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Zoology Notes

The document discusses the role of DNA as the genetic material, detailing experiments that demonstrate DNA's function in transformation and replication. It explains the structure of DNA, the process of transcription, and the regulation of gene expression through operons, particularly the lac operon. Additionally, it touches on the human genome, gene variations, and the implications for health and disease.

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ssvignesh325
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20 views12 pages

Zoology Notes

The document discusses the role of DNA as the genetic material, detailing experiments that demonstrate DNA's function in transformation and replication. It explains the structure of DNA, the process of transcription, and the regulation of gene expression through operons, particularly the lac operon. Additionally, it touches on the human genome, gene variations, and the implications for health and disease.

Uploaded by

ssvignesh325
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
Proteases and RNases) dd nt affect transformation, (with DNase) inhibited transformation. om S strain bacteria causes R strain to be transformed (to virulent). Biochemical + (rotons, A, - ‘Dua ete} rom ete ‘colonies ‘Conclusion: - Because only DNase destroyed the transforming substance, the te transforming substance is DNA and its he netic material. oe (Harshey-Chase Experiment) f (1952): with bac phages eee contin : ‘When hag ar mined with baci ey rs ach ote Dacca ad ten some maria or herent the tea el Th _bacterial cell treats the viral (genetic) material a if it was its own and subsequently manufactures enters Pag BNA sr ih i sd tn aie icin een ‘steps: 1 Prepared two cles of bacteriophage, Ts In one, protein coat were radioactively labelled with *S, In the second, DNA is radioactively labelled with ™P. ‘After infection, the F. coli was blended and centrifuged, ‘As bacterial cells were heavier they sted atthe bottom. The supematan contin, (Gre viral parce ‘© Bacteria which was infected with viruses that had radioactive DNA were radioactive ‘© Bacteria that were infected with viruses that had radioactive proteins were not rubioactive ‘When a virus infects a bacterium, only viral DNA gets into bacterium and the viral protein remains outside. So it DNA-not protein- contain genetic information to make new viral material (or H8S LIVEIN. prepared by Minha. M Mud, #- 9846 29 22 27 () The amount of is always equal tothe amount of T and the amount of G is always equal to the amount of C. ) Ais joined to T with 2 H-bonds while G oC by 3 H-bond Gi The ratio OF A to Tand that of G to C is always equal to one. A THEO c IN olymucleaides are the polymer of muleotdes. DNA & RNA are polynucleotides. A ucleoide has 3 components; 1. A nitrogenous base, 2 types ~ >Purines: It includes Adenine (A) and Guanine (G). > Pyrimidines: It includes Cytosine (C), Thymine (1) & Uracil (U). ‘Thymine (S-methyl Uracil) present only in DNA and Uracil only in RNA .A pentose sugar (ribose in RNA & deoxyribose in DNA) €-A phosphate group ~ provides acidity tothe nucle sevds * (Arnitrogenous base i inked 1 the pentose sugar through an N-glyéosiic linkage to form nucleoside. |Nitrogen base + sugar + phosphate group = Nucleotide (deoxyribonucleotide) Nucleoside : J InRNA, every nucleotide residue has an additional -OH group present at 2position in the ribose * 2 nucleotides are linked through 37-S" phosphodiester bond to form dinucleotide. polynucleotide. * Each polynucleotide chain has 2 free ends- 3 prime (3°) end and the opposite S prime (5°) end. {In 3” end, the 3" C-atom of the sugar is free, i.e, it is not linked to any nucleotide, ‘Similarly in the 5° end, the $* C of sugar is free Salient features of double helix model of DNA: (9 DNA is made of 2 polynucleotide chains coiled in right handed fashion like a spiral staircase ss rl is formed of sugar & phosphates and the H-bonded base pairs asthe steps (ii) The 2 chains have anti-parallel polarity, ic. one chain has the polarity §*-»3" and the other has 35 iil)_The bases in 2 stands are paired through H-bonds forming base pairs (bp). A=T (2 H bonds) CG (3 H bonds). Asa reslt, purine comes opposite toa pyrimidine, this {enerates uniform