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 What we have learnt
• What is system
• OS definition and its goals
• System components :processors, memory,
storage , I/O subsystems, busses , files &
network
• Abstract view of computing systems
• Operating system as a resource manager
User View of OS
• Provides ease of operation
• Supports resource sharing
– Sequential sharing : A resource is allocated for exclusive use of
program eg. CPU
– Concurrent sharing: Two or more program concurrently use
same resource eg. Files, memory, disk array etc.

Systems View of OS
• OS acts as Resource allocator and is responsible for
handling resource request, resource allocation and
optimal utilization of system resources.
• Acts as control program that manages the execution of
user program and prevents error and improper use of
computer system.
 What OS Does?
• Maintain a list of authorized users
• Construct list of all resources in the system
• Initiate execution of programs
• Maintain resource usage information by
programs and current status of programs
• Maintain current status of all resources and
allocate resources to programs when
requested
• Perform scheduling
• Maintain information for protection
 Goals Of Operating System
• Provide user interface for ease of operation
– Command line interface (CLI) eg. Unix, DOS
– Graphical User Interface (GUI) eg. Windows
• Efficient use of hardware & software
resources (system)
• Maximize System performance
• Protection and access control
• Ability to evolve and offer new services
• Footprint of OS should be small !!!
Can we measure System Efficiency,
Performance and user convenience ?

• Efficiency---- CPU efficiency

• System performance ----- Throughput
• User services ---- Turn around time ,
Response time
Operating System and Computer Architecture are
tightly bonded together.

• Change in architecture usually leads to change

in OS.
• The requirements of OS have led to several
architectural changes.
Different Computer
Systems
 Mainframe Systems
• Are large systems
• Are very expensive
• Early mainframes were Batch Systems
• They used punched cards and tape for
data and code input
• They used printer for results and error
reporting
Punched Card( Hollerith's card)
 Mainframe Systems

● Reduce setup time by batching similar jobs

● Automatic job sequencing – automatically transfers
control from one job to another. First rudimentary
operating system.
● Resident monitor
▪ initial control in monitor
▪ control transfers to job
▪ when job completes control transfers back to monitor
 Batch Systems

• Users submits job

• Operator forms a batch by bunching user jobs
• Loads job into the card reader
• Computer executes these jobs sequentially
and produces results on printer
• Printed output is collected by operator and
distributed to users.
Characteristics of Batch System
• Once a job starts executing , until finished no other job can
execute
• Low CPU utilization because when program is reading
data or producing output CPU is idle
• No user interaction
• Batch systems are appropriate for executing large jobs
that require little interaction

Card Reader Computer Printer

Batch system Memory Layout
• Main task of the Batch processing OS was
to transfer control from one job to another.
– Problems
1. How does the monitor know about the nature of the job
(e.g., Fortran versus Assembly) How does the monitor
distinguish
(a)one job from other job?
(b) data from program?
– Solution
Job Control Language
 Turn around time in batch system

Result
Batch printing
execution

t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6

j1 j2 jn
Job Batch Printout
submitted formed To user

Turn around time

Throughput = (t6-t0)/n
Batch system with spooling

Disk

Card Reader Computer Printer

• Every executing program usually will have CPU
Burst then I/O followed by CPU Burst and so on.
The last burst is always CPU Burst and then
program terminates
• c1 io1 c2 io2 c3-------- cn
Problems of mainframe
• Early days Mainframes were inefficient as
execution and I/O was done sequentially
• AS I/O devices are much slower than CPU
execution , CPU utilization was poor
Solution
• Perform execution and I/O in concurrent manner
• Multiprogramming & Time sharing
 Multiprogramming
• In this environment, multiple programs are
kept in memory and one program is executed
at a time. When a program terminates or
goes for I/O resources, another program
starts executing
• Multiprogramming improves CPU utilization
• Improves throughput
Memory Layout for multiprogramming
 OS Features Needed for
Multiprogramming
• Memory management – the system
must allocate the memory to several
jobs.
• CPU scheduling – the system must
choose amongst several jobs ready to
run.
• Allocation of devices.
 Time sharing
• A time unit is divided into small slice and each user can be
allocated CPU in round robin manner
• A time shared OS allows many users to share the computer
simultaneously
• Time shared OS uses multiprogramming and CPU scheduling
to provide each user with a small portion of time shared
computer
• Time sharing machine with Interactive I/O devices improves
user response time
• Gives illusion that each user has his own machine
Requirements of time shared system

• Needs to keep track of time

• Requires Dynamic Resource allocation
– To mange memory processes can be
swapped out requiring backing store
• Dynamic resource allocation requires
elaborate and complicated resource
management and access control
technique
 Problems with early systems and
change drivers
• High cost of resources
– This necessitated concept of resource sharing
and eventually led to the development of
computer network
– Technological development and IC fabrication
has been main driver for development of low
cost computers and variety of peripheral
devices
– Applications are main drivers for development
of faster processor and computing system
 Desktop systems
• Provided interaction
• Main concern is response time
• Since it serves single user, optimal
resource utilization and protection are not
a major concern
• Present day PCs support time sharing ,
multiprogramming and are network
enabled
 Parallel & Distributed System
• Parallel processing improves performance
• Approaches for parallel processing
– Pipelining eg. Instruction pipelining
– Multiplicity of components (Multiprocessor
Systems)
• Symmetric Multiprocessing
• Asymmetric Multiprocessing
– Multiplicity of Systems
• Cluster
• Grid
• Multiprocessor System Offers
– Increased throughput
– Economy
– Increased Reliablity
• Graceful Degradation
• Fault tollerent
• Symmetric Multiprocessing :Each processor
runs identical copy of OS
• Asymmetric multiprocessing: master slave
relation exist.
• These are tightly coupled systems
 Distributed Systems
• These systems depend on network for
their functionality
– Client Server Systems
– Peer to peer systems
• Each processor has its own local memory
• Processors communicate with each other
through communication links
• Loosely coupled Systems
 Cluster System
• Cluster uses multiple CPUs to accomplish
computational work
• Provide High availability
• Asymmetric Cluster (Hot Standby )
– Hot standby machine monitors the active
server and in case of failure of active server,
hot standby becomes active server.
• Symmetric
 Real Time system
• Hard Real time system
• Soft Real Time System