Despite common assumptions, Hamas's revenue is not primarily derived from smuggling tunnels beneath the
Egyptian border, which were effectively eradicated by Egypt's General al-Sisi. Donations from Qatar and Iran
have also dwindled in significance. Instead, Hamas generates substantial income through a sophisticated tax
system, intercepting a considerable portion of international aid to Gaza. For instance, Hamas levies taxes on
money changers converting foreign currency to shekels, yielding tens of millions. Moreover, Hamas oversees
numerous businesses spanning real estate, insurance, banking, tourism, fish farming, and banquet halls.
Employing Mafia-like tactics, Hamas eliminates competition and assumes control over lucrative ventures,
27
such as banquet halls. It has also taken control of several banks, mandating alignment with these institutions
for anyone conducting government-related business in Gaza.

Hamas's total revenue from taxes, fees, duties, and its business operations, both directly and through proxies,
is estimated at half a billion dollars. Additionally, Hamas receives private donations from global businesses
and organizations, with Qatar emerging as a primary benefactor, providing hundreds of millions annually.

3. FARC

Main funding sources include drug production and trafficking, kidnapping for ransom, mining of minerals
(especially gold), and collection of fees and taxes.

The purpose is the elimination of the capitalist regime and the establishment of a Marxist-socialist welfare
state. FARC, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, is considered an underground Marxist and anti-
imperialist activist and has been a key player in the bloody struggle that has ravaged Colombia for more than
50 years.

While it has lost some of its power in recent years due to a series of assassinations and arrests of senior
activists, it is still considered the largest underground organization and the strongest in Colombia. At the
same time, it is also considered a significant political player, and negotiations have been conducted with the
government for years, aiming to end the conflict.

Approximately 30% of Colombia's territory is currently under FARC's control, especially in the jungles of the
southeast, where it operates one of the world's largest drug trafficking networks. According to a special report
by the US Department of Justice, FARC's production and trade network is responsible for over 50% of the
global cocaine trade, with around 60% of cocaine smuggled from Colombia to the United States originating
from FARC's drug laboratories. It is estimated that FARC generates about $500 million annually from drug
deals alone.

28
Another significant source of financing for the Colombian guerrilla organization is kidnapping for ransom,
primarily targeting wealthy businessmen and public figures for political purposes. In 2008, Amnesty
International estimated that around 700 people were held captive by the organization, with other estimates
suggesting that between 1997 and 2007, approximately 6,800 people were abducted by FARC.

Additionally, FARC is involved in illegal mining of minerals, mainly gold, as well as the collection of taxes,
transfer fees, and protection money, with an estimated annual turnover in the tens of millions of dollars.

4. HEZBOLLAH

Hezbollah was established as a militant group to fight for the Shi‘ite population in Lebanon and against
Israel. Like Hamas, it has a strong political arm that has become one of the major powers in Lebanon. Relief,
welfare, education, and livelihood are provided to large segments of the Shi‘ite population in need through
Hezbollah's network of nursing institutes. Over the years, Hezbollah has become a dominant factor in
southern Lebanon, creating a state within a state and becoming a major force in national politics, as well as a
key component in the government and military force. Hezbollah's main sponsor is the Iranian regime, which
donates an estimated $250 million annually to the organization. However, Hezbollah has diversified its
sources of capital, including donations from private businessmen, fundraising by charities in disguise, and
involvement in real estate and tourism. Its organized criminal activities, particularly drug manufacturing and
smuggling, have become a highlight of Hezbollah's business portfolio. These activities span the globe, from
South America through Africa, Europe, the Far East, Australia, and the Middle East. Despite denials,
evidence has linked Hezbollah to drug trafficking organizations in Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay.
Hezbollah's involvement in drug activities in South America began in the early 1980s and has gained
momentum in recent years, generating hundreds of millions of dollars annually. Experts estimate that
Hezbollah will soon generate more money from its drug activities than from all of its other income sources
combined.

5. TALIBAN

The main funding sources include drug trafficking (primarily opium and heroin production), sponsorship
fees, taxes, financial assistance, and donations. Afghanistan was ruled by the Taliban, a militant political
movement, from 1996 to 2001, implementing Sunni Islamic Sharia law. Despite facing allegations of
corruption and discrimination, the Taliban gained popularity after overthrowing the government in September
29
1996. Upon seizing power, Sharia law was harshly enforced, particularly affecting women who were
confined to their homes, barred from education, and mandated to wear burqas. Public punishments, such as
shootings for adultery, were common, along with bans on music and TV and punishments for insufficient
beard length. Even before the 9/11 attacks, the Taliban harbored Al Qaeda. The US invasion post-9/11 ended
Taliban rule. The leadership sought refuge in the Tora Bora Mountains and began rebuilding. Remarkably,
despite being seemingly defeated by the US, the Taliban resurged, challenging US forces and NATO, aided
by an underground financial system. Since losing power in 2001, the Taliban established a vast drug network,
making Afghanistan the top opium exporter. While not directly involved in drug production, the Taliban
profits from protection payments made by every link in the drug chain, amounting to hundreds of millions
annually. To diversify funding, the Taliban seeks donations from Middle Eastern countries, with estimates
reaching up to $100 million yearly. Additionally, they levy fees and taxes on crop farmers and control various
checkpoints.

6. AL-QAEDA

The formulation of a unified Islamic front against Western-secular forces and the global jihad against
Christians and Jews were pursued as purposes. A profound change in the Western world's attitude towards
Islam was brought about by Al-Qaeda, considered one of the most lethal terror organizations.

Contrary to conventional wisdom, the major benefactor in the establishment of the organization was not
Osama bin Laden, the brains behind the terrorist network and son to one of Saudi Arabia's wealthiest
families. Huge sums of money were raised, mainly through private donations from Saudi businessmen, with
the assistance of the Taliban, who provided shelter and basic support to Bin Laden. Clever utilization of his
extensive network of contacts among elites in Saudi Arabia and the Emirates aided him in this endeavor.

Tens of millions of dollars were raised by Bin Laden through Islamist organizations, charities, mosques,
religious institutions, websites, banks, and other financial institutions to finance Al-Qaeda. Just before 9/11,
the annual capital flow to Al-Qaeda was estimated by the CIA to be about $30 million.

After the spectacular attack on US soil and the declaration of war, funding sources dried up almost
completely, and income dwindled significantly. Despite this, Al-Qaeda, the organization that patented the idea

30
of global jihad and global terrorism, built a tremendous reputation around the world for its murderous
actions. It soon incorporated dozens of terrorist groups under its wings, taking advantage of its "brand" and
reputation.

According to the US Bureau of Counterterrorism, Al-Qaeda has a number of main branches that coordinate
their activities with the central headquarters based in Pakistan-Afghanistan. These include Al-Qaeda
Maghreb, Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula, and Al-Qaeda in Iraq and Syria. In addition, Al-Qaeda works in
close cooperation and mutual sharing of intelligence, money, weapons, and personnel with dozens of terrorist
organizations worldwide.

Today, Al-Qaeda is a decentralized body with low financial resources and only partial control over its
subsidiaries. Funding is received directly by the leaders of Al-Qaeda in Pakistan and Afghanistan from its
affiliates, especially Al-Qaeda in the Maghreb, considered the richest among the branches. Kidnapping and
ransom are its most lucrative enterprise, generating tens of millions of dollars. Its strategic control of large
areas of West Africa and a network of close contacts with local tribes have made it a major player on the drug
trade routes from Latin America to Europe.

7. LASHKAR-E-TAIBA

The immediate release of Kashmir, India, and integration with Pakistani Kashmir under Islamic rule is
desired. Lashkar-e-Taiba, known as the "army of the righteous" to its followers, is considered one of the
dominant groups in Southeast Asia. Its goal is to free Indian Kashmir and integrate it with Pakistani Kashmir
under Islamic rule, while implementing Sharia law and establishing a caliphate. Although militant activity
today is mainly focused in the State of Jammu-Kashmir in northern India, the organization's global ambition,
as declared, is the destruction of the Indian Republic and the complete elimination of Hindus, Christians, and
Jews - considered "the greatest enemies of Islam."

Founded as the military wing of the "Markaz al-Dawa" - an Islamic missionary organization that opposed the
Soviet presence in Afghanistan - its focus shifted to terrorist activities against military and civilian targets in
Indian Kashmir after the withdrawal of the Soviet army. Despite Pakistan's denials, analysts and intelligence
experts confirm that during the 1990s, one of the main supporters of the organization was Pakistan's ISI

31
intelligence agency, which likely provided training, weapons, and funding to apply effective pressure on the
Indian government. With the signing of a ceasefire between India and Pakistan, the group - strongly opposed
to the deal - initiated a series of terrorist attacks to undermine the fragile agreement between the two nuclear
powers.

Under heavy American pressure, Pakistan banned the group, seized its assets, and persecuted its activists and
leaders. Despite arrests, leaders were often released shortly afterward. Despite outwardly intensive efforts
against it, Lashkar-e-Taiba continues its operations and raises money, estimated at tens of millions of dollars
annually. According to the US State Department, the group receives heavy funding from Pakistani
expatriates, mainly from communities in the Gulf States and the United Kingdom, as well as from
businessmen, tycoons, Indian mafia, and other terrorist groups. Additionally, the group controls millions of
dollars flowing into funds and charities operating under the umbrella of the organization. Some experts still
maintain that Pakistani government officials are still funding the "army of the righteous."

8. AL SHABAB

The purpose was to remove foreign forces from Somalia and establish an Islamic caliphate.

Al-Shabab, founded in 2006, is the largest militant organization in Somalia. It was founded as the military
arm of the United Islamic Courts, an Islamist opposition to the weak regime. Today, the aim is to overthrow
the government, eliminate foreign forces from the country (Ethiopia and Kenya backed by the US), and
establish an Islamic caliphate in Somalia under Sharia law. A series of deadly attacks, including car
bombings, shootings, and suicide bombings targeting civilians and military personnel in Somalia, Ethiopia,
and Kenya, has been carried out by al-Shabab.

Apart from hundreds of attacks within the country, the group has also been responsible for attacks outside
Somalia, including the 2013 attack on the Westgate Mall in Nairobi, which claimed the lives of more than 60
people and injured hundreds.

Al-Shabab operatives, who controlled most parts of the country until 2006, collect taxes and ransom from the
population under their control. Until 2011, they held parts of the capital Mogadishu, gaining profits from

32
taxes and ransom. Until 2012, they controlled Makisamui, the third most important port city in the Horn of
Africa, taking advantage of one of the world's busiest trade routes.

Somali extremist organization holds a number of airports and small ports, using them as hubs of illegal trade
and pirate activity. Al-Shabab is also involved in mining, mainly coal, and enjoys generous donations from
Somali expatriates.

9. REAL IRA

The purpose of releasing Northern Ireland and creating a united Irish state, including both Northern Ireland
and Ireland, is sought after. The Real IRA, a radical faction of the IRA (Irish Republican Army), was
established by activists who opposed the peace agreement signed in April 1998. This faction is considered the
strongest resistance organization operating against the British and is defined as a terrorist organization by the
EU and the USA.

The Real IRA sees itself as a follower of the mythical IRA and aims to separate from the United Kingdom
and establish a united Irish state, which also encompasses the northern region of the island. The group is
mainly active against the British army and the Northern Irish police, being responsible for several deadly
terrorist attacks.

The deadliest terrorist attack in the history of the conflict was the car bomb explosion in Omagh in August
1998, which killed 29 people and wounded 220. The murder of two British soldiers in March 2009, the first
to be killed in Ireland since the peace agreement, was also attributed to this group. The Real IRA was
responsible for a number of attacks in central London, including an RPG rocket assault on the central
headquarters of MI6 (British intelligence organization) and a car bomb explosion in front of the headquarters
of the BBC.

The Irish terrorist group is based in Dublin, overseeing a global network of smuggling and illegal trade in
various goods, ranging from electronics and oil barrels to cigarettes and cattle. A few years ago, an Irish-
American businessman was arrested for smuggling 350 thousand cartons of cigarettes from Panama to

33
Ireland, worth 3.6 million pounds. This arrest exposed the main funding arteries of the organization, which
generates about $10 million annually.

According to a US State Department global terrorism report, another significant source of capital for the
organization is the Irish-American population, numbering about 35 million people (seven times the
population of Ireland itself). The group raises funds from supporters among Irish-American activists who
oppose the peace agreement. Some of them, according to the report, are dissatisfied with financial support
and engage in procuring illegal weapons and smuggling them to the group members. Other sources of income
include fraud, money laundering, and bank robberies.

10. BOKO HARAM

The objective was to fight secularism and Western influences, overthrow Christian-secular rule, and establish
Islamic law in Nigeria.

If there is a group that succeeds in rivaling ISIS brutality, it is Boko Haram. The Nigerian-Islamic
organization, whose name means "Western education is sin," opposes education based on Western values,
which it believes contradicts the Islamic faith. Established in 2002 by a union of armed gangs in the suburbs
of the city of Maiduguri in northeastern Nigeria, it seeks to overthrow the current regime and replace it with a
law based on the spirit of Islam and Sharia law. Under the leadership of its founder, Mohammed Yusuf, a
radical cleric and charismatic preacher, the group skillfully exploits the severe poverty of the local population
and the corruption of the government.

After the assassination of Yusuf and under the direction of the new leader, Abu Bakar Macau, the group's
barbaric actions of cruelty only increased, including random slaughter of civilians and merciless murderous
attacks on Christian institutions and religious educational institutions. Alongside "conventional" terrorist
attacks, including suicide bombings and car bombs, the group carried out diabolical actions that redefine the
concept of terrorism. Chilling testimonies of survivors tell of heavily armed militias raiding villages and
indiscriminately slaughtering women and children. Other testimonies tell of drivers being pulled out of their
vehicles and massacred in cold blood, or of horrible executions through beheading by chainsaws. In one – but
not the only – shocking case that took place in the town of Gwoza, Islamist militants took control of the

34
agricultural school dormitories, locked students inside, and set it on fire. The result was a blood-curdling 60
charred bodies of young men and children.

Kidnapping Western citizens and local women is generally the main method by which the group raises
money. This tactic is very common, with the group succeeding in demanding and receiving millions of
dollars for every hostage. The Cameroon government has recently announced the release of 27 people
kidnapped by the organization, including the wife of the Deputy Prime Minister and ten Chinese citizens, and
very large sums of money changed hands. Since human trafficking thrives in those regions of Africa, and the
demand for women is higher than ever, Boko Haram can receive millions of dollars for the 219 Christian girls
that were kidnapped from their school in the town of Chibok, for example. In a video distributed by the
organization's leader, the group announced its intention to sell them as slaves if their demands are not met.

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 Chapter-4

Terrorist Attacks in India

Mandwi Massacre

The Mandwi Massacre refers to the general massacre of the Bengalis in Mandwi village near Agartala in the
Indian state of Tripura on 8 June 1980, carried out by tribal insurgents. Official figures state that 255 Bengalis
were massacred in Mandwi, while other sources estimate the figure to be anywhere between 350 and 400.
Many victims suffered head injuries and limb amputations. Children were impaled, and pregnant women had
their abdomens slit open. The Mandwi massacre was described by the Amrita Bazar Patrika as surpassing the
severity of the My Lai massacre. According to Major R. Rajamani, the commander of the Indian army
contingent that arrived on 9 June, the Mandwi massacre was even more gruesome than My Lai.

Meenambakkam Bomb Blast

The Meenambakkam Bomb Blast occurred on August 2, 1984, at Meenambakkam International Airport in
Chennai, Tamil Nadu. The bombing resulted in the deaths of 33 people and injuries to 27 others. The Tamil
Eelam Army (TEA) was suspected of orchestrating the bombing, and later, some of its members were
convicted for it.

TEA, formed in 1983 with the aim of establishing a Tamil Eelam, had approximately 1,300 volunteers. After
facing difficulties, Kathiresan and about 130 others escaped to Tamil Nadu to continue their struggle.
However, the Meenambakkam blast, their initial act of subversion, occurred accidentally.

The bombs were placed on a plane bound for Lanka with the intention of detonating them at the Lanka
airport by the accused Kathiresan. The timer was set for around 11 PM when Air Lanka flight UL-122 was

36
scheduled to arrive at Colombo airport. The aircraft was supposed to depart from Chennai airport at 8:10 PM
that day.

Their plan was to detonate the bomb after the luggage had been unloaded from the plane and sent to the cargo
complex. Police stated that the blast's intensity would have destroyed at least six planes at the airport.

The primary accused, Kathiresan, purchased a ticket for the Air Lanka flight but did not board it. With the
assistance of individuals including a Sri Lankan, Thambiraja, Saravana Bhavan (a film actor and flying club
member), Chandra Kumar (an Airport Security constable), Loganathan (an unauthorized porter at
Meenambakkam airport), and Vijayakumar (Air Lanka office peon at Meenambakkam), Kathiresan attempted
to send the luggage through the conveyor for customs clearance. However, the luggage mistakenly ended up
on a flight to London instead of the Air Lanka flight, as the passenger did not show up for identification.

When the Air Lanka flight took off from Meenambakkam airport around 8:15 PM and their plan failed, the
accused, who were observing the situation from within the airport, went to Guindy and made repeated calls to
warn the airport authorities about the bombs in the luggage. Despite police attempts to retrieve the luggage, a
customs inspector objected to handing over the baggage, mistaking it for containing gold biscuits. Two calls
were made by TEA volunteers warning about explosives in the luggage that would detonate around 11 PM. It
was only after the third call that the customs inspector agreed to hand over the suitcase. However, by then, it
was too late. The blast occurred around 10:50 PM, killing over 27 transit passengers bound for Sri Lanka and
six airport security officials.

The Crime Branch CID police arrested 10 individuals in the case, while a Sri Lankan national named Sree
was absconding. Three accused—Kathiresan, Vigneswara Raja, and Thambiraja—jumped bail. The District
Sessions Judge, Chengalpattu, convicted five accused—Saravana Bhavan, Loganathan, Vijay Kumar,
Balasubramaniam, and Chandra Kumar—who were sentenced to life imprisonment.

1997 RUDRAPUR BOMBINGS

37
The bombings in Rudrapur in 1991 were carried out by suspected terrorists. Two bombs were detonated on
October 17, 1991. The first explosion occurred while people were watching the Ramlila in the public ground.
After 15 minutes, the second bomb exploded near the hospital where the injured were being treated. Over 40
people were killed, and 140 were injured in the bombings. Later, responsibility for the bombings was claimed
by BSTK and the Khalistan National Army.

