CHAPTER ONE

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

Objective of the chapter
In this chapter we will define, describe, and determine the shear
strength of soils. When you complete this chapter, you should be
able to:
Determine the shear strength of soils.
Understand the difference between drained and undrained shear
strength.
Determine the type of shear test that best simulates field
conditions.
Analysis recorded laboratory and field test data
Interpret the results to shear strength parameters.
Sample Practical Situation
You are the geotechnical engineer in charge of a soil exploration
program for a dam and a housing project. You are expected to specify
laboratory and field tests to determine the shear strength of the soil
and to recommend soil strength parameters for the design of the dam.
1. Introduction
 The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the
strength of the soil.
 If the soil fails, a structure founded on it can collapse,
endangering lives and causing economic damages.
 Soils fail either in tension or in shear. However, in the majority
of soil mechanics problems (such as bearing capacity, lateral
pressure against retaining walls, slope stability, etc.), only
failure in shear requires consideration.
 The shear strength of soils is, therefore, of paramount
importance to geotechnical engineers.
Introduction…
 The shear strength along any plane is mobilized by
cohesion and frictional resistance to sliding between soil
particles.
 Soil derives its shear strength from two sources:

 Cohesion between particles (stress independent

component) - c

 Cementation between particle grains.

 Electrostatic attraction between clay particles.

 Predominant in clayey soils.

Introduction…

 Frictional resistance between particles (stress

dependent component) - 

 Strength gained from internal frictional resistance

(interlocking action among soil particles).

 Predominant in granular soils.

1.1. Definitions of Key Terms

Shear strength of a soil (τ) is the maximum internal

resistance to applied shearing stresses.
Angle of internal friction of soil (ϕ) is the friction angle
between soil particles.
Cohesion (c) is a measure of the forces that cement soil
particles.
Undrained shear strength of a soil (Su) is the shear
strength of a soil when sheared at constant volume.
 COHESION

INTERNAL FRICTION

Shear strength is not a unique property of a soil but depends on many factors.

8 ASTU Soil Mechanics-II Feb 2020

 … Introduction

Presence of pore
water pressure

9 ASTU Soil Mechanics-II Feb 2020

10 ASTU Soil Mechanics-II Feb 2020
11 ASTU Soil Mechanics-II Feb 2020
1.2. Coulomb’s Frictional Law
 If a block of weight W is pushed horizontally on a plane as shown
in figure 1.2a, the horizontal force (H) required to initiating
movement is:
H = W*µ
Where µ is the coefficient of static friction between the block and
the horizontal plane.
It is strongly dependent on the nature of the surface in contact:-
 the type of material and
 the condition of the surface, and so on.
The angle between the resultant force R and the normal force N is
called the friction angle,ϕ = tan-1µ
Figure 1.2: (a) Slip plane of a block. (b) A slip plane in a soil mass.
In terms of stresses, Coulomb’s law is expressed as:

 f   n tan 
 Coulomb’s law requires the existence or the development of a
critical sliding plane, also called slip plane or failure plane. In the
case of the block the slip plane is at the interface between the block
and the horizontal plane.
 1.3. Stress at a point and Mohr’s Circle for Stress
.
The stress states at a point within a soil mass can be represented
graphically by a very useful and widely used devise known as
Mohr’s circle for stress.
The stress state at a point is the set of stress vectors corresponding to
all planes passing through that point.
For simplicity, we will consider a two-dimensional element with
stresses as shown in Fig. 1.3a. Let’s draw Mohr’s circle. First, we
have to choose a sign convention. In soil mechanics, compressive
stresses and clockwise shear are generally assumed to be positive.
We will also assume that  z   x
Figure 1.3- Two-dimensional element and Mohr’s circle.
  The two coordinates of the circle are(  z , zx ) and ( x , zx )
 Recall from your strength of materials course that, for equilibrium
.  xz   zx
 Plot these two coordinates on a graph of shear stress (ordinate) and
normal stress (abscissa) as shown by A and B in,Fig.1.3b.
Draw a circle with AB as the diameter. The circle crosses the
normal stress axis at 1 and 3, where shear stresses are equal to zero.