distance between the 2 strands ‘> They are said to be complementary to each other, and thefefore ifthe sequence of bases in one strand is known then the sequence in other strand can be predicted (iv) _Length of DNA = number of base pairs X distance between two adjacent base pars (0.34nm), This also is the characteristic of an organism, For ex: © 174 (a bacteriophage) - 3386 nucleotides (single stranded) Lambda (a bacteriophage) - 48502 bp E.coli -4.6~ 10° bp Human (haploid) -3.3 = 10" by When more micleotides are linked it forms (Simro as pa Hence. the length of DNA =66 x10"x 04x 10" = 224 WE. col eng of DNA 36mm (1.36% 10%) t The number ofbase pis = 136410" =n latia | x10" : (©) ‘The plane of one bas pi louble helix. This provides stability of the helical structure {o¢ MSS WEIN, oeomred by Mined, Muiadean, #- 9846 29 22 27 '® The prokaryotes lack defined nucleus. So the DNA is found in a compact structure called nucteoid. ‘¥ DNA (ncgatively charged) is held with some protcins (that have positive charges) and form ‘aueleoid’. The DNA in nucleoid is organised in about SO large loops held by proteins. *Y In eukaryotes, DNA is found in the nucleus. ‘¥ DNA is wrapped around a unit of 8 molecules of positively charged protein Histone 10 form a structure called nucleosome. It contains 200 bp of DNA helix. '¥ Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit like “beads-on-string” structure in nucleus '¥ Chromatin is packaged to form chromatin fibers, '¥ Chromatin fibers that are further éoiled and condensed at metaphase staye of cell di (Chromosome= 40% DNA* 50% histones +8.5% protein + 1.5% RNA) Higher level packaging of chromatin requires non-histone chromosomal (NHC) a form chromosomes. > RNA was the first genetic material ie aa en € > Bssential life processes (metabolism, transation, 2 splicing ete) evolved around RNA. ype sae > DNA evolved from RNA for stability tae tee eee nt fe — functions as adapter and str molecules. te Be eo etre | ANA tre etn rami of rots lscaainn . Labile and easily degradable du ae ee + Peing single stranded Teng dub a: Seerinin 7 Pens of ymin (-retyt Urs 2 con i ef eoina ‘Can directly cole forthe xyathess of proteins, howe Can cally Depeeteae ea ENA Boe eminent of ps express the characte for SS UVEIN prepared by Minhed, M Mubiyudean, #9846 20 22 27 —— cscs DNA Replication a ‘+ Watson & Crick (1953) proposed Sem-conservatve model of ‘replication. ‘K suggests thatthe 2 parental DNA strands separate and each act as {template for the synthesis of new complementary strands. A er the completion of replication, each DNA molecule would have one parental and one new strand, SINT ao mas Wy eaie : rm L, c.on isotope of N) asthe nly aitrogen source for (Thun, “Sw be ‘ncomporated into DNA and become heaves) ‘The cells were transferred into a medium with normal " le at various define time intervals extract DNA. for centrifugation in CsCl and measured to get their inguish heavy DNA molecule from the normal DNA). © The DNA that was extracted from the culture 1" generation after (20 min) the transfer from '"N to "'N medium intermediate density. © DNA extracted from the culture afier 2% generation [ ‘was composed of equal amounts of this hybrid DNA. DNA. ‘The newly synthesised DNA obtains one of its strands from the parent i.e, replication is semi-conservative 2. Taylor and colleagues (1958) on Vicia faba. Using radioactive thymidine to detect distribution of newly synthesized DNA in the chromosomes, * [tis the process of copying genezic information from one sirand of the DNA into. from which “working copies’ are prepared in the form of mRNA. ‘Here, adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine. ** Both strands are not copied during transcription, because ‘The code for proteins is different in both strands. This complicates the translation. * If2RNA molecules are Produced simultaneously this would be complimentary to each other, hence form a RNA. This prevents translation, Mis the segment of DNA which takes part in transcription. It consists of 3 regions: + A promoter (Transcription start site): Binding site for RNA polymerase. Located at Send (upstream) of coding strand * Structural gene: The region of template strand where transcription takes place. It is monocistronic in cukaryotes and Polycistronic in prokayotes. transcription stops. Located at 3” end (downstream) of coding gene + The DNA- dependent RNA polymerase catalyzes the polymerization only in $’—+3'irection. ~ 35" acts as template strand. 