ASSASINATION OF RAJIV GANDHI

The assassination of Rajiv Gandhi, former Prime Minister of India, took place due to a suicide bombing in
Sriperumbudur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, on Tuesday, May 21, 1991. At least 14 others were also killed. It
was carried out by Thenmozhi Rajaratnam, also known as Dhanu, a member of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam (LTTE), a militant organization from Sri Lanka. At that time, India had just ended its involvement in
the Sri Lankan Civil War through the Indian Peace Keeping Force. Subsequent accusations of conspiracy
have been addressed by two commissions of inquiry and have led to the downfall of at least one national
government.

1993- BOMBAY BOMBINGS

The 1993 Bombay bombings were a series of 12 bomb explosions that occurred in Mumbai, India, then
known as Bombay, on 12 March 1993. The coordinated attacks were carried out in revenge for earlier riots
that resulted in the deaths of many people, mostly Muslims, and were the most destructive bomb explosions
in Indian history. These were the first serial bomb blasts of their kind in the world. The single-day attacks
resulted in 257 fatalities and 713 injuries. It was announced by the then-Chief Minister of Maharashtra,
Sharad Pawar, that there had been thirteen blasts, including a fictitious bomb in a Muslim quarter of the city,
to prevent the events from taking on a communal hue. The attacks targeted hotels, office buildings, banks,
petrol pumps, markets, etc.

The attacks were coordinated by Dawood Ibrahim, the leader of the Mumbai-based international organized
crime syndicate, D-Company. Ibrahim was believed to have ordered and helped organize the bombings
through his subordinates Tiger Memon and Yakub Memon.

38
After over 20 years of judicial proceedings, the Supreme Court of India gave its judgment on 21 March 2013.
It upheld the death sentence against suspected ringleader Yakub Memon while commuting the previous death
sentences against 10 others to life in prison. However, the main suspects in the case, Ibrahim and Tiger
Memon, have not yet been arrested or tried. After India's three-judge Supreme Court bench rejected his
curative petition, stating that the grounds raised by him do not fall within the principles laid down by the apex
court in 2002, the Maharashtra state government executed Yakub Memon on 30 July 2015.

1993 BOMBING OF RSS-OFFICE, CHENNAI

The bombings in Rudrapur in 1991 were carried out by suspected terrorists. Two bombs were detonated on
October 17, 1991. The first explosion occurred while people were watching the Ramlila in the public ground.
After 15 minutes, the second bomb exploded near the hospital where the injured were being treated. Over 40
people were killed, and 140 were injured in the bombings. Later, responsibility for the bombings was claimed
by BSTK and the Khalistan National Army.

BRAHMAPUTRA-MAIL TRAIN BOMBING

The Brahmaputra Mail train bombing, which occurred on December 30, 1996, was a terrorist attack on a train
traveling in Western Assam in Eastern India. The attack resulted in the total destruction of three train
carriages and the derailment of six more, leading to the death of at least 33 people. The bomb, whose
composition remains unknown, had been placed next to a line of track between Kokrajhar and Fakiragram
stations. It is likely that a remote control device was used to detonate the bomb, timed to cause maximum
destruction as the Brahmaputra Mail passenger service to New Delhi passed by at high speed.

Official reports stated that 33 people were killed in the explosion. However, due to the remote location of the
blast and government efforts to downplay the impact of the attack, some commentators have questioned this
figure. It has been suggested by some that a more likely figure is around 100 fatalities.

The Indian government attributed the attack to an Assamese separatist organization, the Bodo Security Force,
although they have not admitted guilt.

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1998 COIMBATORE BOMBINGS

The 1998 Coimbatore bombings, which occurred on Saturday, 14 February 1998, in the city of Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India, resulted in the death of 58 people and injuries to over 200 others due to 12 bomb attacks
at 11 locations within a 12 kilometers radius. The explosives, identified as gelatin sticks activated by timer
devices, were concealed in various vehicles and containers such as cars, motorcycles, bicycles, bags, and fruit
carts. Numerous unexploded bombs were neutralized by bomb disposal squads from the Army, National
Security Guards, and Tamil Nadu Commando School.

These bombings followed earlier riots in the city in November - December of the preceding year, stemming
from a violent clash between Muslims, led by the radical group Al Umma, and the police, resulting in the
deaths of 18 Muslim rioters by police firing and the murder of 2 police officers. These riots were triggered by
the killing of a traffic policeman named Selvaraj by a member of the radical Islamist group Al Ummah.
Investigations revealed that the bombings were part of a larger conspiracy aimed at targeting L.K. Advani, the
leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party, during his election meeting at 4 p.m. on that day.

A judicial committee, formed on 7 April 2000 under Justice P.R. Gokulakrishnan to investigate the case,
confirmed that Al Ummah was responsible for the attacks. The committee presented its final report to the
Tamil Nadu Assembly on 18 May 2000, and the recommendations were principally accepted by the state
government. The trial commenced on 7 March 2002, during which around 1,300 witnesses were examined. S.
A. Basha, identified as the mastermind behind the bombings, was found guilty of conspiring to trigger the
explosions on 14 February 1998 and was sentenced to life imprisonment along with 12 others. In September
2002, Imam Ali and four other suspects linked to the bombings were killed in a police encounter in
Bangalore.

2000 CHRUCH BOMBINGS

In the year 2000, a series of bombings occurred at churches in the southern Indian states of Karnataka, Goa,
and Andhra Pradesh. These bombings were carried out by the Islamist extremist group Deendar Anjuman and
are referred to as The 2000 Church bombings.

 On May 21, 2000, a Christian congregation in Machilipatnam was bombed. On May 28, 2000, bombs
exploded in churches at Medak and Vikarabad.

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  On June 8, 2000, two bombs exploded at St. Anne's Church in Wadi. The church sustained damage,
and two people were injured.
 On June 9, 2000, a bomb exploded in St. Andrew's Church in Vasco, Goa.
 On July 8, 2000, two churches were bombed in Andhra Pradesh, Gewett Memorial Baptist Church in
Ongole and Mother Vannini Catholic Church in Tadepalligudem town. The blast at the Ongole
church injured three persons.
 On July 8, 2000, a blast occurred at St. John's Lutheran Church in Hubballi. On July 9, 2000, a bomb
exploded at St. Peter Paul Church in Bengaluru.
 On July 9, 2000, a bomb went off accidentally while the terrorists were transporting them in a Maruti
van.

2001 JAMMU AND KASHMIR LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY CAR BOMBING

The attack on the Jammu and Kashmir State Legislative Assembly complex in Srinagar, carried out by three
militants belonging to Jaish-e-Mohammed, occurred on Monday, 1 October 2001. It involved a Tata Sumo
loaded with explosives being driven into the main gate by three fidayeen suicide bombers. In this attack, 38
people and three fidayeen were killed. The attack happened at around 2 pm, one hour after the close of
business. One terrorist attacker drove the vehicle to the main entrance and detonated it, while the other
militants entered the building and took control. The militants were all killed during the subsequent hours-long
gun battle. Fortunately, no lawmakers were killed because they were meeting in temporary facilities due to
recent damage to the legislature building from a fire. Many senior leaders had already evacuated the building,
and the speaker, Mr. Abdul Ahad Vakil, was safely escorted by security forces.

2002 RAGHUNATH TEMPLE BOMBINGS

The 2002 Raghunath Temple bombings, which occurred in Jammu, India, refer to two terrorist attacks carried
out by fidayeen. The Raghunath Temple, constructed by Maharaja Ranbir Singh in 1860 and dedicated to the
Hindu god Rama, was targeted in these attacks.

 MARCH ATTACK

The temple was first attacked on March 30, 2002, by two suicide bombers, resulting in the deaths of
eleven individuals, including three security personnel, and injuries to twenty others. The attack took place

41
 around 10:20 AM when the terrorists arrived and fired at the guards, resulting in their immediate demise.
Subsequently, the temple was invaded, a grenade was thrown, and indiscriminate firing targeted the
worshippers. Upon exhausting their ammunition, one of the attackers, wearing a suicide vest, detonated
himself. The then Minister of State for External Affairs of India, Omar Abdullah, attributed the terrorist
attacks on the Raghunath temple in Jammu to Pakistan and dismissed the withdrawal of troops from the
border, citing Islamabad's lack of action to justify such a move.

 NOVEMBER ATTACK

The temple was attacked for the second time on November 24, 2002, by a fidayeen suicide squad,
resulting in the deaths of fourteen devotees and injuries to forty-five others. Witnesses reported that the
terrorists threw grenades and fired indiscriminately at the heavily guarded Raghunath temple. India held
the Pakistan-based militant group, Lashkar-e-Taiba, responsible for the attack. Deputy Prime Minister Lal
Krishna Advani of India attributed the recent release of the chief of Lashkar-e-Taiba, Hafiz Muhammad
Saeed, by the Pakistani government to the attack.

The personnel of Central Reserve Police Force, including Yatindra Nath Rai, Assistant Commandant, Dev
Singh, Head Constable, E.G. Rao, Head Constable, T.A. Singh, Constable, and the late K.K. Pandey,
Constable, exhibited remarkable gallantry, courage, and devotion to duty of a high order. K.K. Pandey
was posthumously awarded the President's Police Medal for Gallantry, while Yatindra Nath Rai, Dev
Singh, E.G. Rao, and T.A. Singh were honored with the Police Medal for Gallantry.

2002 MUMBAI BUS BOMBING

At 18:45 IST on Monday, December 2, 2002, a bomb, which had been placed under a seat of a B.E.S.T. bus,
exploded near the busy Ghatkopar station. The bomb, situated at the rear of the bus near the station, resulted
in the deaths of two individuals and caused injuries to over 50 people. As Ghatkopar was the final stop, all
passengers on the bus had already disembarked, and those intending to board for the return trip had not yet
entered the bus. The victims were among those present in the bustling station area.

The location of the first Ghatkopar Bus Bombing was Mumbai, India, on December 2, 2002.

42
Subsequently, an unexploded bomb was defused by the police from another B.E.S.T. bus in the SEEPZ
industrial area at Andheri. The individuals convicted in the Mumbai bombings of August 25, 2003, including
the twin bomb blasts in Zaveri Bazaar and Gateway of India, confessed to planting the unexploded bomb in
the bus at the SEEPZ area in suburban Mumbai. Several young men were arrested in connection with the
blast, but all were later acquitted in the subsequent trial. One of the arrested individuals, Khwaja Yunus,
purportedly escaped from police custody. It is now believed that Khwaja Yunus died in police custody as a
result of torture. The accused policemen are currently undergoing trial in a fast-track court.

25 AUGUST 2003 MUMBAI BOMBINGS

The twin carbombings in Mumbai, India, on August 25, 2003, resulted in the deaths of 54 people and injuries
to 244 others. One of the bomb explosions occurred at the Gateway of India, a major tourist attraction, while
the other went off in Zaveri Bazaar, a jewelry market near the Mumba Devi temple in central Mumbai. Both
bombs were planted in parked taxis and detonated during lunch hour. Initially, no group claimed
responsibility for the attack, but it was blamed on the Kashmir rebel group and the Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-
Toiba.

On August 31, 2003, three suspects—Ashrat Ansari, Haneef Sayyed, and his wife Fahmeeda—were arrested.
All three were convicted and sentenced to death in August 2009 by a special POTA court in Mumbai. Later,
the death sentence was upheld by the Bombay High Court in February 2012. Haneef was recruited in Dubai,
UAE, by Pakistani nationals to avenge anti-Muslim riots in India. His wife assisted in choosing targets, while
Ansari planted the bomb at Zaveri Bazaar.

2005 DELHI BOMBINGS

The 29 October 2005 Delhi bombings took place in Delhi, India, on 29 October 2005. They resulted in the
deaths of 62 people and injuries to at least 210 others in three explosions. The bombings occurred just two
days before the significant festival of Diwali, which is celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs, and Jains. The bombs
were activated in two markets in central and south Delhi and on a bus in the Govindpuri area in the south of
the city. Indian investigators believe that the attacks were carried out by the Kashmiri separatist/Islamic
terrorist group Lashkar-e-Taiba.

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2005 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE SHOOTING

The December 2005 IISc shooting took place on Wednesday, 28 December 2005 at the Indian Institute of
Science (IISc) in Bangalore, India. It resulted in the death of Prof. Munish Chandra Puri from IIT Delhi and
injuries to four others, caused by two or more unidentified gunmen who fired at Puri and others. The shooting
was declared a terrorist attack by the state government of Karnataka, marking it as the first such attack in
Bangalore.

The incident occurred on the campus of the Indian Institute of Science. Around 7:00 pm local time (1:30 pm
GMT), two individuals entered the campus in a white Ambassador car. At approximately 7:20 pm, attendees
of the International Conference on Operations Research: Applications in Infrastructure Development,
organized by the Operations Research Society of India at the JN Tata Auditorium on the IISc campus, were
on their way to dinner when the shooting began. A gunman, dressed in a black mask and army uniform,
started firing indiscriminately from a rifle believed to be a Chinese Type 56, outside the auditorium.

Munish Chandra Puri, a Professor Emeritus in the mathematics department of the Indian Institute of
Technology in New Delhi, was wounded by bullets. He passed away while being transported to the hospital.
Three other scientists and a lab assistant were also injured. One of the injured was a pregnant woman who
suffered eye injuries. The other three injured individuals sustained serious bullet wounds and required
emergency surgeries.

2006 MUMBAI TRAIN BOMBINGS

The 11th July 2006 Mumbai train bombings were a series of seven bomb blasts that were carried out over a
span of 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai, the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra and
the nation's financial capital. The bombs were detonated in pressure cookers placed on trains operating on the
suburban section of the Mumbai division of Western Railway. A total of 209 people lost their lives, and over
700 individuals sustained injuries.

44
On the western line of the suburban ("local") train network, which serves as the primary transportation artery
of the city, pressure cooker bombs had been positioned. The utilization of pressure cookers in this bombing,
as well as in other recent explosions, aimed to intensify the blast effect through a thermobaric reaction, which
is more potent than conventional high explosives. The initial explosion reportedly occurred at 18:24 IST
(12:54 UTC), with subsequent explosions continuing for approximately eleven minutes until 18:35,
coinciding with the evening rush hour. All the bombs had been planted in the first-class "general"
compartments (as opposed to compartments reserved for women, known as "ladies" compartments) of
multiple trains traveling from Churchgate, the city-center terminus of the western railway line, to the western
suburbs of Mumbai. They detonated either at the suburban railway stations of Matunga Road, Mahim,
Bandra, Khar Road, Jogeshwari, Bhayandar, and Borivali or in close proximity to them. Home Minister
Shivraj Patil informed reporters that authorities possessed "some" intelligence regarding an imminent attack,
but specific details regarding the place and time were unavailable.

These bomb attacks in Mumbai occurred shortly after a series of grenade attacks in Srinagar, the largest city
in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. Home Secretary V K Duggal clarified that there was no direct
connection between the Srinagar and Mumbai bomb blasts.

2006 MALEGAON BOMBINGS

The series of bomb blasts that occurred on September 8, 2006, in Malegaon, a town in the Nashik district of
the Indian state of Maharashtra, 290 km northeast of Mumbai, were attributed by the Maharashtra Anti-
Terrorism Squad (ATS) to the Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) initially. However, a chargesheet
filed in 2013 shifted the blame to the Hindu extremist group Abhinav Bharat. On April 25, 2016, it was found
by the court that the initial ATS charges were fabricated, and the nine Muslims previously arrested were
released.

2007 SAMJHAUTA-EXPRESS BOMBINGS

The 2007 Samjhauta Express bombing was a terrorist attack that occurred around midnight on February 18,
2007, on the Samjhauta Express, a twice-weekly train service connecting Delhi, India, and Lahore, Pakistan.
Bombs were set off in two carriages, both filled with passengers, just after the train passed Diwana near the
Indian city of Panipat, 80 kilometers (50 mi) north of New Delhi. In the ensuing fire, 70 people were killed,

45
and dozens more were injured. Most of the 70 fatalities were Pakistani civilians, although the victims also
included some Indian civilians and three railway policemen.

Investigators subsequently found evidence of suitcases with explosives and flammable material, including
three undetonated bombs. Inside one of the undetonated suitcases, a digital timer encased in transparent
plastic was packed alongside a dozen plastic bottles containing fuel oils and chemicals. After the bombing,
eight unaffected carriages were allowed to continue onward to Lahore with passengers.

Both the Indian and Pakistani governments condemned the attack, and officials on both sides speculated that
the perpetrators intended to disrupt improving relations between the two nations, since the attack came just a
day before Pakistani Foreign Minister Khurshid Mahmud Kasuri was to arrive in New Delhi to resume peace
talks with Indian leaders. There have been a number of breaks in the investigation of the bombing.

India's National Investigation Agency (NIA) charged eight people in the terrorist attack, including Swami
Aseemanand, a Hindu cleric formerly affiliated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. While Aseemanand
has been released on bail, three persons charged in the case are absconding, and three others are in prison.
The alleged mastermind, Sunil Joshi, was killed in 2007. An NIA special court was scheduled to issue a
verdict on the case on March 14, 2019, but the last-minute plea of a Pakistani national has resulted in a
postponement of the decision.

It has been allegedly linked to Abhinav Bharat, a Hindu fundamentalist group in India. Other allegations also
concurred on Lashkar-e-Taiba. A United States report declared Arif Qasmani to be involved in the attack.
Consequently, after consulting with the United Nations, the United States declared him an international
terrorist.

Questions were raised over a Pakistani national who was arrested after the bombings for not carrying valid
papers and was seen as suspicious by the investigators but was discharged within 14 days according to a
statement of the first investigation officer assigned to the case. A court order had noted the statement of the
police that no proof had been found against him, which was also stated later by one of the senior officers. A
narco-analysis test was conducted on SIMI's leaders Safdar Nagori, Kamruddin Nagori, and Amil Parvez who
46
had stated about Abdul Razzaq's involvement in the blasts and him informing Safdar about it. Times Now had
broadcast a video of the test in 2017. The later statements of Swami Aseemanand of Sunil Joshi telling him of
involvement of his men in the blast had caused confusion for the investigators. One of the investigating
officers stated in 2016 that they had investigated the Islamists including Safdar but didn't find them involved.
Razzaq who had been in prison since 2005 had been interrogated and had brought Qasmani to the notice of
Intelligence Bureau as a key Lashkar financier. He was questioned regarding the case, but no evidence of his
involvement was found. Some officers had also questioned the reliability of narco-analysis.

MECCA MASJID BLAST

The Mecca Masjid blast, which occurred on May 18, 2007, inside the Mecca Masjid (also known as "Makkah
Masjid"), a mosque situated in the old city area of Hyderabad, the capital of the Indian state of Telangana,
very close to Charminar, was caused by a cellphone-triggered pipe bomb that had been placed near the
Wuzukhana, a spot where ablutions are performed. Two additional live IEDs were discovered and rendered
harmless by the police. In the immediate aftermath, sixteen individuals were reported to have died, five of
whom were killed by police gunfire while attempting to control the crowd.