The stresses at these points are the major principal stress , 1 , and
the minor principal stress,  3
 The principal stresses are related to the  x ,  z and  zx
by the following relation:

 z  x  z  x 
2

1       zx
2

2  2 

 z  x  z  x 
2

3       2
zx
2  2 
The angle between the major principal stress plane and the horizontal
plane is ,ψ
 zx
tan 
1   x
The stresses on a plane oriented at an angle θ to the horizontal
plane are:

z  x z   x
   cos 2  Txz sin2
2 2
z   x
T  sin 2  Txz cos2
2
The stresses on a plane oriented at an angle to the major
principal plane are:
1   3 1   3
   cos 2
2 2
1   3
  sin 2
2
 In the above equation θ is positive for clockwise orientation.
The maximum shear stress is at the top of the circle with
magnitude:

1   3
 max 
2
Determination of Normal and Shear Stresses on Plane MN [Fig.
1.3(a)]
Point B on the circle of stress in Fig. 11.3(b) represents the state of
stress on the vertical plane of the prismatic element; similarly point A
represents the state of stress on the horizontal plane of the
element.
If from point B a line is drawn parallel to the vertical plane, it
intersects the circle at point P and if from the point A on the circle, a
line is drawn parallel to the horizontal plane, this line also
intersects the circle at point P . The point P so obtained is called the
origin of planes or the pole.
If from the pole P a line M’N’ is drawn parallel to the plane MN in
Fig. 1.3(a) to intersect the circle at point N’ (Fig. 1.3(b)) then the
coordinates of the point give the normal stress σθ and the shear stress
τθ plane MN.
This indicates that a line drawn from the pole P at any angle θ to the
σ-axis intersects the circle at coordinates that represent the normal
and shear stresses on the plane inclined at the same angle to the
abscissa.
Major and Minor Principal Planes
The orientations of the principal planes may be obtained by joining
point P to the points 3 and 1 in Fig 1.3(b).
P1 is the direction of the major principal plane on which the major
principal stress σ1 acts; similarly P3 is the direction of the minor
principal plane on which the minor principal stress σ3 acts.
It is clear from the Mohr diagram that the two planes P3 and P1
intersect at a right angle, i.e., angle 3P1 = 90°.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Mohr’s Circle for Stress State
A sample of soil (0.1m x 0.1m) is subjected to the forces shown in
Figure E 1. 1a. Determine
a. Draw Mohr’s circle
b. principal stresses , σ1 and σ3.
c. Show pole of Mohr's circle
d. Principal planes and inclination of major principal plane, ψ
e. the maximum shear stress τmax
f. the stresses on a plane oriented at 30o counterclockwise from
the major principal stress plane.
Figure E 1. 1a.
 Solution

Step 3: Draw Mohr’s circle and extract σ1, σ3 and τmax.

Mohr’s circle is shown in Figure 1.1 E b

σ1 = 540kPa, σ3 = 260kPa and τmax = 140kPa

Step 4: Draw the pole on Mohr’s circle. The pole of Mohr’s circle is
shown by point P in Figure 1.1E. b.
Step 5: Determine ψ.
Draw a line from P to σ1 and measure the angle between the
horizontal plane and this line.
Ψ = 22.5o

Step 6: Determine the stresses on a plane inclined at 30o from the

major principal stress plane.
Draw a line M’N’ through P with an inclination of 30o from the
major principal stress plane, angle CPN’.
The coordinate at point N’ is (470kPa, 120kPa).
1.4. Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria
Coulomb (1776) suggested that the shear strength of a soil along a
failure plane could be described by:

 f  c  n tan 
Where τf is the shear strength on the failure plane and σn is the
stress normal to the plane, c is the cohesion and ϕ the angle of
internal friction of the soil.
To understand the concept behind failure equation, consider two
blocks A and B (Fig. 1.4a) of unit area that are in contact with each
other and are subjected to the normal and shear stresses shown. The
interface between the blocks is not smooth and contains friction.
Under a constant normal stress, the shear stress is increased from
zero to the maximum , forcing the two blocks to slide along their
contact area. When σn = 0, the shear stress has to be mobilized to a
maximum value of c to make the sliding possible.
If the friction angle between blocks A and B is then for the values of
σn >0, has to be increased to overcome the resistance to sliding
caused by friction (Coulomb’s frictional law).
Consequently, the summation of c and represents the maximum
shear stress needed to slide the two blocks on the plane of contact
(slip or failure plane).
In a real soil, if a predetermined sliding plane is forced to occur, the
soil below and the soil above the failure plane will not act as rigid
bodies but will deform, causing a volume change around the sliding
and forming a shear band (Fig. 1.4b).

Figure 1.4: (a) Mechanical concept of sliding. (b) Soil deformation and a shear band.
In a coordinate system with σn plotted as abscissa and τ as ordinate,
failure equation is represented by the line shown in Fig. (1.5a).
This equation was originally written in terms of total stress and was
only partially successful in predicting the shear strength of real soils.
Coulomb’s failure criterion was subsequently redefined as:

 f  c '   n' tan  '

Figure 1.5: Coulomb’s failure criteria: (a) total stress (b) effective stress.
where τf is the shear strength, σn the is the effective normal stress, c is
the effective cohesion and ϕ’ is the effective angle of internal friction
of the soil.
In both the total and effective stress conditions, the shear stress is
solely taken by the soil particles, since the liquid in the voids – which
is normally water – has no resistance to shear.
The tensile strength of soils is commonly ignored and therefore
cohesion is the minimum shear strength at zero normal stresses.
Figure 1.6: Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.
 … Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria
 Effective stress (σ’) is the stress carried by the
soil particles.
 Total stress (σ) is the stress carried by the soil
particles and the liquids and gases in the voids.