5” 3" acts as coding strand/ non-template strand. ene: Functional unit of inheritance. Iti the DNA sequence coding for RNA molecule. ‘stron: A segment of DNA coding fora polypeptide. » Momocistronic structural genes (spit genes): Citron codes fora mRNA that specifies a single polypeptide. Jt seen in eukaryotes. Here, the a Initiation: The promoter site of DNA is recognised by ini the RNA polymerase. This causes the local unwinding of the DNA double belie Elongation: The RNA polymerase after initiation of transcription loses the ¢ factor Mtsynthesize RNA chain in the 5’—3" direc on by polymerising activated ribonucleoside triphosphates (ATP, GTP, UTP & CIP) Termination: Once the RNA polymerase reac termination fa tion factor (0 factor) of hes atthe terminator region of DNA, a tor (p factor) binds to the it and terminates the ranserip ‘> In bacteria (Prokaryotes) transcription and translation can be coupled (Translation can "20798000 begin before mRNA is fully transcribed) because ‘mRNA requires no processing to become Transcription and translati eytosol and. ke place in the same compartment (no separation of cleus). Terminator for MSS UIVEIN orepared Oy Minha. Muiadee, = 98146 29 22 27 © is of genes regulating u metabolic reaction consi an Operon lac operon, t oath oli: raoreron controling lactose metabolism. It was frst elucidated by Francois Jacob and Jacque Monod in 1961 consists of = 8) 3 structural genes: The part of DNA which transcribe mRNA for polypeptide synthesis. ‘odes for B- galactosidase (lactose—*# galactose + glucose). ‘odes for permease (increase permeability of the cell to lactose by active transport. Small amount of permease is present in the plasma membrane every time). gene: Codes for a tra b) Promoter gene (P): tis the site of attachment of RNA polymerase and initiates transcription ‘©) Operator gene (0): It is the DNA segment which controls the structural gene when the repressor binds. It lies very close to the structural gene 44) A regulatory or inhibitor (#) gene: Codes forthe repressor protein. |t binds to operator and blocks the movement of the enzyme RNA polymerase. AS a result, the transcription will be switched off €) Inducer (Here, Lactose): It isa chemical which can which can bind with repressor and thus prevents the repressor binding to the operator gene. Inducer keep switch on and allow the structural gene to transcribe mRNA tos} the enzymes, ‘Functioning of Lac operon: ‘When tactose (inducer) fs absent: ‘Step 1. The regulator gene symhcsizcs mRNA produces represtor protein ‘Step 2. Repressor binds to the operator region (blocks RNA polymerase movement) ‘Step 3. Prevents the transcription of mRNA from structral ene (remains Switched off): When lactose (inducer) is present: ‘Step 1. Lactose binds to the repressor protein making it inactive. ‘Step 2. Repressor fails to binds o the operator region ‘Step 3. The RNA polymerase binds with promoter gene (lac operon “switched on”) and. The regulation includes the following levels:- 1. Transcriptional level (formation of primary transcript) 2. Processing level (regulation of splicing) 3, Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm 4. Translational level {or W3S UVEIN repre y Mined. M Mubiden,#- 9846 20 22 27 (») Transfer related technologies o other sectors, (WP Address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project. ‘> Many non-human model organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans (a ce living ‘non-pathogenic nematode), Drosophila (the fevit fy), plants (rice and Arabidopsis), etc, have also been setecnecd , ‘¥ 2 major approaches. 4 guPressed Sequence Tags (ESTs)-Identifying all the genes that are expressed us RNA 2 Sequence Annotation Sequencing the whole et of genome containing all he coding de ponecating sequence, and later assigning differen regions inthe sequence with fonctions, jure: i, The toial DNA from a cells isolated fi Converted into random fragments of relatively smallee sizes “te Cloned in suitable host (@.> bacteria and yeast) using specialised vetiors (BAC and -YAC) for amplification (now by PCR).

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