AUGUST 2007 HYDERABAD BOMBINGS

The incident known as the Hyderabad bombings occurred on 25 August 2007 in Hyderabad, the capital of the
Indian state of Telangana. Two bombs were detonated almost simultaneously. The first explosion took place
at 19:45hrs IST in Lumbini Amusement Park (17°24′35″N 78°28′23.5″E). The second explosion occurred
five minutes later at 19:50 in Gokul Chat Bhandar (17°23′6″N 78°29′8″E), a popular restaurant located
approximately 5 kilometers (3 mi) away. It is reported that at least 42 people lost their lives in the two
bombings. Additionally, two more bombs were found and rendered harmless in other parts of the city. Initial
reports suggest that the banned militant group Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami from Bangladesh is suspected of
being responsible for the series of explosions.

AJMER DARGAH BOMBING

The Ajmer Dargah bombing, also known as the Ajmer Sharif blast, took place on October 11, 2007, in the
courtyard of Sufi saint Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, during the Iftar period. On March 22,

47
2017, life imprisonments were awarded to Devendra Gupta and Bhavesh Patel by the Special NIA Court. The
site of the attack was the Dargah of Moinuddin Chishti.

At 6:12 pm on October 11, 2007, an explosion occurred near a courtyard outside of the Dargah of Khawaja
Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer. Evening prayers had just concluded as Ramadan's fasting month was nearing its
end, and a crowd had gathered outside the shrine to break their fast. The bomb, concealed in a Tiffin carrier
typically used by workers to store their lunch, caused casualties. Two people were killed, and seventeen were
injured. Remnants of a mobile phone were found at the site. Lalit Maheswari of the Ajmer police mentioned,
"Some mobile instruments were recovered, indicating the use of a sophisticated device."

AUGUST 2007 HYDERADAB BOMBINGS

The incident known as the Hyderabad bombings, where two bombs detonated nearly simultaneously on
August 25, 2007, in Hyderabad, the capital of the Indian state of Telangana, is referred to. The first bomb was
detonated in Lumbini Amusement Park (17°24′35″N 78°28′23.5″E) at 19:45hrs IST. The second bomb
exploded five minutes later at 19:50 in Gokul Chat Bhandar (17°23′6″N 78°29′8″E), a popular restaurant
located approximately 5 kilometers (3 mi) away. At least 42 individuals were reported to have been killed in
the two bombings. Two additional bombs were defused in other parts of the city. According to initial reports,
the banned militant outfit Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami from Bangladesh is suspected to be responsible for the
serial blasts.

JAIPUR BOMBINGS

The series of nine synchronized bomb blasts that occurred on May 13, 2008, within a span of fifteen minutes
in locations across Jaipur, the capital city of the Indian state of Rajasthan, and a tourist destination, were
carried out. A tenth bomb was found and defused. Official reports confirm that 63 people were killed with
216 or more injured. Most of India was shocked by the bombings, and leaders across the world widely
condemned them, with many countries showing solidarity with India in its fight against terrorism.

Jaipur, India's tenth-largest city and one of its most popular tourist destinations, was targeted for the first time
by terrorists. The bombs detonated near historic monuments during one of the busiest times of the day. One
of the bombs exploded close to Jaipur's most famous landmark, the historic Hawa Mahal (Palace of Winds).

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Two days after the blasts, a previously unknown Islamic militant group, Indian Mujahideen, sent an email to
Indian media claiming responsibility for the attacks and stating their intention to "demolish the faith
(Hinduism)" of the "infidels of India." While Indian authorities confirmed the authenticity of the email, they
also noted some contradictions, suggesting the primary motive might be to mislead investigating agencies.
Sources from the Indian Home Ministry indicated that Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami (HuJI), or "Islamic Holy
War Movement," a Bangladesh-based organization, was suspected to be behind the attack. Police were able to
find credible evidence linking the suspected bombers to Bangladeshi militants, resulting in a backlash against
illegal Bangladeshi immigrants in Rajasthan. India plans to expel more than 50,000 Bangladeshi immigrants
in Rajasthan.

2008 AHMEDABAD BOMBINGS

The 2008 Ahmedabad bombings, which struck Ahmedabad, India, on July 26, 2008, consisted of 21 bomb
blasts occurring within a span of 70 minutes. Fifty-six people lost their lives, and over 200 people were
injured. Ahmedabad, known as the cultural and commercial hub of Gujarat state and a significant part of
western India, was the target.

The blasts, similar to the ones in Bangalore, Karnataka, which happened the day before, were considered low
intensity. Various TV channels reported receiving an email from a terrorist group called Indian Mujahideen,
claiming responsibility for the attacks. However, responsibility was also claimed by the Islamic militant
group Harkat-ul-Jihad-al-Islami.

The suspected mastermind, Mufti Abu Bashir, along with nine others, was arrested by the Gujarat police in
connection with the bombings. These bombings took place a day after the Bangalore blasts and a day before
another bomb blast in the Indian state of Jharkhand.

2008 BANGALORE SERIAL BLASTS

The 2008 Bangalore serial blasts, which occurred on July 25, 2008, in Bangalore, India, resulted in one
person being killed and 20 injured due to a series of nine bombs exploding. The Bangalore City Police
attributed the blasts to low-intensity crude bombs triggered by timers.

Similar blasts had already affected India in Jaipur in May 2008. The Times of India reported that either the
banned organization Students Islamic Movement of India or the militant organization Lashkar-e-Toiba could

49
be behind these blasts. The involvement of these organizations is not ruled out by the Intelligence Bureau,
although the police maintain that it is too early to attribute blame to anyone.

The bombings were followed by the 2008 Ahmedabad bombings one day later.

13 SEPTEMBER 2008 DELHI BOMBINGS

On Saturday, September 13, 2008, a series of five synchronized bomb blasts occurred in various locations in
Delhi, India, within a short span of time. The first explosion happened at 18:07 IST, followed by four other
blasts. At least 20 people were killed, and over 90 were injured in the incident.

27 SEPTEMBER 2008 DELHI BOMBINGS

On an infamous Saturday, three people were killed, and twenty-three others were injured in the Delhi
bombing that occurred on 27th September 2008 in India's second-largest metropolis. The explosion, which
took place at 14:15 IST, transpired in Mehrauli's Electronic market known as Sarai. Initially, there were
reports of two persons, including a thirteen-year-old boy named Santosh, being killed in the attack. However,
the next day, the death toll rose to three. Approximately 23 others were injured and received treatment at
AIIMS and Fortis Hospital. The bombing occurred exactly two weeks after the five serial blasts in Delhi on
13th September 2008.

29 SEPTEMBER 2008 WESTERN INDIA BOMBINGS

On the 29th of September 2008, bombings occurred in Western India, specifically in the states of Gujarat and
Maharashtra, resulting in the deaths of 10 individuals and injuries to 80 others. Two bombs exploded in
Malegaon, Maharashtra, claiming nine lives, while another blast in Modasa, Gujarat, resulted in the death of
one person. The Malegaon blast, which happened near a hotel at Bhikku Chowk in Maharashtra, involved
bombs that were reportedly attached to a Hero Honda motorcycle and set to detonate. Both explosions were
described as low in intensity. Initially, there was uncertainty regarding the cause of the blast, with some
suggesting it was due to an accidental explosion of a gas cylinder. However, the police later confirmed it was
a terrorist attack. The Modasa blasts, which led to the death of a 15-year-old boy and injuries to several
others, were caused by a low-intensity bomb placed on a motorcycle that detonated near a mosque in the
Muslim-dominated Sukka Bazaar. The incident occurred around 21:26 during special Ramzan prayers
(tarawih) inside the mosque.
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2008 AGARTALA BOMBINGS

At least four people were killed and a hundred injured on October 1, 2008, in Agartala, the capital of the
Indian state of Tripura, when a series of five blasts were set off within 45 minutes. Two unexploded bombs
were defused. This marked the fourth series of blasts in India within a week, following the September 27
Delhi bombing, Malegaon, and Modasa bombings. The blasts occurred at Agartala's main shopping areas:
Maharaja Ganja Bazar, Gobind Ballav Pant market, a busy Radhanagar bus stand, Agartala Motor stand,
Battala, and Abhay Nagar localities. The first blast occurred at Gol Bazar around 7:30 pm (IST), followed by
two more at Radhanagar Bus stand and G B Bazar around 7:35 and 8:15 respectively. The fourth blast
occurred at Palace Compound. An unidentified man was killed in the blast at Radhanagar bus stand, while
another person succumbed to injuries. Eyewitnesses reported seeing two individuals riding a motorcycle
acting suspiciously at Radhanagar bus stand, and the blast occurred approximately three minutes after they
left the area. The wounded were rushed to G.B. Pant Medical College and Hospital. Nepal Das, a spokesman
for the Tripura police, stated that two blasts were high-density and the third was low-density. However, the
Superintendent of Police of West Agartala, KV Sreejesh, contradicted Das regarding the intensity of the
blasts, stating, "All bombs were of low intensity. It was meant to create panic before the Durga Puja
celebrations."

2008 IMPHAL BOMBING

At least 17 people were killed, and more than 30 were injured on October 21, 2008, in the Imphal bombings
of 2008. This was the second blast of such a magnitude in the Indian Seven Sisters in October 2008. It was
preceded by a series of bomb blasts across the country in 2008 carried out by various factions, contributing to
a significant domestic instability.

The attack was initiated by a single blast triggered from a bomb rigged onto a Kinetic Luna moped in the
provincial capital of Manipur. It occurred at the gate of Ragailong in the Imphal West District. The barracks
of security personnel, as well as civilians in the area who were gambling ahead of the Diwali holiday, were
targeted by the attack. Police suspected that the headquarters of the 20th Battalion, Assam Rifles, and the
Manipur police commando complex, where personnel live with their families, were the targets of the
attackers.

2008 ASSAM BOMBING

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The 2008 Assam bombings indeed left a devastating impact on the region, with numerous lives lost and many
more injured. The coordinated nature of the attacks, with multiple explosions occurring within a short span of
time, reflects a significant level of planning and coordination on the part of the perpetrators. The use of
powerful explosives like RDX or C4, as indicated by police officials, suggests a high degree of sophistication
in the construction of the bombs. The speculation about the use of timers further indicates a level of
premeditation in the execution of the attacks. The timing of the bombings, shortly after the Diwali holidays,
likely aimed to maximize casualties by targeting crowded areas where people were gathered for shopping or
other activities. The placement of a bomb near the Chief Minister's residence in Guwahati adds another layer
of concern regarding the potential motives behind the attacks.

nvestigations into such incidents are crucial for not only bringing the perpetrators to justice but also for
understanding the underlying factors and motivations driving such acts of violence. The involvement of
motorbikes or cars as potential delivery vehicles for the explosives underscores the challenges faced by law
enforcement agencies in preventing and mitigating such attacks.

Efforts to address the root causes of violence and instability in the region, including addressing grievances
and promoting inclusive development, are essential for long-term peace and security.

2001 PARLIAMENT ATTACK

On 13 December 2001, the Parliament House was infiltrated by five terrorists in a car labeled with Home
Ministry and Parliament tags. Although both the Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha had been adjourned 40 minutes
before the incident, it was believed that many Members of Parliament (MPs) and government officials, such
as Home Minister LK Advani and Minister of State for Defence Harin Pathak, were still inside the building
during the attack. At that time, more than 100 people, including prominent politicians, were present in the
parliament building. The security around the parliamentary complex was breached by the terrorists using a
fake identity sticker on their car. The terrorists were armed with AK47 rifles, grenade launchers, pistols, and
grenades.

The gunmen drove their vehicle into the car of the Indian Vice-President Krishan Kant, who was inside the
building at that time, exited the vehicle, and commenced firing. The Vice-President's guards and security
personnel retaliated against the terrorists and began closing the compound gates. A similar attack had
occurred on the assembly in Srinagar, Kashmir, in November 2001, resulting in the death of 38 individuals by
terrorists.

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Delhi Police officials asserted that the gunmen received instructions from Pakistan, and the operation was
conducted under the guidance of Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) agency. In their book "The Exile:
The Flight of Osama bin Laden," Cathy Scott-Clark and Adrian Levy mentioned that then-CIA station chief
Robert Grenier and Ambassador Wendy Chamberlin suspected that the ISI had sanctioned the attack to
compel the redeployment of troops under the command of Ali Jan Aurakzai away from the Durand Line,
thereby facilitating Osama bin Laden's escape into Pakistan during the Battle of Tora Bora.

RED-FORT ATTACK

On December 22, 2000, a terrorist attack occurred on the Red Fort in Delhi, India. It was perpetrated by the
Pakistani terrorist group Lashkar-e-Toiba. The attack resulted in the deaths of two soldiers and one civilian
and was portrayed in the media as an attempt to disrupt the India-Pakistan peace talks. The Red Fort, which
annually hosts the Prime Minister of India on August 15th, India's Independence Day, is an immensely
important Indian facility. Historically, the Red Fort holds significance as it was wrested from British control
and is an iconic site in India. The incident shook the Indian capital of Delhi and the nation as a whole.

Bilal Ahmed Kawa, a terrorist associated with Lashkar-e-Taiba who orchestrated and carried out the 2000
terror attack on the Red Fort, resulting in three fatalities, was apprehended in a joint operation by the Special
Cell of the Delhi Police and the Gujarat ATS at Delhi Airport on January 10, 2018. It took 17 years to
apprehend him. Bilal Ahmad Kawa, aged 37, has been placed in custody at a Police Special Cell in Delhi for
further investigation. His arrest was facilitated by a tip-off received by the Gujarat ATS regarding his
movement from Srinagar to Delhi.

AKKSHARDHAM TEMPLE ATTACK

On September 24, 2002, the Akshardham Temple complex in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India, was attacked by
two armed men. Thirty people were killed, and more than 80 were injured. The siege was ended by the
National Security Guards the following day, with both attackers being killed. The attackers had used
automatic weapons and hand grenades, resulting in the deaths of at least 30 people and the injury of 80
others. The intervention by the National Security Guards resulted in the resolution of the siege on the same
night, with both attackers being killed. Six individuals accused of involvement were subsequently arrested by

53
the Gujarat Police. In May 2014, all six accused were acquitted of all charges by a bench of the Supreme
Court of India, which also criticized the Gujarat Police for their inadequate investigation into the case.

26/11 MUMBAI ATTACK

The 2008 Mumbai attacks (also known as 26/11) were a series of terrorist attacks carried out in November
2008. These attacks, which drew widespread global condemnation, involved 10 members of Lashkar-e-Taiba,
an Islamic terrorist organization based in Pakistan. The attacks consisted of 12 coordinated shooting and
bombing incidents that lasted for four days across Mumbai

The attacks began on Wednesday, 26th November, and continued until Saturday, 29th November 2008. A
total of at least 174 people lost their lives, including 9 attackers, and more than 300 were wounded. Eight of
the attacks occurred in South Mumbai at various locations including Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, The
Oberoi Trident, The Taj Palace & Tower, Leopold Cafe, Cama Hospital, The Nariman House Jewish
community center, the Metro Cinema, and in a lane behind the Times of India building and St. Xavier's
College. Additionally, there was an explosion at Mazagaon in Mumbai's port area, and a taxi blast at Vile
Parle.

By the early morning of 28th November, all sites except for the Taj Hotel had been secured by the Mumbai
Police Department and security forces. On 29th November, India's National Security Guards (NSG)
conducted 'Operation Black Tornado' to flush out the remaining attackers, which led to the death of the last
remaining attackers at the Taj Hotel and ended the attacks.

Pakistan condemned the attacks. Ajmal Kasab disclosed that the attackers were members of Lashkar-e-Taiba,
among others. The Government of India stated that the attackers came from Pakistan and their controllers
were in Pakistan. Pakistan later confirmed that the sole surviving perpetrator of the attacks was a Pakistani
citizen. On 9th April 2015, the foremost ringleader of the attacks, Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi, was granted bail
against surety bonds of ₨200,000 (US$1,900) in Pakistan.

RAM JANAM BHOOMI ATTACK

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On July 5, 2005, the makeshift Ram temple at the location where the Babri Mosque once stood in Ayodhya,
India, was attacked by five terrorists. In the ensuing gunfight with the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF),
all five attackers were shot dead. Additionally, one civilian lost their life in a grenade attack launched by the
attackers in an attempt to breach the cordoned wall. Three CRPF personnel sustained casualties, with two of
them suffering serious injuries from multiple gunshot wounds.

After the Babri Masjid was demolished in 1992, a makeshift temple had been erected at the Ram
Janmabhoomi site in Ayodhya, believed to be the birthplace of the God-king Rama according to Hindu
mythology. The heavily guarded complex was attacked on July 5, 2005, by heavily armed terrorists. The
security officials foiled the attack, resulting in the death of the assailants.

The terrorists, who belonged to the Islamic terrorist organization Lashkar-e-Taiba, were suspected to have
entered India through Nepal. They disguised themselves as pilgrims en route to Ayodhya and hired a vehicle
near Faizabad. Upon reaching Ayodhya, they prayed at the Ram Temple to maintain their cover.
Subsequently, they forced the driver out of the vehicle and used it to breach the security cordon. At 9:05 am,
they threw grenades from a distance to breach the cordon fence.

Ramesh Pandey, a pilgrim guide who was near the site at that time, succumbed to injuries from the grenade
blast. The terrorists, firing indiscriminately, entered the Mata Sita Rasoi. In response, a platoon of 35 CRPF
soldiers engaged in a gunfight that lasted over an hour, resulting in the death of all five terrorists. Three
CRPF soldiers sustained serious injuries, with two of them remaining comatose as of July 2008. All the
terrorists were neutralized within 100 meters of the site.

VARANASI ATTACKS

A series of bombings that occurred across the city of Varanasi on Tuesday, 7th March 2006, resulted in at
least 28 reported deaths and injuries to as many as 101 others. The city, considered holy by Hindus and one of
the oldest in the world, was targeted at Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple and Varanasi Cantonment Railway
Station.

BLAST AT THE TEMPLE

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Shortly after 18:00 IST, the blasts occurred almost simultaneously. The first blast was experienced at 18:20
near the crowded Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple close to the Banaras Hindu University. The temple had
hundreds of pilgrims inside as it was a Tuesday, considered especially sacred by the devotees of Lord
Hanuman, a deity worshipped at the temple. The bomb, which claimed 10 lives and injured 40, had been
placed in a container near the entrance where women typically gather.