35 ASTU Soil Mechanics-II Feb 2020

Figure 1.6 shows the total and effective stress states at failure point
represented by Mohr’s circles.
It is apparent that the shear stress at every plane in the total stress
Mohr’s circle is the same as in the effective stress Mohr’s circle.
The difference between normal stresses in two perpendicular
directions in the total and effective stress is equal to:

 z   x  ( z'  u)  ( x'  u)   z'   x'

Thus, the radiuses of both the total and effective stresses are
identical. The horizontal distance of the two circles is equal to the
pore water pressure u.
Any point F at the failure plane represents the normal and shear
stresses on a failure plane at a specified point in a soil.
These stresses must also satisfy the equilibrium conditions at the point,
which is represented by Mohr’s circle of stress.
This implies that, at failure, Mohr’s circle of stress must be tangent to
the line expressed by failure equation.
This condition known as the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is shown
in Fig. 1.6.
From geometry of Fig. 1.6, the theoretical angle between the failure
plane and the major principal plane is given by the following
equation:
  90   '   '
     450 
 2  2

From figure 1.6, a relationship between the state of stress (σ‘1, σ‘3) or
(σ‘z, σ‘x or τ zx) and the shear strength parameters c’ and ϕ‘ may be
formulated by equating the radius of Mohr’s circle R to the distance
of the center of the circle from the failure envelope, CF, in which,

2
  ' '

R  CF   z x
   zx2  OB cos '  OC sin  '

 2 
 … Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria
This equation can be written in terms of the
principal stresses (  zx  0 ) as follows:
2
 
' '
 (1.14)
1 3
  OB cos '  OC sin  '
 2 
 
1   3
Considering OB = c’ and OC = 2
, we
have
 1'   3'  2c ' cos '  ( 1'   3' ) sin (1.15)

39 ASTU Soil Mechanics-II Feb 2020

 … Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria
1  sin  cos  '
Or,  '
 2c
' '

1  sin  1  sin  '

1 3

(1.16)
1  sin  ' 1  sin 
' '
  '
 2c
'

1  sin  1  sin  '

1 ' 3

1  sin  ' ' 1  sin 

'
   '
 2c ' (1.17)
1  sin  1  sin  '
3 ' 1

Or using some trigonometry manipulations,

' ' (1.18)
   tan (45 
'
1
'
3
2
)  2c tan( 45 
'
)
2 2
' '
   tan (45 
'
3
'
1
2
)  2c tan( 45 
'
) (1.19)
2 2
40 ASTU Soil Mechanics-II Feb 2020
 … Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criteria
If the cohesion c’, is small or zero, then Eqs.
(1.15 to 1.19) can be rearranged as follows:
  '
  '
 (1.20)
sin    '
' 1 3

' 
 1   3 
 3' 1  sin  '  '
1  sin  '
 or 1  (1.21)
 1 1  sin  '
'
 3' 1  sin  '
 3'  '
or  '

 tan (45  )
'
(1.22)
 (45  )
2 1 2
tan
1 '
2 3'
2

41 ASTU Soil Mechanics-II Feb 2020

42 ASTU Soil Mechanics-II Feb 2020
1.5. Drained and Undrained Shear strength
Drained condition occurs when the excess pore water pressure
developed during loading of a soil dissipates, i.e. u  0, resulting
in volume changes in the soil.
Loose sands, normally consolidated clays and slightly over
consolidated clays tend to compress or contract, whilst dense sands
and heavily over-consolidated (OCR > 2) clays tend to expand
during drained condition.
Undrained condition occurs when the excess pore water pressure
cannot drain, at least quickly from the soil, i.e. During undrained
shearing, the volume of the soil remains constant. Consequently,
the tendency towards volume change induces a pressure in the pore
If the specimen tends to compress or contract during shear, then the
induced pore water pressure is positive. It wants to contract and
squeeze water out of the pores, but it can not.
Positive pore water pressures occur in loose sands, normally
consolidated clays and lightly over consolidated clays.
If the specimen tends to expand and swell during shear, the
induced pore water pressure is negative. It wants to expand and
draw water into the pores, but it can not.
Negative pore water pressures occur in dense sands and heavily
over consolidated (OCR > 2) clays.
During the life of the geotechnical structure, called the long-term
condition, the excess pore water pressure developed by a loading
dissipates and drained condition applies.
Clays usually take many years to dissipate the excess pore water
pressure. During construction, and shortly after, called the short
term condition, soils with low permeability (fine-grained soils) do
not have sufficient time for the excess pore water pressure to
dissipate and undrained condition applies.
The permeability of coarse-grained soils is sufficiently large that
under static loading conditions the excess pore water pressure
dissipates quickly. Consequently undrained condition does not
apply to clean coarse-grained soils under static loading.
Dynamic loading, such as during an earthquake, is imposed so
quickly that even coarse-grained soils do not have sufficient time to
dissipate the excess pore water pressure and undrained condition
applies.
The shear strength of a fine-grained soil under undrained condition
is called the undrained shear strength, Su. The undrained shear
strength Su is the radius of Mohr’s total stress circle; that is:

 1   3 ( 1'  u )  ( 3'  u )  1'   3'

Su   
2 2 2
Differences Between Drained and Undrained Loading
1.6. Laboratory Shear Strength Tests
Different methods are available for testing shear strength of soils in a
laboratory. The following are the more commonly used testing
methods:

1. Direct shear test.

2. Triaxial compression test.
3. Unconfined compression test.
 1.6.1. Direct Shear Test
The direct shear test is the oldest and the simplest type of shear
test.
The test is performed in a shear box, illustrated in Figure 1.6.
The box consists of two parts, one part fixed and the other
movable.
Usually the box is a square of sides equal to 5 cm.
The soil sample is placed in the box.
A vertical normal force N is applied to the top of the sample
through a metal platen resting on the top part of the box.
Porous stones may be placed on the top and bottom part of the
sample to facilitate drainage.
1.6: Schematic of direct shear apparatus.
The sample is subjected to shearing stress at the plane of separation
AA (Fig. 1.6) by applying horizontal forces T.
Failure is determined when the soil can not resist any further
increment of horizontal force. The above procedure is repeated for
several values (three or more) of normal forces.
By plotting the normal stresses and corresponding shear stresses
from the results of such tests, a failure envelope is obtained as
shown in Fig. 1.7.
Note that the normal stress σ‘ = NA , and the shear stress τ = T/A,
where A is the cross-sectional area of the soil specimen.
It is not possible to obtain other deformation parameters such
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio from direct shear

Figure 1.7: Plotted direct shear test results and a Mohr circle.
5. Calculate the maximum shear stress for each test.
6. Plot the value of the maximum shear stress versus the
corresponding vertical stress for each test, and determine the angle
of internal friction (ϕ‘) from the slope of the approximated Mohr-
Coulomb failure envelope.
Example 2
What is the shearing strength of soil along a horizontal plane at a
depth of 4m in a deposit of sand having the following properties:
•Angle of internal friction, ϕ = 35°
•Dry unit weight, γd =17kN/m3
•Specific gravity, Gs = 2.7.
Assume the ground water table is at a depth of 2.5m from the ground
surface. Also find the change in shear strength when the water table
rises to the ground surface.
Solution
The effective vertical stress at the plane of interest is:
Hence, the shearing strength of the sand is

If the water table rises to the ground surface i.e., by a height of 2.5 m,
the change in the effective stress will be:

Δ
Example 3
A direct shear test, when conducted on a remolded sample of sand,
gave the following observations at the time of failure: Normal load =
288N; shear load = 173N. The cross sectional area of the sample
A= 36cm2.
Determine:
•The angle of internal friction
• The magnitude and direction of the principal stresses in the zone of
failure.
Solution
Such problems can be solved in two ways, namely graphically and
analytically. The analytical solution has been left as an exercise for
the students.
Graphical Solution
We know one point on the Mohr envelope. Plot point A (Fig. Ex. 3)
with coordinates τ=48 kN/m2, and σ = 80 kN/m2. Since cohesion c =
0 for sand, the Mohr envelope OM passes through the origin. The
slope of OM gives the angle of internal friction ϕ =31°.
In Fig. Ex. .3, draw line AC normal to the envelope OM cutting the
abscissa at point C. With C as center, and AC as radius, draw Mohr
circle Cl which cuts the abscissa at points B and D, which gives
major principal stress = OB = σ1 = 163.5 kN/m2 minor principal
stress = OD = σ3 = 53.5 kN/m2
Now, <ACB = 2α = twice the angle between the failure plane and the
major principal plane. Measurement gives
2α= 121° or α = 60.5°

Since in a direct shear test the failure plane is horizontal, the angle
made by the major principal plane with the horizontal will be 60.5°.
The minor principal plane should be drawn at a right angle to the
major principal plane. The directions of the principal planes may also
be found by locating the pole Po. Po is obtained by drawing a
horizontal line from point A which is parallel to the failure plane in
the direct shear test. Now DPo and BPo give the directions of the
major and minor principal planes respectively.
(Fig. Ex. 3)
Analytical Solution

i. Angle of internal friction of soil

ii. The magnitude and direction of the principal stresses in the zone of
failure.
Direction of principal planes
•The theoretical angle between the failure plane and the major
principal plane is given by the equation:
 90   '  '
     45 
0
= 45 +31/2 = 60.5o
 2  2
•The minor principal plane should be drawn at a right angle to the
major principal plane. Hence angle b/n minor principal plane and
failure plane = 180-90-60.5 = 29.5o
•Magnitude of principal planes
•The shear stress on a plane oriented at an angle α to the major
principal plane is:

1   3
   f  48  sin 2 =
2
48*2
The relationship we have b/n is

σ3 = 0.32*σ3+35.851
σ3 - 0.32*σ3 = 35.851
σ3 (1- 0.32) = 35.851
Exercise
At a point in a soil mass, the total vertical and horizontal stresses are
240kPa and 145kPa respectively whilst the pore water pressure is
40kPa. Shear stresses on the vertical and horizontal planes passing
through this point are zero. What is the magnitude of the shear
strength on the plane of failure? The effective shear strength
parameters are c’ = 10kPa and ϕ‘= 30o
Strategy. You are given the initial stress state. You should first check
whether the initial stress state is below the failure envelope, and then
use the appropriate equations to calculate the excess pore water
pressure and the shear strength at failure.
1.6.2Triaxial Compression Test
A widely used apparatus to determine the shear strength parameters
and the stress-strain behavior of soils is the triaxial apparatus.
The soil sample is protected by a thin rubber membrane and is
subjected to pressure from water that occupies the volume of the
chamber.
This confining water pressure (also called radial pressure) enforces a
condition of equality on two of the total principal stresses, i.e.  2   3

Vertical or axial stresses are applied by a loading ram (plunger), and

therefore, the total major principal stress  1 the sum of the
confining pressures and the deviatoric stress applied through the ram.
In a traditional triaxial compression test, the confining pressure σ3 is
kept constant whilst the major principal stress σ1 is increased
incrementally by the loading ram until the sample fails.
To construct a failure envelope for a soil, a test has to be performed
several times with different confining pressures using ideally identical
samples.
The triaxial apparatus is versatile because:
independently control the applied axial and radial loads,
Conduct tests under drained and undrained conditions, and
Control the applied displacements or stresses.
Recorded measurements include deviatoric stress at different stages of
the test, vertical displacement of the ram, volume change and pore
water pressure.
The average stresses and strains on a soil sample in a triaxial
compression apparatus are as follows:

Axial stress: Pz
1  3
A

Pz
Deviatoric stress: 1   3 
A
 Axial strain:  1  z
H0

r
Radial strain: 3 
r0

Volumetric strain:  q  23 ( 1   3 )

V
Deviatoric strain:  p    1  2 3
V0
Where Pz is the axial load on the ram, A is the cross-sectional area
of the soil sample, r0 is the initial radius of the soil sample,
z is the change in height.
 r is the change in radius, V0 is the initial volume,

V is the change in volume, H0 is the initial height

The area of the sample changes during loading, and at any given
instance the area is:
 V 
V0 1  
V V0  V  V 0  A0 (1   p )
A   
H H 0  z  z  1  1
H 0 1  
 H0 

Where A0 =  r 0
2
is the initial cross-sectional area and H is the
current height of the sample.
Figure 1.8: Schematic diagram of a triaxial compression apparatus
A variety of stress paths can be applied to soil samples in the triaxial
apparatus. However, only a few stress paths are used in practice to
mimic typical geotechnical problems.
We will discuss the tests most often used, why they are used, and
typical results obtained.
Consolidated Drained (CD) Test
The purpose of a CD test is to determine the drained shear strength
parameters ϕ‘, c’.
The effective elastic moduli for drained condition E’ is also obtained
from this test.

A CD test is performed in two stages.