BLAST AT THE STATION

Another blast occurred at the Varanasi Cantonment Railway Station in the waiting area adjacent to the travel
office. Initially, another blast had been reported inside the stationary Shiv Ganga Express bound for Delhi;
however, this report was later dismissed. The departure of the Shiv Ganga Express was delayed by 2 hours,
resulting in its eventual arrival in Delhi being 4 hours late but intact. Six bombs were reported to have been
defused in other areas of the city, including a restaurant frequented by foreigners near the railway station. The
incident claimed 11 lives and left 20 injured.

2010 VARANASI BOMBING

The 2010 Varanasi bombing was an explosion that occurred on 7 December 2010 in one of the holiest Hindu
cities, Varanasi. At Sheetla Ghat, adjacent to the main Dashashwamedh Ghat, where the evening prayer ritual
to the holy river, Ganges, had commenced, thousands of worshipers and tourists had gathered. It resulted in
the death of a two-year-old girl who was sitting on her mother's lap. The mother was one of three critically
injured individuals, with more than 38 others sustaining injuries. A railing broke in the ensuing panic after the
blast, causing a stampede and leading to an increase in the number of injuries. The bomb, concealed inside a
milk container, was placed at Sheetla Ghat. The explosion occurred a day after the anniversary of the 1992
Babri Masjid demolition, which led to nationwide religious riots and claimed over 2,000 lives. Subsequently,
the responsibility for the blast was claimed by the Islamist militant group, Indian Mujahideen, via email to
Indian media. This incident marked the second terrorism-related occurrence in the city, following the serial
blasts of 2006, which resulted in the death of 28 people and included an explosion at the Sankatmochan
Temple, located two kilometers away.

GURDASPUR ATTACK

On July 27th, 2015, an attack occurred in Gurdaspur district of Punjab, India, where three terrorists, disguised
in army uniforms, opened fire on a bus and subsequently targeted the Dina Nagar police station. As a result of
the attack, three civilians and four policemen, including a superintendent of police, were killed, while fifteen
others sustained injuries. Furthermore, five bombs were discovered planted on the Amritsar–Pathankot line

56
on a rail bridge near Parmanand railway station, located five kilometers away from the attack site. The
operation to neutralize the attackers, which lasted nearly 12 hours, resulted in the death of all three assailants.

Since the cessation of the Punjab insurgency in the mid-1990s, incidents of terrorist attacks have been
uncommon in Punjab. However, the Disputed Territory of Jammu and Kashmir, bordering Gurdaspur, is
frequently subjected to such attacks, as Islamist insurgents there seek independence or accession to Pakistan.
Initially, it was suspected that the attackers entered from this region. Based on the GPS system recovered
from the terrorists, it was determined that they had infiltrated into India from Pakistan.

2009 ASSAM BOMBINGS

On April 6, 2009, the Assamese capital Guwahati witnessed the occurrence of the 2009 Assam serial blasts in
the Maligaon and Dhekiajuli areas. This incident happened on the eve of the visit by the Assamese Rajya
Sabha MP and the Indian Prime Minister to address poll rallies, during the campaigning phase of the 2009
Indian general election.

According to the DGP of Assam, seven individuals lost their lives, and 56 others sustained injuries in the
Maligaon blast that took place around 14:00 IST. The blast also initiated a fire that engulfed two cars and 20
motorcycles, spreading to a three-story building which housed the area police station.

Hours later, reports indicated that five individuals were injured in the Dhekiajuli blast, allegedly planted on a
cycle. Six fatalities occurred at the blast site, while one person succumbed to injuries after leaping from an
adjacent building that had caught fire.

2010 PUNE BOMBING

The 2010 Pune bombing, which occurred on 13 February 2010 at approximately 19:15 IST, involved a bomb
being detonated at the German Bakery in the city of Pune, Maharashtra, India. As a result, 17 people lost their
lives, and at least 60 individuals were injured, including an Italian woman, two Sudanese students, and an
Iranian student.

The German Bakery, situated near the Jewish Chabad House and the Osho International Meditation Resort in
Koregaon Park, Pune, is frequented by foreigners. At the time of the blast, the bakery, popular among tourists
and locals alike, was bustling with activity.

Two lesser-known groups, namely the Lashkar-e-Taiba Al Alami and the Mujahideen Islami Muslim Front,
claimed responsibility for the bombing. However, government agencies suggest that the attack might have

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been part of a project orchestrated by Lashkar-e-Taiba to utilize the Indian Mujahideen, known as the Karachi
project. David Coleman Headley, a Pakistani-American terror suspect, has been accused of involvement in
this project.

SILDA CAMP ATTACK

The Silda camp attack, which occurred on February 15, 2010, involved an ambush by dozens of Naxalite
Maoist insurgents on Indian security forces in Silda, located approximately 60km from Midnapore in West
Bengal, India. The attack resulted in the deaths of 24 paramilitary personnel from the Eastern Frontier Rifles,
with several individuals believed to have been abducted. This incident dealt a severe blow to the
government's efforts in combating the rebel forces. Maoist gang leader Syam Saran Tudu was arrested in
April 2013. He faced charges of murder and other offenses, including his involvement in the attack.

APRIL2010 MAOIST ATTACK IN DANTEWADA

The April 2010 Dantewada Maoist attack was an ambush carried out by Naxalite-Maoist insurgents from the
Communist Party of India (Maoist) near Chintalnar village in Dantewada district, Chhattisgarh, India. It
resulted in the killing of 76 CRPF policemen and 8 Maoists, making it the deadliest attack by the Maoists on
Indian security forces. The attack occurred while an area domination exercise was being conducted in the
Bastar tribal region of the Indian state of Chhattisgarh by over 80 officers from the Central Reserve Police
Force (CRPF) and a local police group.

2010 DANTEWADA BUS BOMBING

The 2010 Dantewada bus bombing took place on May 17, 2010, when a bush hit a landmine approximately
50km away from Dantewada, in the Dantewada district of Chhattisgarh. Reports of fatalities range from 31 to
44, including several Special Police Officers (SPOs) and civilians.

It was the first civilian bus targeted in a Naxal attack. The attack occurred one month after Dantewada
experienced the worst-ever massacre of CRPF jawans, with 76 troops killed in the April 2010 Maoist attack
in Dantewada.

JNANESWARI-EXPRESS TAIN DERAILMENT

The derailment of the Jnaneswari Express occurred on 28 May 2010 in the West Midnapore district of West
Bengal, India (between Sardiha and Khemasuli railway stations). It is disputed as to whether sabotage or a

58
bomb caused damage on the railway track, which led to the derailment of a train before an oncoming goods
train collided with the loose carriages, resulting in the deaths of at least 141 passengers.

Responsibility for removing a 46-centimeter (18-inch) length of railway track was claimed by Maoist
Naxalites, according to the state police chief. At 01:30 local time, a train with 13 carriages derailed as it
passed over the missing track. The Howrah – Kurla Lokmanya Tilak Jnaneswari Super Deluxe Express was
traveling from Howrah to Mumbai. The derailed train was then struck by a goods train traveling in the
opposite direction. At least 141 people died, and more than 180 people were injured. The missing track was
between Khemasuli and Sardiha stations. A section of the rail track was found to be missing and fishplates
were loosened, suggesting sabotage.

Initially, there was uncertainty as to whether the attack was a result of a blast or due to the derailment of the
train. Railway Minister Mamata Banerjee said a bomb blast was part of a "calculated attack" that caused the
train to derail. She said, "The driver of the train heard an explosion, so we are looking into that. We are aware
that the Naxals have access to sophisticated bombs and improvised explosive devices."

2011 MUMBAIN BOMBINGS

The 2011 Mumbai bombings were a series of three coordinated bomb explosions that occurred at different
locations in Mumbai, India, on July 13, 2011, between 18:54 and 19:06 IST. The blasts resulted in 26 deaths
and 130 injuries.

The first device was planted on a motorcycle at Khau Gali in south Mumbai's Zaveri Bazaar and was
detonated at 18:54 local time. The second device, planted in a tiffin box outside Prasad Chambers and
Panchratna Building in the Opera House area on Charni Road, exploded at 18:55, affecting an area where
5,000–6,000 people connected with the diamond-trade industry worked. The third device was placed on an
electric pole at the Dr. Antonio Da Silva High School bus stand near Kabutar Khana in Dadar area and
exploded at 19:06.

After the blasts, phone lines were jammed, and communications ceased or were intermittently available for at
least a few hours. Other metropolitan cities, including Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad, and Bangalore, were also
put on high alert. Following the blasts, the Mumbai Police sent an SMS to a few mobile phone users in
Mumbai.

Most of the injured were taken to various hospitals in Mumbai, such as J.J. Hospital, St. George's Hospital,
Harikishandas Hospital, and G.T. Hospital.

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Mumbai has been targeted by terrorist incidents at least half a dozen times since the early 1990s, resulting in
the deaths of over 600 people in these attacks. In an editorial, the Times of India described the city as having
become a "hot hunting ground for terror." A loss of Rs. 300 crore per day was reported at the closure of the
Panchratna Building after the blasts, where the victims were mainly from the diamond industry, and at Zaveri
Bazaar, where they were mostly goldsmiths. Rakesh Marias said that sketches of the culprits would soon be
released by the Anti-Terrorism Squad (India), as the footage obtained from the closed-circuit television
(CCTV) cameras at the Opera House site was under scrutiny.

2011 DELHI BOMBING

At 10:14 AM on Wednesday, September 7, 2011, outside Gate No. 5 of the Delhi High Court, a suspected
briefcase bomb was planted, where the 2011 Delhi bombing took place. The blast, which occurred at this
location in the Indian capital Delhi, resulted in the death of 15 people and the injury of 79. Explosives had
been placed in a briefcase at the high court reception, where hundreds of people gather daily to attend court
cases, as stated by Home Secretary R.K. Singh to reporters. According to the special secretary in the Home
Ministry, two kilograms of explosives, including ammonium nitrate and PETN, were used, causing
considerable damage despite being used in a small amount.

2012 ATTACK ON ISRAELI DIPLOMATS

The attacks on Israeli diplomats in 2012 occurred on February 13, 2012, when a bomb exploded on an Israeli
diplomatic car in New Delhi, India, injuring one embassy staff member, a local employee, and two passers-
by. Another bomb, which was planted in a car in Tbilisi, Georgia, failed to explode and was defused by
Georgian police.

In the past several months, there has been an escalating war of words between Israel and Iran. On February
12, 2012, the Iranian foreign ministry summoned the Azeri ambassador to complain about a report in The
Times that Mossad had been used by Azerbaijan as a base for covert operations against Iran.

2021 PUNE BOMBINGS

The 2012 Pune bombings were a series of four coordinated low-intensity bombing attacks that occurred on 1
August 2012 across Pune, the ninth-largest metropolis in India. As of October 2012, it is suspected that the
Indian Mujahideen, a terrorist group based in India, was behind the attacks.

A map of the 2012 Pune attacks shows the principal targets numbered: (1) Balgandharva Auditorium, (2)
Near Dena Bank, JM Road, (3) McDonald's restaurant, (4) near Garware Bridge. The explosions occurred at

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locations within a radius of 1 km in Jangli Maharaj Road: in front of Balgandharva Auditorium, opposite to
KFC restaurant near Garware Bridge, Dena Bank branch at Jangli Maharaj Road, and in front of a
McDonald's restaurant. A fifth live bomb found on JM Road was later defused. The bombs left one injured.
All blasts occurred between 7:27 pm and 8:15 pm

The bombings took place on the evening when the new Home Minister Sushil Kumar Shinde was scheduled
to visit the Tilak Smarak Ranga Mandir, a play theatre in the city, for an award ceremony.

2013 HYDERABAD BLASTS

On February 21st, 2013, at around 19:00 IST, two blasts occurred in the city of Hyderabad, India. The bombs
were detonated in Dilsukhnagar, a busy shopping area, within 100 meters (330 ft) of each other. The first
explosion happened outside a roadside eatery called A1 Mirchi, next to the Anand Tiffin Centre and opposite
the Konark movie hall, followed by the second one two minutes later near the Route 107 bus stand close to
the Venkatadri theatre.

The first bomb was set off at Anand Tiffins, situated opposite Konark Theatre, at around 19:02 IST. The
second bomb was detonated at 19:06 IST between Venkatadri Theatre and Dilsukhnagar Bus Stand.
According to the Hyderabad Police, the bombs were placed on bicycles. The Director General of Police for
Andhra Pradesh mentioned that Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) had been utilized in the two blasts to
cause maximum damage. The explosions resulted in the deaths of 17 people, including at least three college
students, and at least 119 others were injured.

2013 SRINAGAR ATTACK

On March 13, 2013, there was an attack on a Central Reserve Police Force camp in Bemina, Srinagar, Jammu
and Kashmir, India. During the attack, five CRPF personnel lost their lives, and two attackers were also
killed. Additionally, ten others, including both security personnel and civilians, were injured. The incident
took place when two attackers, disguised as cricket players, entered the Police Public School ground where
the CRPF camp was located in the morning. They managed to bypass security and then proceeded to remove
their jackets, revealing grenades and AK-47 assault rifles. Subsequently, the attackers initiated indiscriminate
firing on the CRPF camp, resulting in a 30-minute shootout. The perpetrators were neutralized by the CRPF
personnel. Weapons recovered from the attackers included two AK-47 rifles, five magazines, two pistols, and
four grenades. Following the incident, a curfew was imposed in Kashmir.

2013 NAXAL ATTACK IN DARBHA VALLEY

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On May 25th, 2013, a convoy of Indian National Congress leaders was attacked by Naxalite insurgents of the
Communist Party of India (Maoist) in the Darbha Valley of the Sukma district, Chhattisgarh, India. The
attack resulted in at least 27 deaths, including former state minister Mahendra Karma and Chhattisgarh
Congress chief Nand Kumar Patel. Senior Congress leader Vidya Charan Shukla succumbed to his injuries on
June 11th, 2013.

A Parivartan Yatra ("Change" Rally) was being conducted by the leaders of the Indian National Congress in
the state, with a convoy of 25 vehicles carrying around 200 Congress leaders and workers. They were
returning from a meeting organized in Sukma and were heading to Keshloor near Jagdalpur along National
Highway 221. Almost all the senior state party leaders were present, including former Union Minister Vidya
Charan Shukla, former state minister Mahendra Karma, Nand Kumar Patel, Uday Mudaliyar, senior Congress
leader Gopi Madhwani, and prominent woman tribal leader Phulo Devi Netam from Bastar.

As the convoy reached the deeply forested area of Dharbavalley on Jagdalpur-Sukma Highway, 50 km from
its destination, it was blocked by trees that had been felled by Maoists. An improvised explosive device (IED)
was triggered by the Maoists near the fourth vehicle in the convoy, completely damaging the vehicle and
leaving a five-meter wide crater in the ground. Several vehicles collided with each other in an attempt to flee.
The blast, which used 27–30kg of explosives consisting of ammonium nitrate and electric detonators with
command wire, was carried out. Investigators also found 200-meter long wires used to detonate the
explosives, which had been planted a few feet under the road.

As the vehicles slowed down, around 250 Maoists hiding in the adjoining hilltops of the JEERUM hills
opened fire from both sides. The personal security officers (PSOs) of the Congress leaders took positions and
tried to defend them. Firing continued for over 90 minutes. The Maoists waited for the PSOs to run out of
ammunition before demanding the surrender of the Congress leaders. However, when the Congress leaders
emerged from their vehicles, the Maoists started firing indiscriminately. Eyewitnesses reported that the
mobile phones of all the leaders were also confiscated, as the attackers asked for the names of the leaders,
shooting some of them while leaving others alone.

BODH GAYA BOMBINGS

On July 7, 2013, a series of ten bombs were detonated in and around the Mahabodhi Temple complex, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bodh Gaya, India. The blasts injured five people, including two Buddhist
monks. Bomb disposal squads defused three other devices at various locations in Gaya. Convictions were
made for criminal conspiracy and promoting enmity among different groups on religious grounds.

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The temple and the Bodhi Tree, where Gautama Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment, were
undamaged. However, the Archaeological Survey of India confirmed damage to new structures within the
temple complex. International figures, including the Dalai Lama, Sri Lankan President Mahinda Rajapaksa,
and Myanmar Opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi, condemned the attacks. On November 4, 2013, the
National Investigation Agency announced that the Islamic terrorist group Indian Mujahideen was responsible
for the bombings.

On June 1, 2018, a special National Investigation Agency (NIA) court in Patna sentenced life imprisonment
for five prime accused in this case. The first bomb exploded during prayers in the temple sanctuary, followed
by subsequent explosions in different areas of the complex. Wooden bookshelves containing Buddhist
scriptures were damaged, along with an ambulance belonging to the Bodhgaya Temple Management
Committee. Although multiple blasts occurred within a 500-meter radius of the Mahabodhi Temple complex,
no injuries were reported except for damage to property.

Indian Home Minister Sushilkumar Shinde stated on July 8 that there were ten blasts, correcting earlier
reports. The exact location of the tenth bomb detonation remained unclear. Despite the blasts, monks from the
BTMC opened the main sanctuary of the temple for routine prayers and rituals. Additional bombs were
discovered and defused by bomb disposal squads. Three pamphlets, handwritten in Urdu, were reportedly
found with the defused bombs, containing codewords that seemed to describe bomb locations.

2013 PATNA BOMBINGS

On 27th October 2013, a series of bomb blasts were experienced by the Indian city of Patna, Bihar, during a
massive election rally for BJP Prime Ministerial candidate Narendra Modi. Out of the estimated 300,000
participants at the "Hunkar" rally, six people were killed and 85 others were injured in eight bomb blasts.
Responsibility for the explosions has not been claimed by anyone; however, investigations suggest that
Indian Mujahideen were culpable.

On the morning of 27th October 2013, the first bomb was exploded at Patna Junction railway station around
10:00, while bomb disposal personnel recovered two unexploded bombs. The second bomb exploded at
12:10, and the third at 12:25, both near Gandhi Maidan, where the Bharatiya Janata Party's Prime Ministerial
candidate Narendra Modi was supposed to hold a rally a couple of hours later in the lead-up to the Indian
general election of 2014. Five other blasts occurred, with three bombs exploding within and outside the
Gandhi Maidan area, one near a cinema hall, and another close to the Twin Tower building complex in Patna.
The sequence of bombings was as follows:

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  Railway station: A crude bomb exploded at an isolated location on platform 10 of Patna Junction
railway station. One person injured in this blast later died. According to the Railway Protection
Force, the explosion occurred at a paid toilet within the station. Two additional homemade bombs
were defused. According to the Union ministry, one of the two crude bombs placed had a timer
attached to it.
 Gandhi Maidan: Later that day, five more low-intensity blasts occurred in Gandhi Maidan, where
the pre-election rally of Narendra Modi was taking place. Several people were injured in these blasts.
Another blast occurred in Elphinstine cinema hall near Gandhi Maidan, injuring six people. One
more unexploded bomb was discovered below the dais where Narendra Modi had spoken in the rally,
which has been defused. The eighth bomb exploded around 5 PM on the same day, believed to have
been hidden under garbage.

2014 CHENNAI BOMBING

The explosion of two low-intensity bombs on the early morning of May 1, 2014, in a Guwahati-bound train
from Bangalore, which was arriving at the Chennai Central railway station, resulted in the death of one
woman passenger and injuries to at least fourteen others.

The Guwahati-Bangalore Express, scheduled to arrive at Chennai around 5:30 a.m. (IST), was delayed and
arrived at 7:05 a.m. (IST). While the train was stationed at Platform 9 of the railway station, two bombs
detonated at the junction of coaches S4 and S5 at 7:15 a.m. (IST). Upon hearing the explosion, panicked
passengers rushed out of the train. One of the bombs had detonated under the seat of a 24-year-old woman,
identified as Swathi Parachuri, who was employed with Tata Consultancy Services in Bangalore. Parachuri,
the sole fatality in the attack, was traveling to her hometown, Guntur, in Andhra Pradesh. Among the fourteen
injured passengers, five were admitted in serious condition at Rajiv Gandhi General Hospital.

MAY 2014 ASSAM VIOLENCE

From the night of May 1, 2014, until the early morning hours of May 3, a series of attacks occurred on
immigrant Bengali-speaking Muslims in Assam, a northeastern state of India. The perpetrators are unknown,
but they are suspected to be the National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB) of the Songbijit faction. It is
speculated to be revenge for not voting for NDFB in the Lok Sabha elections. The death toll reached 32.

The Bodos, an indigenous community in Assam state of India, comprise about 10% of its population of 44
million people. Insurgency in Northeast India has been ongoing for decades involving several rebel groups.
In 2012, violence between Bodo tribal people and Muslims resulted in 108 deaths, fueled by an Assam Police

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Constable Mohibur Islam alias Ratul. In India, Lok Sabha elections are ongoing, with the last phase
concluding on May 12, and the results being declared on May 16.

On May 1, insurgents raided the Narsingbari village of Baksa district, opening fire on a house, resulting in
the death of three women and the injury of two others. The attackers had arrived on bicycles. In the early
hours of May 2, another group of insurgents opened fire at three houses in Balapara village of Kokrajhar
district, killing seven people.

On the evening of the same day, another group killed 12 people and burned down 30 thatched houses near
Baksa's Manas National Park.

On May 3, four suspected insurgents attacked police in the forest near Tejpur. Police fired in retaliation,
resulting in the death of two, while two others escaped. Police also killed one more suspect in Udalguri
district, from whom they recovered a revolver and a hand grenade.

DECEMBER 2014 ASSAM VIOLENCE

In December 2014, more than 76 people in India were killed in a series of attacks by militants. These attacks
occurred in the Chirang, Sonitpur, and Kokrajhar districts on 23 December 2014. The Songbijit faction of the
National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB) has been attributed to these attacks. The Adivasi people of
Assam, mostly tea plantation workers known as the Tea Tribe, were the victims. Some are descendants of
laborers brought by British colonial rulers, while others migrated from other parts of India. The NDFB,
claiming to represent the Bodo people, has waged a secessionist war against the government for the
establishment of Bodoland. Although some NDFB militants agreed to ceasefire and peace talks in the 2000s,
the NDFB(S) faction led by IK Songbijit has refused to give up militancy.

In May 2014, the government attributed a similar attack on Muslim migrants to NDFB(S), but NDFB denies
involvement. Although there are many extremist groups, NDFB is easily blamed. The December attacks,
described as one of the worst massacres in the history of North-East India, led to widespread protests by
tribal people. These protests turned violent, resulting in three more deaths at the hands of the police. In
retaliation, Adivasi people killed 14 Bodos. On 26 December, the Government of India declared the launch of
Operation All Out to eliminate Bodo militants and deployed 9,000 soldiers of the Indian Army and the
Central Reserve Police Force.

The National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFB), a militant group, has engaged in violence against
outside settlers since the late 1990s. Although the group signed a ceasefire with the Indian government in
2005, one of its factions, NDFB(S), led by IK Songbijit, has opposed peace talks. NDFB(S) warned of
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retaliation when the Assam Police launched an operation against them. On 21 December 2014, the Assam
Police killed two NDFB militants.

There has been armed conflict between NDFB and the Government, and between NDFB and the Adivasi
Cobra Force. After two NDFB members were killed by the Assam Police, the NDFB militants attacked
villagers on 23 December 2014 in Kokrajhar, Sonitpur, and Chirang districts. They killed around 65 unarmed
Adivasi, including 21 women and 18 children. These attacks occurred during preparations for Christmas, and
most of the militants as well as Adivasi victims were Christians.

The next day, thousands of Adivasi people marched in protest. In Sonitpur district, at Dhekiajuli, the police
fired rounds to disperse the crowd when the protest march turned violent, resulting in the deaths of three
Adivasi. In retaliation, Adivasi killed three Bodo people in a village near Behali in Sonitpur district, and
further 14 Bodo people were killed by Adivasi. The total death toll reached 85.

2014 BANGLORE BOMBING

On 28 December 2014, the 2014 Bangalore bombing took place on Church Street in the central business
district of Bangalore, India. An improvised explosive device (IED) of low intensity, positioned inside a
flower pot on the pavement outside the Coconut Grove restaurant on Church Street, exploded at 8:30 pm IST,
resulting in the death of one woman and injuries to at least four people. Bhavani, aged 37, sustained critical
injuries and was transported to a hospital due to severe skull injuries, ultimately succumbing to her wounds.
The individuals injured were identified as Karthik (21), who is Bhavani's nephew, Sandeep H. (39), and
Vinay M.R. (35). Analysis conducted on samples collected from the blast site by forensics revealed that the
IED contained a mixture of aluminium powder and sulphur, along with residues of potassium nitrate. The
report stated, "This combination is highly dangerous but does not pose heavy damage." It was also found that
the explosive mixture was housed in a pipe casing filled with iron nails, estimated to be around 8 to 9 inches
in length, and the weight of the explosives was approximately 200 grams. According to the forensics report,
"A remote sensor was used to trigger the blast. The woman who died was not primarily affected by the nails
flying and getting stuck on her temple but mainly due to the shrapnel flying from the pipe casing, which was
stuffed with the explosives."

No group claimed responsibility for the bombing. Karnataka Police arrested Hyder Ali and Omar Siddiqui,
members of the Indian Mujahideen, in connection with the blast.

ARA CIVIL COURT BOMBINGS

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On January 23, 2015, a bomb attack occurred at the civil court premises of Ara, located in the Bhojpur district
of Bihar, India. Around 11:35 am IST, a blast was witnessed in the civil court premises. According to
preliminary investigations, it is suspected that the suicide bombing might have been carried out by a woman.
The blast resulted in the deaths of two persons, including a police constable, and the suspected woman.
Additionally, at least seven more individuals were injured in the attack. In the chaos ensuing the blast, two
criminals under trial, who were brought to the court for a hearing, managed to flee the premises.

2015 MANIPUR AMBUSH

On June 4, 2015, a military convoy was ambushed in Chandel district by insurgents from the United
Liberation Front of Western Southeast Asia. In the ambush, eighteen soldiers of the Indian Army lost their
lives, while fifteen others sustained serious injuries. Responsibility for the attack was publicly claimed by the
United Liberation Front. On June 9, 2015, a cross-border operation into Myanmar was carried out by Indian
forces, based on intelligence provided by the Indian Intelligence Bureau, MI, and the Research and Analysis
Wing, with support from the Indian Air Force. This operation resulted in the deaths of 158 insurgents,
including those responsible for the convoy attack. Indian forces entered several kilometers inside Myanmar's
territory to destroy two camps of insurgent outfits - the National Socialist Council of Nagaland and the
Kanglei Yawol Kanna Lup - which had been hiding there following their attacks in Manipur and Arunachal
Pradesh on June 4.

2016 PAMPORE ATTACK

The 2016 Pampore attack was carried out by Lashkar-e-Taiba militants on 25 June 2016 near the Frestabal
area of Pampore on the Srinagar-Jammu National Highway in Jammu and Kashmir. At approximately 16:40
on 25 June 2016, a convoy of six vehicles belonging to the Central Reserve Police Force was ambushed by
three or four militants while traveling from Pantha Chowk to Pampore. The convoy was attacked as it slowed
down at a bend in the highway to make a turn. Armed with AK-47s and grenades, the militants attacked a bus
carrying over 40 CRPF officers, resulting in the death of eight officers and injuries to over 20 others, some
critically. In the ensuing gun battle, two militants were killed, and it was reported that one or two militants
may have escaped.

The investigation into the attack, including examination of the corpses of the two killed militants, revealed
that the deceased militants had shaved their bodies, a characteristic of fidayeen attackers. With 11 AK-47
magazines in their possession, the militants had evidently prepared for intense combat. According to CRPF
officers, unexploded grenades recovered from the scene resembled those used by the Pakistan Army.

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Investigators suspected that the militants had potentially infiltrated the area up to 10 days prior, possibly with
assistance from other terrorist units or locals.

2016 KOKRAJHAR SHOOTING

On 5th August 2016, gunfire erupted at a market in Balajan Tiniali, near the town of Kokrajhar in Assam,
India. Fourteen individuals lost their lives, and sixteen others sustained injuries as a consequence of the
attack.The market was targeted by up to six attackers who arrived in a rickshaw and commenced shooting at
civilians, alongside hurling grenades into the gathered crowd. Following the assailants' completion of the
assault, five out of the six attackers fled the scene, while security forces neutralized one attacker.

Subsequent to the attackers' departure, AK-56 and AK-47 rifles were discovered at the site of the attack.

2016 BARAMULLA ATTACK

On the midnight of the second and third of October 2016, a camp of the Indian Army's 46 Rashtriya Rifles in
the Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir, India, was attacked by militants. The attack, which began at
10:30 PM local time, resulted in the death of at least one officer of the Indian Border Security Force (BSF)
and injuries to several others. Additionally, two militants were reportedly killed. This attack occurred shortly
after militants had previously attacked an Indian Army installation in the Uri area of the Baramulla district.

According to IndiaToday, the attackers were identified as Handeef alias Hilal, 23, and Ali, 22, who were
Pakistani nationals affiliated with Masood Azhar's Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM) militant organization. On
October 6th, the Indian army engaged in a firefight with militants in Kupwara district, resulting in the death
of three militants.

2016 NAGROTA ARMY BASE ATTACK

On the morning of November 29, 2016, around 5:30 AM IST, the Indian Army's base in Nagrota, Jammu and
Kashmir, was attacked by a group of militants. The attackers, dressed in Indian police uniforms, initiated the
assault on the 166 Field Regiment unit stationed in Nagrota, near Jammu city. During the initial gun battle,
four Indian Army soldiers, including one officer, lost their lives.

Subsequently, the militants split into two groups and infiltrated the residential quarters of the base, where
they engaged in gunfire using AK-47s and grenades. They also held at least two infants, two women, and
over a dozen soldiers as hostages. This led to a standoff with the security forces. The Defence public relations
office reported a situation akin to hostage-taking, which the Indian Army successfully resolved. In the

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ensuing exchange of gunfire, all three militants were killed, and the hostages were freed. However, during the
rescue operation, three more Indian soldiers, including an officer, lost their lives.

PATHANKOT ATTACK

Pathankot Air Force Station, depicted on the map of Punjab near the Pakistani border, along with Dina Nagar
and the state capital Chandigarh, was shown.

In the initial battle, four attackers and two security forces personnel were killed, with an additional security
force member succumbing to injuries hours later. The gun battle and the subsequent combing operation lasted
about 17 hours on 2 January, resulting in five attackers and three security personnel being killed.
Furthermore, three soldiers died from injuries after being admitted to the hospital, bringing the death toll to
six soldiers. On 3 January, fresh gunshots were heard, and another security officer was killed by an IED
explosion. The operation continued on 4 January, and a fifth attacker was confirmed killed. Not until a final
terrorist was reported killed on 5 January was the anti-terrorist operation declared over, though further
searches continued for some time.

The attack garnered wide international condemnation. Although the United Jihad Council, a Kashmir-based
militant group, claimed responsibility for the attack on 4 January, the attackers, who were wearing Indian
Army fatigues, were subsequently suspected to belong to Jaish-e-Mohammed, an Islamist militant group
designated as a terrorist organization by India, the US, the UK, and the UN.

The attack resulted in a breakdown in India-Pakistan relations, which remained largely unresolved as of
March 2019. Media reports suggested that the attack was an attempt to derail a fragile peace process meant to
stabilize the deteriorated relations between India and Pakistan, as several pieces of evidence were found
linking the attackers to Pakistan.

URI ATTACK

The 2016 Uri attack, occurring on September 18th, was carried out by four heavily armed militants near the
town of Uri in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. It was described as "the deadliest attack on security
forces in Kashmir in two decades." India attributed the planning and execution of the attack to the militant
group Jaish-e-Mohammed. During the attack, which took place around 5:30 a.m., an Indian Army brigade
headquarters in Uri was assaulted by the militants in a pre-dawn ambush near the Line of Control. Seventeen
grenades were reportedly hurled within three minutes, resulting in a fire that claimed the lives of 17 army
personnel. An additional 19-30 soldiers were wounded. A six-hour gun battle ensued, leading to the death of

69
all four militants. Operations to comb the area continued to eliminate any additional terrorists believed to be
present.

Most of the casualties were from the 10th battalion, Dogra Regiment, and the 6th battalion, Bihar Regiment.
One soldier succumbed to injuries on September 19th at RR Hospital in New Delhi, followed by another on
September 24th, bringing the death toll to 19. The casualties were primarily attributed to the use of non-fire
retardant transition tents during a troop shift, where troops from 6 Bihar were replacing those from 10 Dogra.
The incoming troops were housed in tents, despite the usual avoidance of such structures in sensitive areas
like Uri along the Line of Control. The attackers managed to breach heavy security and targeted specific
areas within the camp, resulting in the deaths of seven support personnel, including cooks and barbers.

AMARNATH ATTACK

After the arrests of three locals, described as "co-conspirators" in August 2017, who had been provided
logistical support to the attackers, it was stated by Munir Khan, IGP (Kashmir), that four Lashkar-e-Taiba
militants were involved in it. It was said by him that they had planned to carry out an attack a day earlier but
there was no movement of CRPF or Amarnath pilgrim vehicle in isolation. It was stated by him that it was
purely an act of terrorism carried out with the motive of spreading fear. It was added by him that a pilgrim
vehicle was there on the day of the attacks so they attacked it, had it been a CRPF vehicle, they would have
attacked it as well. It was further clarified by him that the attack was first aimed at the police post in the area
but unfortunately, the bus also came under attack.

It had earlier been investigated by the security agencies whether the bus was the target or was it incidental.
Earlier, according to IGP of Kashmir range Munir Khan and a statement by the Jammu and Kashmir Police,
the gunmen had first attacked a police bunker in Botengo which was retaliated, without any casualties being
caused in the exchange of fire. It was added by Munir that the gunmen later attacked a police post at
Khanabal with the fire being returned and the bus carrying the pilgrims being caught in the crossfire, with
seven pilgrims being killed. According to the CRPF, the gunmen had first fired at a combined picket of CRPF
and state police, after which they attacked the bus and later fired upon a camp at Arwani. The investigative
report of the state police's CID contradicted this, suggesting that the bus was attacked by two sets of
terrorists, first at a petrol pump in Batingu at 8:17 p.m and again a few minutes later after which the bus was
escorted by a police patrol van to police lines in Anantnag.

The white-colored bus number plated (GJ09Z9979) at which the firing took place carried about 50 pilgrims.
It was reported by the Indian media that the attack was carried out by 3-5 terrorists at the location of
Khanabal. Though the bus contained more than 50 people, a larger number of casualties was prevented to a
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great extent due to the actions of the bus driver named "Saleem Mirza". Despite the bus being fired on by
bullets in all directions, the bus driver continued driving the bus in a calm manner for about 1 km before
stopping at an intersection. It was said by the Inspector General of CRPF in Kashmir, Muneer Khan, that
Lashkar-e-Taiba, allegedly founded by Hafiz Saeed, was behind the attack. Seven pilgrims from Gujarat,
Maharashtra, and Telangana, including six women, were killed in the attack. Another pilgrim succumbed to
her injuries on 16 July.

2017 SUKMA ATTACK

TheSukmaattackwasanambushcarriedoutagainstIndianparamilitaryforceson24April2017 by the Communist

Party of India (Maoist) during the Naxalite-Maoist insurgency. It was the largest ambush since a similar
attack in 2010 in the neighboring district of Dantewada. The ambush took place between Burkapal and
Chintagufa in Sukma district of Chhattisgarh, India. A group of 300 Maoists attacked a 99-member troop of
the Central Reserve Police Force. Three Maoists and 25 police personnel were killed in the ensuing firefight.

2017 BHOPAL UJJAIN PASSENGER TRAIN BOMBING

On March 7, 2017, the Bhopal–Ujjain Passenger train was subjected to a terrorist attack known as the 2017
Bhopal–Ujjain Passenger train bombing. This attack occurred at Jabri railway station in the Shajapur district
of Madhya Pradesh, causing injuries to 10 passengers. The train operates between Bhopal Junction railway
station in Bhopal, the capital city of Madhya Pradesh, and Ujjain Junction railway station. It was claimed to
be the first-ever strike in India by the Islamic State. One of the suspected terrorists was later killed in an
encounter in Lucknow. The police stated that the module responsible for the attack was self-radicalized and
did not receive any financial support from the group. Six individuals were subsequently arrested. Reports
from the National Investigation Agency (NIA) revealed that the ISIS-inspired module had also conspired to
bomb a rally of Prime Minister Narendra Modi. On March 19, Indian authorities informed the media that the
terrorists involved in this attack attempted to flee India and travel to Syria or Iraq.