The first stage is consolidating the soil to a desired effective stress
level appropriate to field conditions by pressurizing the water in the
cell and allowing the soil sample to drain until the excess pore water
pressure dissipates.
In the second stage, the pressure in the cell (cell pressure or confining
pressure) is kept constant and additional axial loads or displacements
are added very slowly until the soil sample fails.
Because the permeability of fine-grained soils is much lower than
coarse-grained soils, the displacement rate for testing fine-grained
soils is much lower than for coarse-grained soils.
Drainage of the excess pore water pressure is permitted throughout
the test and the amount of water expelled is measured.
Since the CD test is a drained test, a single test can take several days
if the permeability of the soil is low (e.g. clays).
The results of CD tests are used to determine the long-term stability
of slopes, foundations, retaining walls, excavations, and other
earthworks.
For remolded and normally consolidated clays, the cohesion c’
parameter from a CD test is essentially very small and can be
assumed to be zero for all practical purposes.
Consolidated Undrained (CU) Test
The purpose of a CU test is to determine both the undrained (ϕu, cu )
and drained (ϕ‘, c‘ ) shear strength parameters.
The undrained elastic moduli Eu and effective elastic moduli E’ are
also obtained from this test.
The CU test is conducted in a similar manner to the CD test except
that after isotropic consolidation, the axial load is increased under
undrained condition and the excess pore water pressure is measured.
As explained in section 1.5, the excess pore pressure developed
during shear can either be positive or negative.
This happens because the sample tries to either contract or expand
during shear.
Positive pore pressures occur in loose sands and normally
consolidated clays.
Negative pore pressures occur in dense sands and heavily over-
consolidated clays.
The CU test is the most popular triaxial test because you can obtain
both drained and undrained shear strength parameters, and most
tests can be completed within a few minutes after consolidation
compared with more than a day for a CD test.
The results from CU tests are used to analyze the stability of slopes,
foundations, retaining walls, excavations and other earthworks.
For remolded and normally consolidated clays, the cohesion c’
parameter from a CU test is also essentially very small and can be
assumed to be zero.
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Test
The purpose of a UU test is to determine the undrained shear strength
(Su) of a saturated soil.
The UU test consists of applying a cell pressure to the soil sample
without drainage of pore water followed by increments of axial
stress.
The cell pressure is kept constant and the test is completed very
quickly because in neither of the two stages – consolidation and
shearing – is the excess pore pressure allowed to drain.
In the UU test, pore water pressures are usually not measured.
Unconfined Compression (UC) Test
The UC test is the simplest and quickest test used to determine the
shear strength of a cohesive soil.
An undisturbed or remolded sample of cylindrical shape, about 38mm
in diameter and 76mm in height is subjected to uniaxial compression
until the soil fails.
Since the sample is laterally unconfined, only cohesive soils can be
tested.
The sample is tested quickly and there is no drainage. Therefore, it is
a special case of the UU test in which σ3=0.
Backpressure
Backpressure is a technique used for saturating soil specimens.
It is accomplished by applying water pressure u0 within the
specimen, and at the same time changing the cell pressure σcell of an
equal amount.
Therefore, the net confining pressure σc = σcell - uo remains
unchanged.
Back pressuring has no influence on the calculations. In most cases, a
backpressure of 300 kPa is sufficient to ensure specimen saturation
and it should be applied in steps as shown in the table below.
1.6.3. Field Tests
Sampling disturbances and sample preparation for laboratory
tests significantly affect the shear strength parameters.
Consequently, a variety of field tests have been developed to obtain
more reliable soil shear strength parameters by testing soils in-situ.
 In the following sections some of the most popular field tests are
described.
1.6.3.1. Shear Vane
In soft and saturated clays, where undisturbed specimen is difficult
to obtain, the undrained shear strength is measured using a shear
vane test.
A diagrammatic view of the shear vane apparatus is shown in
Fig.1.9.
It consists of four thin metal blades welded orthogonally (900) to a
rod where the height H is twice the diameter D (Fig.1.9).
Commonly used diameters are 38, 50 and 75 mm.
Figure 1.9 Shear vane apparatus.
The vane is pushed into the soil either at the ground surface or at
the bottom of a borehole until totally embedded in the soil
(at least 0.5m).
A torque T is applied by a torque head device (located above the
soil surface and attached to the shear vane rod) and the vane is
rotated at a slow rate of 60 per minute.
As a result, shear stresses are mobilized on all surfaces of a
cylindrical volume of the soil generated by the rotation.
The maximum torque is measured by a suitable instrument and
equals to the moment of the mobilized shear stress about the central
axis of the apparatus.
The undrained shear strength is calculated from:
T
Su 
D 2 ( H / 2  D / 6)
1.6.3. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is currently the most popular
and economical in-situ test to obtain subsurface information.
Although great effort has been put into standardizing the SPT
procedure, variability is inherent in present procedures.
The standard penetration resistance is, in fact, conventionally
measured using different kinds of hammers, drill rig types, drill rod
lengths, drill rod types, hammer blow rates, different energy
delivery systems with different degrees of efficiency, different
borehole fluids, and different kinds of sampling tubes.
Thus the test is performed by different equipment and testing
procedures as well as different operators.
 Consequently, the consistency of the SPT N values is questioned,
i.e., the ability of the test to reproduce blow counts using different
rig systems under the same site/soil conditions.
Research has shown that the most significant factor affecting the
measured N values is the amount of energy delivered to the drill
rods.
In order to reduce the significant variability of the SPT N-values
due to the large variation in energy delivered, it has been
recommended that the N value be standardized to a specific
energy level through the use of correction factors.
There are different hammer systems. The most hammer systems
used in different countries are:
a. donut
b. Safety and
c. automatic
The SPT test is made by dropping a free-falling hammer weighing
64kg onto the drill rods from a height of 76mm to achieve the
penetration of a standard sample tube 450mm into the soil.
The number of blows required to penetrate each 150mm increment
is recorded and the number of blows required to penetrate the last 2
is summed together and recorded as the N value.
The first 150mm of penetration tends to reflect disturbed material
remaining in the hole from the removal of the drill and insertion of
the sampler, therefore the blows corresponding to the first 150mm
of penetration are recorded but are not ordinarily included in the N
value.
One advantage of the SPT tests is that the drillers can collect
samples for further classification and laboratory testing.
 Another advantage of this simple and economical test that has been
done to correlate empirically the SPT N values with geotechnical
design parameters such as soil density, consistency, friction angles,
undrained shear strength, Young’s modulus, shear modulus,
bearing capacity values, and to provide an resistance. Thus the N
value saves money by reducing laboratory testing.
 Standard Energy