2018 SUNJUWAN ATTACK

On February 10, 2018, at predawn, an Indian Army camp in Sunjuwan, Jammu, in the Indian state of Jammu
and Kashmir, was attacked by Jaish-e-Mohammed fidayeen. During the attack, 11 soldiers, 4 attackers, and 1
civilian were killed, while 20 people were injured, including 14 soldiers, five women, and children. The
attack, described as one of the worst since the 2016 Uri attack, coincided with the death anniversary of Afzal
Guru, a convict in the 2001 Indian parliament attack. Mufti Waqas, described by the Indian Army as the
mastermind of the attack, was killed in an army operation on March 5, 2018, in south Kashmir's Awantipur.
The attack on the camp, housing army personnel and their families, began at around 4:10 am IST and lasted
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over 24 hours. The militants, armed with AK-47 assault rifles and grenades, entered the residential quarters,
killing four soldiers and injuring at least nine others, including women and children. The militants were
eventually cornered in a residential complex, and after a battle lasting over 24 hours, all were killed. The
army camp, comprising 150 buildings, was cleared out, and flushing operations were conducted to neutralize
any remaining attackers. Five soldiers from the 1st battalion, Jammu and Kashmir Light Infantry, were killed
in the attack, along with one civilian, who was the father of one of the soldiers. The attackers were identified
as Kari Mushtaq, Mohammad Khalid Khan, and Mohammad Adil, all of whom India claimed were Pakistan
nationals.

PULWAMA ATTACK

On 14 February 2019, a convoy of vehicles carrying security personnel on the Jammu-Srinagar National
Highway was attacked by a vehicle-borne suicide bomber at Lethpora (near Awantipora) in the Pulwama
district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. The attack resulted in the deaths of 40 Central Reserve Police Force
(CRPF) personnel and the attacker. The responsibility for the attack was claimed by the Pakistan-based
Islamist militant group Jaish-e-Mohammed. The attacker was Adil Ahmad Dar, a local from Indian-
administered Kashmir, and a member of Jaish-e-Mohammed. India has blamed Pakistan for the attack.
Pakistan condemned the attack and denied any connection to it.

On 14 February 2019, a convoy of 78 vehicles transporting more than 2,500 Central Reserve Police Force
(CRPF) personnel from Jammu to Srinagar was traveling on National Highway 44. The convoy had left
Jammu around 03:30 IST and was carrying a large number of personnel due to the highway having been shut
down for two days prior. The convoy was scheduled to reach its destination before sunset.

At Lethpora near Awantipora, around 15:15 IST, a bus carrying security personnel was rammed by a car
carrying explosives. It caused a blast which killed 40 CRPF personnel of the 76th Battalion and injured many
others. The injured were moved to the army base hospital in Srinagar.

Responsibility for the attack was claimed by the Pakistan-based militant group Jaish-e-Mohammed. A video
of the assailant, Adil Ahmad Dar, a 22-year-old from Kakapora who had joined the group a year earlier, was
also released by them. Dar's family had last seen him in March 2018, when he left his house on a bicycle one

72
day and never returned. Pakistan denied any involvement, though Jaish-e-Mohammed's leader, Masood
Azhar, is known to operate in the country.

It is the deadliest terror attack on India's state security personnel in Kashmir since 1989.

73
 Chapter 5:

The Timeline of the Naxalite–Maoist Insurgency (1960–2018)

1960–1977

 Ground had been gained by the communists in the Naxalbari region by 1965–66. The uprising was
initiated by the so-called "Siliguri Group," who called for armed struggle, leading to the creation of
many peasant cells throughout the region.
 On March 3, 1967, a plot of land in the region was seized by some peasants who began harvesting
crops. By March 18, peasants started seizing land from jotedars (large landowners in the region).
 The inspector of Jharugaon village was killed by members of the peasant committee. In retaliation,
the police opened fire, resulting in the deaths of nine women and one child on May 25, 1967.
 The Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) was formed by the All India Coordination
Committee of Communist Revolutionaries (AICCCR) at a congress in Calcutta in 1969. The
foundation of the party was declared by Kanu Sanyal at a mass meeting in Calcutta on April 22
(Lenin's birthday).
 In 1975, Emergency was declared by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi due to internal trouble. The Indira
government fell after a huge loss in the 1977 election.

1977-1990

 On April 22, 1980, the Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) People's War, commonly known
as the People's War Group (PWG), was founded by Kondapalli Seetharamaiah.
 On February 12, 1992, 36 people belonging to the Bhumihar community were killed in Bara village
under the jurisdiction of Gaya district in Bihar.

74
  On December 1, 1997, believing that the Dalits in the village, mostly poor and landless, were
sympathizers of Maoists behind the Bara village massacre, the upper caste Ranvir Sena entered
Laxmanpur Bathe village in Arwal district in Bihar and massacred 58 Dalits.
 On March 18, 1999, 34 people belonging to the Bhumihar community were killed in Senari village
under the jurisdiction of Jehanabad district in Bihar.

2000

 Founded on September 21, 2004, through the merger of the Communist Party of India (Marxist–
Leninist) People's War (People's War Group) and the Maoist Communist Centre of India (MCCI), the
Communist Party of India (Maoist) emerged.

 In February 2005, a mass attack on a school building in Venkatammanahalli village, Pavgada,

Tumkur, Karnataka, resulted in the killing of 7 policemen, a civilian, and injuries to many, carried out
by the CPI (Maoist).

 On August 17, 2005, the government of Andhra Pradesh took steps to outlaw the Communist Party of
India (Maoist) and various affiliated mass organizations, followed by arrests of suspected members
and sympathizers, including former emissaries involved in peace talks of 2004.

 On November 13, 2005, Jehanabad in Bihar witnessed an attack by CPI (Maoist) fighters, leading to
the freeing of 250 captured comrades, the execution of twenty imprisoned paramilitaries, and the
detonation of several bombs in the town, resulting in the reported death of a prison guard.

 February 28, 2006, saw an attack by Maoists in Erraboru village in Chhattisgarh, using landmines
against anti-Maoist protesters, resulting in the deaths of 25 people.

 March 24, 2006, witnessed a raid by over 500 heavily armed rebels on police camps in Udayagiri
town of Gajapati district in Orissa, resulting in the freeing of 40 prisoners from a sub-jail.

75
 July 16, 2006, saw an attack by Maoists on a relief camp in Dantewada district, resulting in the
kidnapping of several villagers and a death toll of 29.

 On October 18, 2006, government buildings in the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh were blasted by
women belonging to Maoist guerrilla forces. The day before, armed cadres blocked traffic and
detonated explosives, including in schools in Kanker district, coinciding with the surrender of a
major leader, Kone Kedandam, to authorities.

 December 2, 2006, witnessed an ambush near Bokaro, Jharkhand, resulting in the deaths of at least
14 Indian policemen by Maoists.

 March 4, 2007, marked the shooting death of a member of parliament, Sunil Mahato, of the
Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) party, by Maoists.

 March 5, 2007, saw the shooting death of a local Congress leader, Komati Prakash, by Maoists in
Andhra Pradesh, amidst suspicions of involvement by political rivals or organized criminal groups.

 March 15, 2007, witnessed an attack by CPI (Maoist) cadres on a police base camp in the Bastar
region, resulting in the death of 54 individuals, including security personnel and tribal youths.

 June 29, 2008, saw an attack by CPI(M) forces on a boat on the Balimela reservoir in Orissa,
resulting in the deaths of 38 troops and the continued search for missing weapons.

 July 16, 2008, saw a landmine hit a police van in Malkangiri district, resulting in the deaths of 21
policemen.

76
 April 13, 2009, witnessed the deaths of 10 paramilitary troops in eastern Orissa during a Maoist
attack on a bauxite mine in the Koraput district.

 May 22, 2009, saw Naxalite guerrillas ambush a police party in Gadchiroli district, resulting in the
deaths of 16 policemen.

 June 10, 2009, witnessed the deaths of nine policemen, including paramilitary jawans and a CRPF
officer, in a Naxalite attack during routine patrol in Saranda jungle.

 June 13, 2009, saw two daylight attacks by Naxalites near Bokaro, resulting in the deaths of 10
policemen and injuries to several others.

 June 16, 2009, witnessed the deaths of four policemen when Maoists ambushed them in Palamau
district.

 June 16, 2009, saw the deaths of 11 police officers in a landmine attack followed by gunfire between
police and suspected Maoist rebels.

 June 23, 2009, saw armed Naxal rebels open fire at the Lakhisarai district court premises in Bihar
during a Bandh, resulting in the freeing of four comrades and subsequent banning of the Communist
Party of India (Maoist) by the Indian government.

 July 12, 2009, witnessed the deaths of at least 29 Indian Policemen in an ambush attack by Maoist
rebels in Chhattisgarh.

 September 19, 2009, saw a fierce gun battle between CoBRA, CRPF, and Naxals, resulting in the
deaths of over 50 Naxals and around 200 captured, with 20 soldiers reported missing.

77
 October 6, 2009, marked the discovery of the body of a policeman kidnapped a week earlier by
Maoist rebels in Jharkhand.

 October 8, 2009, saw the deaths of at least 17 members of the Indian Police, including a top
commander, in an ambush attack by Maoist rebels in Maharashtra, following an attack on a police
station in Gadchiroli district.

 November 11, 2009, witnessed the launch of Operation Green Hunt by India, deploying 50,000
soldiers in a massive military offensive planned to last two years with the aim of rooting out
insurgents and bringing stability to affected regions.

 The Communist Party of India (Maoist) was founded on September 21, 2004, through the merger of
the Communist Party of India (Marxist–Leninist) People's War (People's War Group) and the Maoist
Communist Centre of India (MCCI).
 In February 2005, the CPI (Maoist) launched a mass attack on a school building in
Venkatammanahalli village, Karnataka, killing 7 policemen and a civilian. On August 17, 2005, the
government of Andhra Pradesh outlawed the CPI (Maoist) and associated organizations, leading to
arrests of suspected members and sympathizers.
 On November 13, 2005, CPI (Maoist) fighters attacked Jehanabad in Bihar, freeing 250 captured
comrades and executing their leader, along with detonating bombs in the town.
 On February 28, 2006, Maoists attacked anti-Maoist protesters in Erraboru village in Chhattisgarh,
killing 25 people with landmines.
 On March 24, 2006, over 500 heavily armed rebels attacked police camps in Orissa's Udayagiri town,
freeing 40 prisoners.
 On July 16, 2006, Maoists attacked a relief camp in Dantewada district, kidnapping several villagers
and resulting in 29 deaths.
 On October 18, 2006, Maoist guerrilla forces blasted four government buildings in the Bastar region
of Chhattisgarh.

78
2013

 In May 2013, an attack occurred in Darbha valley resulting in the deaths of around 25 Indian
National Congress leaders, including the former state minister Mahendra Karma and the Chhattisgarh
Congress chief Nand Kumar Patel.

 On June 2, 2013, an attack resulted in the deaths of at least five policemen, including the Pakur
Superintendent of Police.

 In December 2013, seven policemen lost their lives in Aurangabad district, Bihar when their vehicle
was blown up in a landmine blast.

2014

 In February 2014, six police personnel, including a Station House Officer (SHO), were killed in a
Maoist attack in Chhattisgarh.

 On March 11, 2014, sixteen people, including eleven CRPF personnel, four policemen, and one
civilian, were killed in a deadly ambush in a densely forested area of Gheeram Ghati in Sukma
district of Chhattisgarh.

 On May 11, 2014, seven police commandos were killed in a Maoist landmine blast in the forests of
Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra.

2016

 In December 2016, a CRPF trooper was killed and another wounded as Maoists set off three
Improvised Explosive Device (IED) blasts and fired at separate places in Chhattisgarh's Bastar.

2017
79
 In January 2017, at least four Naxalites, including a woman and a police jawan, were killed in a
fierce gun battle between rebels and security forces.

 In January 2017, at least two women and a minor girl were killed while four others were injured
when a pressure land mine, suspected to have been laid by Naxals, exploded.

 In January 2017, Maoists set on fire at least 15 vehicles and machines engaged in road construction
works in Chhattisgarh's Bijapur district.

 In February 2017, at least eight policemen were killed in a landmine blast suspected to have been
carried out by Maoist rebels in Koraput region.

 In March 2017, four Maoists, including a self-styled zonal commander, were killed in a fierce gun
battle with security forces in Banskatwa forest area in Bihar's Gaya district.

 In March 2017, suspected Maoist rebels killed eleven paramilitary commandos and injured three
police officers in Chhattisgarh after ambushing their convoy.

 In March 2017, six suspected Maoists were killed in a gunfight with security forces in Dantewada
district of Chhattisgarh.

 In April 2017, during the Sukma attack, suspected Maoist rebels ambushed a group of Central
Reserve Police Force officers who were guarding road workers in Sukma district of Chhattisgarh. At
least 25 CRPF soldiers were killed and 7 others were critically injured in the attack, which was one
of the deadliest in recent years.

80
  In April 2017, an exchange of fire took place between police and Naxals in Chhattisgarh's
insurgency-hit Gariaband district. However, no casualties were reported from either side.

2018

 In January 2018, a Central Reserve Police Force jawan was killed after receiving a bullet injury in the
head during an exchange of fire between Naxalites in the hills of Chakarbandha on the border of
Gaya and Aurangabad districts.

 In January 2018, Naxalites gunned down the village sarpanch of Chindugarh village near Kolenj in
Bastar district of Chhattisgarh.

 In January 2018, a policeman was injured after Naxalites triggered an improvised explosive device
near a market in Chhattisgarh's insurgency-hit Dantewada district.

 In January 2018, four police personnel, including two sub-inspectors, were killed and seven others
injured in a gunfight with Naxals in Chhattisgarh's Narayanpur district.

 In February 2018, a District Reserve Guard was killed when a pressure bomb planted by Naxalites
went off in Chhattisgarh's Bijapur district.

 In February 2018, two personnel of the Chhattisgarh police and a civilian were killed and six others
injured in a gunfight with the outlawed CPI (Maoist) at Bhejji in Sukma district, south Chhattisgarh.
The security forces killed one Maoist in another exchange of fire at Errabore.

 In February 2018, two Chhattisgarh Armed Force personnel, including an assistant platoon
commander, were injured in a blast carried out by Naxalites in Chhattisgarh's Bijapur district.

81
 In February 2018, three security personnel were injured in an encounter with Naxalites in
Chhattisgarh's Dantewada district.

 In March 2018, an encounter between Naxalites and the police left 12 Naxalite fighters, including the
Telangana Naxalite secretary, and one Greyhounds constable dead in Chhattisgarh's Bijapur district.

 In March 2018, an encounter with Naxalites in Chhattisgarh's Kanker district killed two BSF
personnel.

 In March 2018, Naxalites shot dead a former police officer and burned three buses in Chhattisgarh's
Bastar district.

 In March 2018, a Naxalite IED exploded in Chhattisgarh's Sukma district, killing 9 CRPF soldiers.

 In March 2018, Odisha police killed 4 Naxalite fighters in a shootout in Odisha's Narayanpatna
district.

 In March 2018, a Naxalite ambush and IED explosion injured one CRPF officer in Chhattisgarh's
Sukma district.

 In April 2018, a shootout between Naxalites and the police killed three Naxalites in Maharashtra's
Gadchiroli district.

 In April 2018, a Naxalite-planted bomb killed two policemen and injured 5 civilians in Chhattisgarh's
Bijapur district.

82
 From April 22 to 24, 2018, 37 Naxalite fighters were killed in a three-day gun battle with police in
Maharashtra's Gadchiroli district.

 In April 2018, fighting in Chhattisgarh's Bijapur district killed 7 Naxalites.

 In May 2018, Naxalites opened fire in Chhattisgarh's Rajnandgaon district, killing a constable and
injuring a civilian.

 In May 2018, an encounter between the Naxalites and the police left two Naxalites dead in Odisha's
Bolangir district.

 In May 2018, six policemen were killed by a roadside bomb planted by the Naxalites in
Chhattisgarh's Dantewada district.

 In May 2018, Naxalites killed two rebels in Bihar's Buxar district on suspicion of being police
informers.

83
 

Chapter-6

The Process of Countering Terrorism at the International Level

Counter-terrorism encompasses actions, tactics, techniques, and strategies employed by various

governmental, military, law enforcement, business, and intelligence entities to combat or prevent terrorism.
These strategies involve efforts to counter the financing of terrorist activities.

When terrorism is part of a larger insurgency, counter-terrorism efforts may include counter-insurgency
measures. For instance, the United States Armed Forces utilize the term "foreign internal defense" for
programs aimed at assisting other nations in suppressing insurgency, lawlessness, or subversion, or reducing
the conditions conducive to these threats to security.

Planning and Management:

Counter-terrorism strategies typically involve enhanced police presence and domestic intelligence gathering.
Key activities include intercepting communications and tracing individuals. Advancements in technology
have expanded the capabilities of military and law enforcement operations. Domestic intelligence often
targets specific groups based on factors like origin or religion, which can spark political controversy. Mass
surveillance of entire populations raises civil liberties concerns. Homegrown terrorists, particularly lone
wolves, are challenging to detect due to citizenship or legal status.

Effective action against terrorism requires understanding the motivations, methods, and tactics of terrorist
groups. This necessitates good intelligence gathering, as well as political and social comprehension of
grievances. Counterintelligence poses a significant challenge due to the secretive nature of terrorist cells.
Financial tracking and communications interception can aid in intelligence gathering but must be balanced
against privacy expectations.65

Legal Contexts:
65
Richards, Anthony (2015), Conceptualizing Terrorism, Oxford: OUP.
84
The United Kingdom has had anti-terrorism legislation in place for decades, which has been periodically
reviewed. Similarly, the United States has enacted various laws and executive orders to enhance national
security in response to terrorism threats.66

Australia has also passed several anti-terrorism acts, albeit controversially, due to their impact on civil
liberties. Israel has stringent laws against terrorism, including targeted killings as a form of self-defense. 67

Human Rights:

Implementing effective counter-terrorism measures often involves curtailing civil liberties and individual
privacy, which can lead to human rights violations. Instances of prolonged detention without trial, torture,
and abuse of power have been documented in various countries. Critics argue that such violations could
worsen the terrorist threat. Human rights protection is deemed crucial in the fight against terrorism, as it can
contribute to overall security. In summary, the process of countering terrorism at the international level
involves a multifaceted approach that balances security concerns with respect for human rights and civil
liberties.68

LEGAL CONTEXT

UNITED KINGDOM(U.K.)

In the legal context of the United Kingdom, anti-terrorism legislation has been in place for more than thirty
years. The Prevention of Violence Act 1939 was enacted in response to a campaign of violence by the Irish
Republican Army (IRA) known as the S-Plan. This act expired in 1953 and was repealed in 1973, being

66
Roshandel, Jalil and Nathan Lean (2013), The Moral Psychology of Terrorism: Implications for Security, Newcastle
upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
67
Roy Chowdhury, P. (1986), The North East: Roots of Insurgency, Calcutta: Firma Klm.
68
Rockmore, Tom et al. (2005), The Philosophical Challenges of September 11, Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
85
replaced by the Prevention of Terrorism Acts as a response to the Troubles in Northern Ireland. From 1974 to
1989, the temporary provisions of the act were renewed annually.69

In 2000, these Acts were replaced with the more permanent Terrorism Act 2000, which included many of
their powers, and then the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005.

The Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was formally introduced into Parliament on November 19,
2001, two months after the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States. It received royal assent and came
into force on December 13, 2001. On December 16, 2004, it was ruled by the Law Lords that Part 4 was
incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, but under the terms of the Human Rights Act
1998, it remained in force. The Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 was drafted in response to the Law Lords'
ruling, and the Terrorism Act 2006 introduces new offenses related to terrorism and amends existing ones.
The Act was drafted in the aftermath of the 7 July 2005 London bombings, and like its predecessors, some of
its terms have proven to be highly controversial.

Since 1978, the UK's terrorism laws have been regularly reviewed by an Independent Reviewer of Terrorism
Legislation, who submits influential reports to Parliament and publishes them in full, having been cleared for
security reasons.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA(U.S.A.)

Legal issues in the United States surrounding this matter include rulings on the domestic use of deadly force
by law enforcement organizations. Search and seizure is governed by the Fourth Amendment to the United
States Constitution. The USA PATRIOT Act was passed by the U.S. after the September 11 attacks, along
with various other laws and executive orders related to national security. The Department of Homeland
Security was established to consolidate domestic security agencies to coordinate anti-terrorism efforts, as
well as national responses to major natural disasters and accidents. The Posse Comitatus Act limits the
domestic deployment of the United States Army and the United States Air Force, requiring Presidential
approval before their deployment. Pentagon policy extends this limitation to the United States Marine Corps
and the United States Navy, despite the Act not explicitly covering naval services. The Department of
69
Sangama, Purno A. (2002), ―Discussion on the Prevention of Terrorism Bill, 2002, moved by Shri L.K. Advani. (Bill
Passed.)‖, http://loksabhaph.nic.in/Debates/Result13.aspx?dbsl=3795
86
Defense can be deployed domestically on Presidential order, as seen during events like the Los Angeles riots
of 1992, Hurricane Katrina, and the Beltway Sniper incidents. The use of lethal force externally or
internationally would necessitate a Presidential finding. In February 2017, sources claimed that the Trump
administration intended to rename and restructure the U.S. government program Countering Violent
Extremism (CVE) to solely focus on Islamist extremism.70

AUSTRALIA

Several anti-terrorism acts have been passed by Australia. In 2004, a bill consisting of three acts, namely the
Anti-terrorism Act, 2004 (No 1), (No 2), and (No 3), was passed. The Anti-terrorism bill, 2004, was
introduced by the then Attorney-General, Philip Ruddock, on March 31. It was described as "a bill to
strengthen Australia's counter-terrorism laws in a number of respects – a task made more urgent following the
recent tragic terrorist bombings in Spain." It was stated that Australia's counter-terrorism laws "require
review and, where necessary, updating if we are to have a legal framework capable of safeguarding all
Australians from the scourge of terrorism." The powers of the earlier acts were supplemented by the
Australian Anti-Terrorism Act 2005. The Australian legislation permits the detention of suspects for up to two
weeks without charge and the electronic tracking of suspects for up to a year. The Australian Anti-Terrorism
Act of 2005 included a "shoot-to-kill" clause. In a country with entrenched liberal democratic traditions, the
measures are controversial and have been criticized by civil libertarians and Islamic groups. 71

ISRAEL

A list of designated terrorist organizations is monitored by Israel, and laws have been established to forbid
membership in such organizations, as well as any funding or assistance provided to them.

On December 14, 2006, targeted killings were ruled by the Israeli Supreme Court as a permitted form of self-
defense. In 2016, a comprehensive law against terrorism was passed by the Israeli Knesset, which forbids any
form of terrorism and support for terrorism, and imposes severe punishments for terrorists. The law also
regulates legal actions against terrorism.72

70
Sahni, Varun (2003), ―Fractured, Frightened and Frustrated: South Asia after September 11,‖ in Dipankar Banerjee
and Gert W. Kueck (eds), South Asia and the War on Terrorism: Analysing the Implications of September 11, New
Delhi: India Research Press.
71
Sengupta, P. (2015), ―Foreign Exchange and Management Act, 1999‖, URL:
https://www.lawctopus.com/academike/foreign-exchange-management-act- 1999/
72
Singh, Prakash (2001), Kohima to Kashmir on terrorist trail, New Delhi: Rupa & Co.; Shughart II, William F. (2006),
―An Analytical History of Terrorism, 1945-2000‖, Public Choice, (128 1-2): 7-39.
87
HUMAN RIGHTS

John Walker Lindh was captured as an enemy combatant during the United States' 2001 invasion of
Afghanistan. One of the primary difficulties encountered in implementing effective counter-terrorist measures
is the erosion of civil liberties and individual privacy that such measures often involve, both for citizens and
for those detained by states attempting to combat terror. Measures designed to tighten security have been seen
as abuses of power or even violations of human rights. Examples of these problems can include prolonged,
incommunicado detention without judicial review or long periods of 'preventive detention'; the risk of
subjecting individuals to torture during their transfer, return, and extradition between or within countries; and
the adoption of security measures that restrict the rights or freedoms of citizens and breach principles of non-
discrimination.73

In November 2003, new counter-terrorism laws were passed in Malaysia, which were widely criticized by
local human rights groups for being vague and overbroad. Critics claimed that the laws jeopardized basic
rights such as free expression, association, and assembly. Malaysia persisted in holding around 100 alleged
militants without trial, including five Malaysian students detained for alleged terrorist activity while studying
in Karachi, Pakistan.

In November 2003, Maher Arar, a Canadian-Syrian national, alleged publicly that he had been tortured in a
Syrian prison after being handed over to the Syrian authorities by the US.

In December 2003, Colombia's congress approved legislation that would grant the military the power to
arrest, tap telephones, and carry out searches without warrants or any previous judicial order.

Images depicting the unpopular treatment of detainees in US custody in Iraq and other locations have led to
international scrutiny of US operations in the war on terror.

73
Singha, Radhika (1993), ―Providential Circumstances: The Thuggee Campaign of the 1830s and Legal Innovation‖,
Modern Asian Studies, 27 (1): 83-146.
88
Hundreds of foreign nationals remain in prolonged indefinite detention without charge or trial in Guantánamo
Bay, despite international and US constitutional standards; some groups believe such practices to be
outlawed.

Hundreds of people suspected of connections with the Taliban or al-Qaeda remain in long-term detention in
Pakistan or in US-controlled centers in Afghanistan.

China has used the "war on terror" to justify its policies in the predominantly Muslim Xinjiang Uighur
Autonomous Region to suppress Uighur identity.

In Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia, Yemen, and other countries, scores of people have been arrested and
arbitrarily detained in connection with suspected terrorist acts or links to opposition armed groups.

Until 2005, eleven men remained in high-security detention in the UK under the Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and
Security Act 2001.

Many argue that such violations could exacerbate rather than counter the terrorist threat. Human rights
advocates argue for the crucial role of human rights protection as an intrinsic part of the fight against
terrorism. This suggests, as proponents of human security have long argued, that respecting human rights
may indeed help to enhance security. Amnesty International included a section on confronting terrorism in the
recommendations in the Madrid Agenda arising from the Madrid Summit on Democracy and Terrorism.

89
 Chapter-7

Conclusion and Suggestions

Terrorism, often referred to as the "cancer of the modern world," has become a growing threat to societal
order, undermining development, economic stability, and democratic institutions. It is recognized as one of
the most challenging issues of our time. The phenomenon, characterized as an unethical and low-cost
surrogate war, not only restricts the full enjoyment of human rights but also jeopardizes the stability of
numerous societies worldwide.74

India, situated in a region known as a hotbed for terrorism, has been a victim of this menace for the past two
decades. Recent years have seen terrorism, violence, natural disasters, and economic fluctuations testing the
nation's resilience, underscoring the necessity for robust monitoring and response mechanisms.

Terrorism is largely supported from outside the country, primarily by Pakistan and China, which employ it as
a tool of state policy. Despite India's efforts to foster a supportive neighborhood, it has faced challenges from
neighboring countries like Pakistan, which have historically harbored and supported terrorist elements
antagonistic to India. India has taken measures such as border fencing along the Line of Control in Jammu
and Kashmir and with Bangladesh to mitigate the impact of such hostilities, particularly infiltration
attempts.75

The eruption of militancy in Kashmir in the late 1980s was not a sudden occurrence but rather the
culmination of long-standing political complexities. The growth of militancy in the region can be attributed to
a combination of internal and external factors, including the denial of basic human needs and civil liberties,
which alienated certain segments of the Kashmiri population. Pakistan, a traditional rival in the Kashmir
dispute, capitalized on the situation by providing military training and sophisticated weaponry to young
Kashmiri Muslims, fueling armed conflict in the region.

74
Srivastav, V.P. (2005), ―Prevention of Terrorist Act: Myth and Reality‖, Delhi: Indian Publisher and Distributors.
75
Stephen, Vertigan (2011), Sociology of Terrorism: People, Places and Processes, New York, NY: Routledge.
90
The sponsorship of cross-border terrorism by Pakistan nearly led to war between the two countries in 2002,
prompting India to deploy a large number of troops along its borders and sever diplomatic ties with Pakistan.
Incidents such as terrorist attacks on the Kashmir Assembly, the Indian Parliament, and army camps in
Jammu underscore Pakistan's dual policy approach. In response, some in India advocated for decisive action,
drawing parallels with the United States' right to self-defense. However, the escalation of conflict between
nuclear-armed nations like India and Pakistan presents inherent risks, as both sides possess nuclear
capabilities and any conflict could lead to mutual destruction.

Reconciliation between India and Pakistan in the twenty-first century faces the significant obstacle of the
nuclear factor. Both countries must acknowledge the changing global landscape and the pressures to resolve
their differences. Overcoming past prejudices and perceptions is essential for establishing lasting peace and
stability in the region.76

THE WAY FORWARD

Significant concessions over Kashmir are still hesitated to be made by India and Pakistan, even as they
propose to break away from the past. The only progress made so far is that Jammu & Kashmir has been
agreed by India to be brought onto the agenda of the composite dialogue process, and Pakistan has expressed
its willingness to explore options other than the United Nations resolutions. However, this progress has only
been placed on the table and does not promise much beyond the current stage. 77

Already mentioned, one significant step forward has been the agreement over the Srinagar-Muzaffarabad bus
service. With the first bus on the Srinagar-Muzaffarabad road rolling out against the backdrop of a militant
attack in Srinagar on April 6, 2005, India and Pakistan have initiated the biggest gamble ever on Kashmir.
The decision to settle the 'United Nations document' and 'passport' issues shows that both sides have the
capacity to make adjustments. The two discarded options had a linkage with their respective official stands on
the status of Kashmir. Many more such mutual concessions would be required from both sides in future talks.
It would not be an exaggeration to say that the historic agreement over the bus service is one step forward
towards converging the 'problem of Kashmir' and the 'problem is Kashmir' approaches at some mutually
76
Strachan, H. (2007), ―British Counter-Insurgency from Malaya to Iraq,‖ RUSI Journal, 152 (6): 8-11.
77
Stump, Jacob L. and Priya Dixit (2013), Critical Terrorism Studies: An Introduction to research Method, New York:
Routledge.
91
agreed positions.78 The peace process does show mutual willingness to move forward. However, there
remains a challenge to convert the willingness into settlements on other issues. The wounds of Kargil and
terrorist strikes in J&K prevent India from showing flexibility beyond its stated positions. In such a situation,
Pakistan's periodic outbursts of going back to its 'fall back' position on J&K will undoubtedly stymie the
rapprochement underway. The ongoing controversy over the Baghliar Dam in Doda district and Pakistan's
decision to approach the World Bank rather than seeking a solution bilaterally could prove detrimental to the
future of the peace process.

Given India's willingness to discuss the Kashmir issue, Pakistan must be open to discussing proposals such as
'greater autonomy' and an 'integrated Kashmir', to be followed by demilitarization of the area and free
movement of people and trade from the two sides. All concerned parties, including the All Party Hurriyat
Conference (APHC), would require molding their official positions to facilitate solutions that could improve
the lives of the people of Jammu and Kashmir. The situation demands flexibility by all acting on such lives
could eventually be a 'win-win' situation for all. The concepts of 'autonomy', 'integration', and 'soft border' are
worth a try. The concept of a 'linked' Kashmir (through bus services and trade exchanges) with a 'soft border'
gives Pakistan the satisfaction of changing the status quo; to the people of Jammu and Kashmir, dividends of
the linking are in the form of trade, family reunions, and peaceful backwards; and to India, it provides a
solution within the parameters of the constitution. 79 India wants from Pakistan - dismantling of terrorist
camps, taking action against those involved in terror attacks, and handing over fugitives of Indian laws like
the chief of the banned Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM), Masood Azhar. The Indian authorities have claimed that
they have intercepts of telephone conversations between the terrorists operating in Mumbai during the attack
and their handlers in Pakistan. It would seem the US and UK authorities, who operate worldwide signal
intelligence services, have the same evidence. Possibly, the Russians and Chinese, too, have similar intercept
evidence. The Pakistanis are in a position to investigate these themselves and they do not need any evidence
from outside if they are honest in their intentions. But by demanding evidence and casting doubts on
Pakistani and British media disclosures about Ajmal Kasab, the Pakistani Government and sections of the
Pakistani media have revealed themselves to be helpless pawns in the hands of the ISI. 80

78
Stern, Jessica (1999), The Ultimate Terrorist, London: Harvard University Press.
79
Subramanian, Nirupama (2015), ―Global anti-terror compact: why India wants one, where it is stuck‖, :
http://indianexpress.com/article/explained/global-anti-terror-compact-why-india-wants-one- where-it-is-stuck/
80
Swami, Praveen (2007), India, Pakistan and the Secret Jihad: The Covert war in Kashmir, 1947- 2004, London,
Routledge.
92
It is certain that India has to carry out many internal reforms and address many political and administrative
shortcomings in the wake of this attack. However, there can be no doubt that the most immediate task to be
attended to is to ensure that future attacks of this type are reduced to a minimum and the damage they can do
to the country and society are limited to the extent possible.

SUGGESTIONS

The continuation of terrorist strikes and unabated killings will persist until a genuine, sincere, and selfless
decision is made to protect mankind and reject the pursuit of superiority. The following suggestions are being
proposed to address the grave threat posed by cross-border terrorism at the national level:

1. Economic Development: As discussed earlier, economic factors contribute significantly to turmoil in most
developing societies. Neglect of bordering nations, primarily due to their proximity to disturbed areas,
exacerbates this issue. It is perhaps time for neighboring countries, especially Pakistan and India, to prioritize
their economic growth over contentious political and territorial disputes. In the case of Kashmir, devolution
of fiscal powers and focused development programs could lead to more effective problem-solving. Despite
India's substantial investment in Kashmir, resources rarely reach the masses, highlighting the need for
decentralized economic initiatives. India, as a mature democracy, has an advantage over Pakistan in this
regard. Pakistan, politically unstable and reliant on narcotics trade for economic growth, must diversify into
manufacturing and services sectors to sustain growth. Improved relations with India could bolster Pakistan's
economy and enhance its global integration.81

2. Strengthening Administrative Institutions: It's often thought that the problem originates in the culture of
Border States, or perhaps the nation itself, and that there's not much anyone can do about it. While it's true
that economic and democratic development won't happen without cultural changes, presuming that cultural
changes alone will solve the issue is incorrect.82

Cultural changes happen slowly, but institutions can be changed rapidly. If institutions effectively generate
new expectations and norms, culture will adapt accordingly. Civic education and organizational efforts can

81
Id.
82
Swami, Praveen (2011), ―Bombing exposes India‘s Counter Terrorism Efforts‖, The Hindu, [Online: web] URL:
http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/bombings-expose-indias-counterterror- effort/article2224840.ece
93
foster new, more civic norms. However, these will only be sustainable if the institutions of a civic community
are in place. J&K's state needs a complete institutional overhaul. 83

The institutions needed to establish a rule of law and a climate of peace, predictability, and order include:

- An independent and professional judicial system.

- A transparent and efficient banking system (including an independent central bank).

- Effective rules, regulations, and oversight agencies governing banking, capital markets, and
commerce.

- Rules and institutions to curb corruption by monitoring and, when necessary, punishing the conduct
of public officials.

- A domestic policing system that enables people to invest, produce, and exchange freely without fear
of extortion from the state or criminals.

- A tax system that collects sufficient revenue to finance these and other public goods.

3. EFFECTIVE GOVERNANCE

One major challenge ahead is to ensure effective and good governance in Bordering States in India. An action
plan on good governance is needed.84 This includes:

- A comprehensive legal framework defended and enforced by an impartial and competent judicial system.

- A framework that would be accountable and open.

- A transparent executive decision-making apparatus.

- A system coupled with a capable, efficient, and people-friendly bureaucracy.

- Lastly, a strong civil society.

83
Vajpayee, A.B. (2002), ―Further discussion on the Motion of Thanks on the President‘s Address moved by Shri Vijay
Kumar Malhotra and seconded by Shri Anant Ganga Ram Geete on 15th March, 2002. (Concluded)‖, Speech delivered
on 16 March 2002 in Loksabha: New Delhi.
84
Id.
94
According to some independent reports, effective governance, especially in J&K, requires the following:

- Making power generation a key priority.

- Giving more emphasis to primary and vocational education.

- Energizing the state civil services, including the judiciary and legal profession.

- Strengthening the state's human rights commission.

- Rehabilitating Kashmiri Pandits.