The ratio between the actual energy delivered to the sample,

(measured energy delivered to the drill rods) to the theoretical free
fall energy, yields the energy transfer efficiency or the rod
energy ratio in the field:

ERf is the energy transfer efficiency

The adoption of this standard energy requires the SPT N values
obtained using any hammer to be corrected. The correction is done
in accordance with the equation:

where:
N60 = SPT N value corrected to 60% of the theoretical free fall
hammer energy
Nf = SPT N value obtained in the field
Erf = rod energy ratio for hammer used in the investigation
 Correction Factors

As stated above, there are numerous factors other than hammer
type that are permitted by ASTM D 1586-99 and that affect the N
value.
Correction factors have been proposed by various authors to account
for factors such as the drill stem length and type, the type of anvil,
the blow rate, the use of liners or bore hole fluid and the type of
hammer.
The standard blow count N60 can be computed from the measured Nf
from the following general equation:
where
n1 = energy correction factor
n2 = rod length correction factor
n3 = liner correction factor
n4 = borehole diameter correction factor
n5 = anvil correction factor
n6 = blow count frequency correction factor

C w = adjustment for effective overburden pressure p'o (kPa)

computed [see Liao and Whitman (1986)] as:
BEARING CAPACITY FROM SPT
The SPT is widely used to obtain the bearing capacity of soils
directly.
Meyerhof (1956, 1974) published equations for computing the
allowable bearing capacity for a 25-mm settlement.
where
qa = allowable bearing pressure for ΔH = 25-mm settlement
Kd = 1 + 0.33D/B < 1.33 [as suggested by Meyerhof (1965)]
For mats which were considered also by Meyerhof (and adjusted by
the author for a 50 percent increase) to obtain

In general the allowable pressure for any settlement ΔHj is

The SPT is mostly used in coarse grained soils. However, in some
countries, for example, Japan and the United States, it is also used in
fine-grained soils. Table below shows, correlation of N60 and Su for
saturated fine grained soils.

Correlation of N60, and Su for fine grained soils.

N60 Description Su (kPa)
0–2 Very soft < 10
3–5 Soft 10 – 25
6–9 Medium 25 – 50
10 – 15 Stiff 50 – 100
15 – 30 Very stiff 100 – 200
> 30 Extremely stiff > 200
1.6.4. Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
The Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) is an in situ test used for
subsurface exploration in fine and medium sands, soft silts and
clays.
The apparatus consists of a cone with a 35.7mm end diameter,
projected area of 1000 mm2 and 600 point angle that is attached to a
rod. An outer sleeve encloses the rod.
The thrusts required to drive the cone and the sleeve 80mm into the
ground at a constant rate of 10 mm/s to 20 mm/s are measured
independently so that the end resistance or cone resistance and side
friction or sleeve resistance may be estimated separately.
A special type of the cone penetrometer, known as piezocone has
porous elements inserted into the cone or sleeve to allow for pore
water pressure measurements.
The cone resistance qc is normally correlated with the undrained
shear strength. One correlation equation is:

qc   z
Su 
Where
Nk

σz represents the total overburden pressure above the cone tip, and
Nk is a cone factor that depends on the geometry of the cone and the
rate of penetration. Average values of Nk as a function of plasticity
index Ip can be estimated from
 I p  10
N k  19  ; I p 10
5
Results of cone penetrometer tests have also been correlated with the
friction angle. A number of correlations exist. Based on published
data for sand (Roberston and Campanella, 1983), you can estimate

 qc 
 '  35  11.5 log
0
; 250   '  500
 30 '
z 0 
Example - 4
A CU test gave the following data. Sample diameter = 38mm, and
height = 76mm. The pore pressures at failure (peak points) are 10,
61.6, 113.2kPa for σ3=100, 200, 300kPa, respectively.
Determine:
i. the deviatoric stress
ii. axial strain curve and modulus of elasticity of the soil, and
iii. the shear strength parameters (effective and total).
Solution
Ao = (Π*D2)/4 = (Π*382)/4 = 1134mm2

Axial devetric devetric devetric

εz = A= σ3 = σ3 = σ3 =
Deformation stress stress stress
Δz/Ho (Ao)/(1-εz) 100kPa 200kPa 300kPa
(mm) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
0.00 0.00 1134.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.95 0.01 1148.35 126.30 109.98 155.70 135.59 183.70 159.97
1.90 0.03 1163.08 218.90 188.21 304.10 261.46 353.20 303.68
2.85 0.04 1178.18 277.70 235.70 415.40 352.58 532.10 451.63
3.80 0.05 1193.68 308.80 258.69 475.80 398.60 622.40 521.41
4.75 0.06 1209.60 328.90 271.91 499.00 412.53 661.20 546.63
5.70 0.08 1225.95 332.30 271.06 512.90 418.37 689.30 562.26
6.65 0.09 1242.74 335.60 270.05 518.60 417.30 701.90 564.80
7.60 0.10 1260.00 338.10 268.33 523.00 415.08 708.70 562.46
8.55 0.11 1277.75 341.30 267.11 528.90 413.93 715.70 560.13
9.50 0.13 1296.00 344.20 265.59 534.60 412.50 724.00 558.64
 600.00

500.00

400.00
stress

300.00

200.00

100.00

0.00
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
strain
 Emodulus of elasticity
σ3 = 100kPa σ3 = 200kPa σ3 = 200kPa
E= (109.98/0.01) E= (135.59/0.01) E= (159.97/0.01)

8799kPa 10847kPa 12797kPa

 Effective stress at failure
Types of Stress Total stress at failure (kPa) (kPa)
minar principal/
confining stress 100 200 300 100 200 300
(σ3)
Diveteric stress
271.91 418.37 564.8 261.91 356.77 451.6
P/A=(σ1 - σ3)
major principal
371.91 618.37 864.8 351.91 495.17 638.4
stress (σ1 )
pore pressures
10 61.6 113.2 10 61.6 113.2
(u)

Total and effective shear strength parameters are obtained by plotting

mohrs’ circles and draw common tangent line to the circles
Example-5
An unconfmed cylindrical specimen of clay fails under an axial stress
of 241 KN/m2.The failure plane was inclined at an angle of 55° to the
horizontal. Determine the shear strength parameters of the soil.
Solution

For unconfmed compressive test σ3 = 0

C = 84kPa
Example -6
A saturated specimen of cohesionless sand was tested under drained
conditions in a triaxial compression test apparatus and the sample
failed at a deviator stress of 482 kN/m2 and the plane of failure made
an angle of 60° with the horizontal.
i. Find the magnitudes of the principal stresses.
ii. What would be the magnitudes of the deviator stress and the
major principal stress at failure for another identical
specimen of sand if it is tested under a cell pressure of
200kN/m2?
Solution
The angle of the failure plane a is expressed as equal to
 Solving from the two equation

For the identical sample

An unconfined compression test was conducted on a compacted soil
sample 50mm in diameter 3100mm long. The sample is 86%
saturated but you can assume it is fully saturated. The peak axial
force recorded was 230N, and the sample shortened by 2 mm. (a)
Which failure criterion is appropriate to interpret the test data? (b)
Determine the undrained shear strength. (c) Explain how your
results may be affected by the saturation level of the sample.
A cylindrical sample of soil 50 mm in diameter 3100mm long was
subjected to axial and radial effective stresses. When the vertical
displacement was 2mm, the soil failed. The stresses at critical state
are (s91)cs 5 280 kPa and (s93)cs 5 100 kPa. The change in soil
volume at failure was 800 mm3. (i) Which failure criterion is
appropriate to interpret the test data? (ii) Determine (a) the axial
strain at failure, (b) the volumetric strain at failure, (c) the critical
state friction angle, and (d) the inclination of the slip plane to the
horizontal
plane
A structure will impose a normal effective stress of 100 kPa and a
shear stress of 30 kPa on a plane inclined at 588 to the horizontal.
The critical state friction angle of the soil is 258. Will the soil fail? If
not, what is the factor of safety?
Exercise
A consolidated drained (CD) triaxial test was conducted on a
normally consolidated clay. The result were as follows:
σ‘3 = 250KN/m2
σd = 275KN/m2
Determine:
a. Angle of friction, ϕ‘
b. Angle θ that the failure plane makes with the major principal
plane
c. Norma stress, σ‘, and shear stress, τ, on the failure plane
1.If the saturated fine grain soil is loaded by
Structural load, which condition is applied
regarding state of excess pore pressure in the soil.
Why?
a. During the life of the geotechnical structure,
called the long-term
b.During construction, and shortly after, called the
short term condition
2. Why negative pore water pressure is developed
in dense sand during undrained shearing take
place?

3. List the more commonly used Laboratory

Shear Strength Tests
Class Discussion
Describe the difference b/n :- CD, UU, CU &
UC tests in triaxial tests.