There is a need for an accountable, streamlined, and people-sensitive administration machinery, a speedy
grievance redressal system that includes an upright and effective judiciary, and of course, a revival of
Kashmir's traditionally tolerant society and its expression in the form of Kashmiriyat are required. All these
factors have been absent in the state for most of the last decade. Only if these are in place can we hope for a
politically and socially stable J&K.85

In the Kashmir valley, there is an overwhelming sentiment against violence irrespective of its origin and
intent. Militancy has clearly lost its popular legitimacy. Several surveys and opinion polls have proved that
over 90 percent of Kashmiris disapprove of violence. Good governance involves not merely the maintenance
of law and order but also taking into account the basic needs of human beings and protecting their
constitutional and other rights. Human rights protection in Jammu and Kashmir requires that they should
enjoy economic, social, and political rights. Only good governance can lead to the revival of Kashmir's
traditionally tolerant society and its expression in the form of Kashmiriyat. All these factors were nursing in
Kashmir in the last decade.86

The war on terrorism cannot stop at military victories. India must help and induce a predatory and messy
administration in J&K to develop civic institutions and norms. Only then will the state be able to sustain good

85
Vajpayee, A.B. (2003), ―Efforts to improve relations between India and Pakistan‖, Speech delivered on 2 May 2003
in Rajyasabha: New Delhi.
86
Vajpayee, A.B. (2003), Speech delivered on 18 December 2003 in Rajyasabha: New Delhi.
95
governance and development progress, and thereby regain the confidence of the people. Only then can India
achieve a lasting victory in the war against terrorism.87

4. REHABILITATION OF KASHMIRI PANDITS AND IMMIGRANTS FROM ACROSS THE

BORDER

January 19 is considered an insignificant day by most people around the world. It passes by unnoticed.
However, for the past 21 years, it has been the day that brings back frightening memories for one community.
It is the day when the final blow to the forsaken community of Kashmiri Hindus was delivered. Islamic
terrorists and their sympathizers issued a 24-hour eviction notice to Kashmiri Hindus. Threats of conversion,
death, or escape replaced the evening prayers from most mosques in the Kashmir valley. 88

On this day, secularism ceased to exist in Kashmir. It will remain etched in the memories of Kashmiri Hindus
worldwide because on this day, they lost their homeland, the most precious thing they had. It has been 21
years since the first signs of ethnic cleansing of Kashmiri Hindus began. And for 21 years, successive
governments in Jammu and Kashmir and in Delhi have neglected them.89

Kashmiri Hindu refugees, who were rendered homeless overnight on January 19, 1990, have been struggling
to assert their fundamental rights. However, they are largely ignored because their numbers are considered
too small to matter. It is shameful that the Kashmiri Hindus, the sole symbol of India in the valley, are treated
as outcasts by the government.90

If it were not for the Kashmiri Hindus and their steadfast belief in the Indian constitution and flag, Kashmir
would have been lost long ago. Unfortunately, this realization seems to escape the Indian polity and
government. Not only governments but even the media have forgotten their responsibility to highlight the
plight of those who have no voice.91

87
Vas, E. A. (1986), Terrorism and Insurgency: The Challenge of Modernization, Dehradun: Natraj Publishers.
88
Verghese, B. G. (1996), India‘s Northeast Resurgent, Delhi: Konark Publishers.
89
Verma, A. K. (2002), Kargil: Blood on the Snow: Tactical Victory, Strategic Failure, New Delhi: Manohar.
90
Vertigan, Stephen (2011), The Sociology of Terrorism- People, Places and Processes, London: Routledge.
91
Weinberg, Leonard (2012), The End of Terrorism, New York: Routledge.
96
These days, mainstream media is more interested in trivial matters like reality TV shows than in fighting for
the fundamental rights of those who have been wronged. Some prominent journalists have turned journalism
into tabloid yellow journalism and are busy lobbying for political parties. It is shameful that even in a free
country like ours with a free press, half a million Kashmiri Hindus have been driven out of their homes and
mainstream media has continued to ignore this for 21 years.

Nevertheless, the Kashmiri Hindu community has survived. Despite efforts by Islamic terrorists to annihilate
them, they have persevered. Their resilience and belief in their values and morals have kept them alive. As
they enter their 22nd year in exile, they remain determined to reclaim their homeland.

Despite the world's apathy, Kashmiri Hindus will continue to fight for their rights and homeland in the Vale
of Kashmir. Indian governments, human rights organizations, the media, and other world bodies may
continue to ignore one of the largest ethnic cleansings in recent times, but that will not deter Kashmiri Hindus
from pursuing their dream.

The government has been implementing a program for the rehabilitation of Kashmiri Pandits by offering
them employment, transit, and accommodation facilities. However, this is just a small step. Until the sense of
security that was taken away from Kashmiri Pandits is restored, they may not return home. Urgent measures
are needed to provide them with that sense of security. This approach is applicable to all immigrants residing
in border states and requires the government's attention.

5. STRONGER BORDER MANAGEMENT

The security of the country is significantly affected by the Indo-China and Indo-Pak borders, thus posing a
challenge to border management. The Indo-Pakistan border, being lengthy and densely populated, shares a
common history, culture, language, and heritage among its inhabitants. Many of the current problems stem
from this shared background. The issue of managing this border extends beyond mere security to preserving
the economic interests of the people, which heavily rely on mutual trade and interdependence.

97
Historically neglected, the border areas have remained underdeveloped and marginalized both economically
and politically. This negligence has compelled border inhabitants to rely on traditional systems for survival,
leading to cross-border movements. To infiltrate terrorists into India, those responsible for terrorism
infrastructure in Pakistan have explored alternative routes through Nepal and Bangladesh, though infiltration
via the Line of Control (LOC) hasn't ceased entirely. Therefore, proper border management is crucial for
national security.

Suggestions for border management include:

1. Electric Fencing: Prioritize securing soft borders vulnerable to smuggling and infiltration without the need
to fence the entire border. Electronic fencing can be implemented to prevent objectionable infiltration.

2. Modern Security Measures: Update outdated border patrolling methods with modern surveillance and
communication systems to detect issues before they escalate. Coordination among security forces, along with
intelligence systems, is essential to minimize response delays.

3. Internationalization of Border: Both India and Pakistan should strive for a mutually acceptable solution.
Converting the Line of Control into an international border could be considered, maintaining the status quo
for the two parts of Kashmir and involving the international community to pressure Pakistan to curb cross-
border terrorism.

4. Development of Border Areas: Economic and infrastructural development of border areas is vital to
integrate them with the mainland. Additionally, addressing the political satisfaction, security, cultural, and
communication gaps among border inhabitants and the national mainstream is crucial. Informing the people
about security issues is necessary to garner their support for defense preparations and government policies.

6. CRIMINAL JUSTICE

98
Cross-border terrorism can be treated as a heinous crime by the government, and therefore, suspects can be
pursued for extradition, prosecution, and incarceration. The laws framed by various governments should not
be misused by prosecuting ordinary criminals, as was done in India under TADA and POTA. The
enforcement machinery of these laws should be trained firstly on how to apply these strict laws, otherwise,
wide powers given to them under anti-terrorist law are misused by the police. Secondly, when framing anti-
terror laws, consensus should be built, and views from all sections of society should be welcomed by the
government. In framing POTA, the Indian government ignored all suggestions and offers for discussion by
various human rights groups and disregarded the advice of various parliamentarians to refer the Bill to the
Joint Committee of Parliament so that it could be thoroughly discussed and not misused.

Furthermore, it is suggested that there is an urgency to enact a uniform civil code. All citizens should have
just one set of laws. No self-respecting nation emasculates itself in the name of religious tolerance to the
extent that different laws for different religions are allowed.

Provision for fast-track courts should be made for trying terrorists. Terrorism-related cases should not be
allowed to gather dust over time, leading to obscurity that allows us to forget. Mercy petitions of terrorists
sentenced to death should be dealt with speedily. It is worth mentioning that the mercy petition of Afzal Guru,
sentenced to death by the Supreme Court, has not been disposed of even after several years. The same thing
can happen with Azmal Kasab, the sole culprit of the Mumbai terror attacks. Any fine morning, there may be
another attack to set free a terrorist.

The researcher acknowledges that any terrorist – perpetrator or abettor – must receive the death sentence,
nothing less. The President's option for mercy should be revised if the person has engaged in anything related
to terrorism. It should be made clear to everyone in the country that there is something called treason. If the
laws related to treason do not encompass his utterances, they should be modified to be more stringent.

7. EVALUATION OF THE WORKING OF NON GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION

In India, including Jammu and Kashmir, Assam, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh, numerous schemes and
projects for women and children are fully funded by the Central Government but implemented by the State
Government. Many of these initiatives are carried out by Non-governmental organizations (NGOs). There is

99
a strong need for the evaluation of these schemes and projects due to persistent reports of non-
implementation and underperformance by both the State Government and the relevant NGOs.

In Srinagar, there are several NGOs that receive government funding but are reportedly not operational on the
ground. A recent study estimated around 8000 widows and 8000 orphans in the valley region. The actual
number of orphans is likely higher unless it is assumed that each widow only has one orphan. The study also
suggests that government assistance has only reached approximately 50 percent of the surveyed sample.
Therefore, there is a requirement for a proper evaluation of the work conducted by such social groups
engaged in welfare activities.

8. HARMONY AMONG ARMED FORCES AND CIVILIANS

In general terms, there is a prevailing atmosphere of anger, bitterness, suspicion, dissatisfaction, and
unhappiness among the people, accompanied by widespread mistrust and suspicion of the State and Central
Governments in the cities of Jammu and Srinagar. Deep resentment and a sense of oppression and brutality
are felt by the people in Srinagar, mainly as a result of the excesses perpetrated by the armed forces deployed
in the State, most of whom are non-Kashmiris. Incidents involving heated exchanges between civilians and
military personnel occur daily.

The pressure under which these uniformed individuals work, spending hours in their isolated bunkers with
weapons ready against a perceived hostile population, is to be acknowledged. The morale and motivation of
those guarding the borders must be ensured through welfare, incentives, and promotions. These individuals
work under extremely challenging conditions, in inhospitable terrain, away from their families for the entire
year, and under constant mental stress. Without proper motivation, no amount of instructions and measures
for border management will yield the desired results.

Simultaneously, clear instructions must be given to the armed forces to respect the human rights of ordinary
people.

9. ORGANIZATIONAL SUPPORT

100
Organization should give support to the security forces, which is an important aspect to be considered. This
includes some substantive recommendations:

1. Reforming and Energizing State Police Forces: The state police forces should be strengthened to handle
terrorist movements in the initial stages. Unfortunately, this is not the case in India, resulting in paramilitary
forces being involved from the beginning, and eventually, even the Army is called in. Political interference in
day-to-day administration has negatively impacted the morale and objectivity of the police. Comprehensive
measures recommended by the National Police Commission to insulate the police from political influences
and transform them into a service instrument accountable to the laws and Constitution must be implemented.

2. Having Specially Trained Forces: In the US, elite units like Army Rangers, Green Berets, Navy SEALs,
etc., have been successful in various operations. In India, there's overlap in anti-terrorist operations, with
deployment based more on availability than suitability. It's crucial to have the right force for each situation,
like utilizing Rashtriya Rifles for counter-insurgency duties. Increasing the strength of Rashtriya Rifles and
ensuring proper training and equipment for terror rescue teams are essential.

3. Intelligence Coordination and Sharing: Despite numerous intelligence agencies in India, failures in
intelligence are often cited during crises. There's a need to review the effectiveness of intelligence collection
methods and equip security forces accordingly.

4. Discouraging Corruption: Rampant corruption contributes to various problems, including terrorism.

Measures should be taken to discourage corruption at all levels and harshly deal with instances of corruption.
Increased pay and pensions for security forces can help reduce the temptation for corruption.

5. Raising Awareness among Indian Citizens: Citizens should cooperate with authorities by disclosing any
information about suspected individuals. Stringent laws should be formulated to combat terrorism, and the
public should refrain from engaging in political conflicts that exploit the situation.

101
6. Encouraging International Efforts: Domestic measures alone are insufficient to combat terrorism. States
should cooperate internationally and take appropriate measures to eliminate terrorism.

These recommendations emphasize the need for comprehensive reforms, training, intelligence sharing, anti-
corruption measures, public awareness, and international cooperation to effectively address the threat of
terrorism.

INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM AND RESEARCHED ON TERRORISM

Efforts may be made to organize an international symposium on terrorism and exchange information, with
participation from all countries, once a year. Additionally, the sub-committee can meet more frequently. This
will ensure that this issue receives meaningful attention from all concerned parties. It is equally important
that comprehensive research is conducted throughout the most affected areas to arrive at realistic estimations
of the needs, resources, and actions required on the international platform.

(a) The terrorists enforcement group in the Interpol secretariat could be suitably strengthened by the
induction of more staff due to the increasing magnitude of the terrorist problem faced worldwide.
This would enable it to provide more effective assistance to different countries in their fight against
terrorism.

(b) Adherence to Article 3 of the Interpol constitution is necessary to facilitate the undiluted and
professional functioning of Interpol. Often, complaints from countries arise due to lack of clear and
adequate information. Therefore, blaming another country for lack of cooperation is not proper when
the information itself is lacking. Providing full facts would allow for quick examination and
necessary cooperation based on the penal laws of the concerned country.

7. Diplomatic initiatives should be taken proactively by India to create a favorable international environment
for realizing its objectives. Negotiations with terrorist groups and concessions in exchange for renunciation of
violence should be considered by the government. Negotiation may be the best policy in resolving long-
standing disputes, as addressing the roots of terrorism is essential for effective counteraction, even with

102
military power. India should pursue negotiations with China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan for peaceful
settlement of their disputes.

8. Although no comprehensive "single convention" for combating cross-border terrorism has been formulated
yet, several conventions have been adopted in the past to curb specific forms of terrorism, which require
ratification by all States. Additionally, States must enact legislation to ensure that violations of various anti-
terrorism instruments are brought to trial.

Extradition of offenders usually occurs only when there exists an extradition treaty between the territorial
State and the requesting State. However, certain conventions have imposed limitations on this rule to curb
specific forms of terrorism. Offences of terrorism should be extraditable even without an existing treaty, and
such offences should not be regarded as political, even if committed with a political motive. States failing to
extradite offenders should prosecute them without delay, with speedy trials to prevent similar acts in the
future.

In the absence of a multilateral treaty, States should conclude bilateral treaties for the extradition of persons
accused or convicted of terrorism offenses. These treaties should specify acts of violence constituting
terrorism. For example, the Indo-Britain Extradition Treaty and the Confiscation Agreement between India
and Britain are significant steps in this direction.

9.Mutual cooperation among States in exchanging relevant information and apprehending terrorists is
paramount. It facilitates the conclusion of special treaties and the prosecution or extradition of perpetrators of
terrorist acts.

When terrorist acts do not affect societal interests, States should treat them as ordinary crimes, ensuring that
the human rights of the perpetrators are not violated. Infringements on civil liberties, such as the presumption
of innocence and the right to a fair trial, should be avoided, as excessive measures could lead to unintended
consequences and further violations of human rights. The severity of the acts and their impact on society and
the State should guide decisions regarding the human rights of terrorists, with derogations permissible if
proportionate to the dangers represented by the events. These measures, though not exhaustive, can
103
significantly reduce the frequency and intensity of terrorism and demand immediate attention from the
government of India, with further suggestions welcomed from the public for consideration in Parliament. 92

CONCLUTION

It is widely believed that, with force, vigilance, and some luck, the existing cross-border network of terrorism
operating in India's bordering states can be substantially destroyed and disrupted. However, a group of
suicide attackers that spans across borders and time cannot be contained solely by military force, territorial
vigilance, and operational genius. Ultimately, their capacity to recruit and indoctrinate new true believers
must be undermined. This requires addressing the factors contributing to the spread of terrorism, with one of
the principal factors being chronically bad governance.93

The present study submits that the political and administrative system in J&K, northeast states, and several
other states in India has been a failure. Political parties have resorted to all means and broken rules in their
pursuit of power and wealth. Ministers prioritize collecting money over the value of their decisions for the
public, while legislators are known to accept bribes for votes. Even military officers are accused of ordering
weapons based on potential kickbacks. Instances of extortion by soldiers and policemen rather than defense
of the public are not uncommon. In Kashmir, the line between police and criminals is blurred, if it exists at
all.94

Most civil governance institutions in the state, already weakened by inefficiency and corruption, have
completely broken down in the face of terrorist attacks. In J&K, several government institutions are merely a
façade, with the police failing to enforce the law, judges failing to administer justice, and customs officials
neglecting their duties.95 Manufacturers, bankers, borrowers, and contractors engage in transactions primarily
for immediate advantage, with little confidence in the future. Government functions more like a criminal
conspiracy, with organized crime deeply embedded in politics and governance, making sustainability of
democracy and development untenable. Kashmir exemplifies the lack of civic traditions essential for
democracy to function.96
92
93
Wallace, P. (1996), ―Countering Terrorist Movements in India: Kashmir and Khalistan,‖ in Sharma, D. P. (ed.) The
Punjab Story: Decade of Turmoil, New Delhi: APH Publication Corporation.
94
Weinberg, Leonard (2013), Democracy and Terrorism: Friend or Foe, New York: Routledge.
95
Whittekar, David J. (2014), The Terrorism Reader, New York: Routledge.
96
Wickham-Crowley, T. P. (1992), Guerrillas and Revolutions in Latin America: A Comparative Study of Insurgents in
Regimes since 1956, Princeton University Press.
104
It is not coincidental that ethnic violence, religious conflicts, and civil unrest are closely associated with the
corruption of cynical leaders. Incapacitated states in India cannot sustain democracy or generate sustainable
economic growth, as they lack constitutionalism, respect for law, and investment in productive activities and
honest enterprise. Weak and porous border states like these have been largely unsuccessful in combating
terrorism.97

In September 2006, Member States of the United Nations embarked upon a new phase in their counter-
terrorism efforts by agreeing on a global strategy. In India, there is a pressing need for a National Strategy to
combat terrorism. We face a wide range of terrorist attacks, with our enemies often residing within the
country due to porous borders and lax identification measures. Strengthening the role of police, investigative
agencies, and intelligence services is essential, along with addressing the flaws behind their inefficacy. The
strategy to combat terrorism should encompass all factors facilitating, motivating, and structurally supporting
radicalization.98

The researcher acknowledges that despite terrorist activities in Jaipur, Bangalore, Mumbai, and Pune, the
people of India have maintained communal harmony and peace. This spirit should be upheld, and united
action against terrorism is crucial. However, anti-terrorism laws must address all factors contributing to the
socio-economic environment that breeds terrorism. Stringent laws, a sensitive judiciary, and effective law
enforcement are necessary, but responsible citizen behavior, awareness, and participation in society and
democracy are equally crucial. Citizens must feel a stake in society, trust in administration and justice, and
actively contribute to tackling terrorism. It requires a determined, coordinated, and concerted effort by all to
combat this menace effectively. It is imperative for the people of India to introspect and take action to halt the
progress of terrorism's aftermaths.99

97
Wilkinson, Paul (2003), Terrorism versus Democracy the Liberal State Response, London: Frank Cass.
98
Yadav, Mulayam Singh (2002), ―Discussion on the Prevention of Terrorism Bill, 2002, moved by Shri L.K. Advani‖,
[Online: web] URL: https://eparlib.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/719092/1/3795.pdf
99
Yadav S.N. (2009), International Encyclopaedia of Anti-Terrorism Laws Volume 3, New Delhi: Jnanada Prakashan.
105
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