Advanced Class Notes – The Sun (PhD Level)
1. Basic Overview
• Type: G2V Main-sequence star (Yellow Dwarf)
• Mass: 1.989 × 10³⁰ kg (~99.86% of total solar system mass)
• Radius: ~696,340 km
• Age: ~4.6 billion years
• Distance from Earth: ~149.6 million km (1 AU)
• Rotation Period: Differential – ~25 days at equator, ~35 days at poles
• Luminosity: 3.828 × 10²⁶ W
• Effective Temperature: ~5,778 K
2. Formation and Lifecycle
• Formed from the collapse of a molecular cloud (~4.6 Ga ago) — part of the same nebula that
formed the solar system.
• Currently in the main sequence stage, converting hydrogen to helium in its core.
• Will evolve into a red giant (~5 billion years from now), shed outer layers, and end as a white
dwarf.
3. Internal Structure
Layer Description
Core Central region (up to 25% of radius); site of nuclear fusion
Radiative Zone Energy transported by photon radiation (25%–70% radius)
Convective Zone Hot plasma rises and falls, forming granules (~70%–100% radius)
Photosphere Visible surface (~500 km thick); emits most visible light
Chromosphere Above photosphere; visible in Hα filter; ~10,000 K
Corona Outermost layer; millions of degrees; visible during solar eclipse
4. Nuclear Fusion in the Core
Primary Reaction – Proton-Proton Chain (PPI, PPII, PPIII):
• Converts hydrogen to helium, releasing energy via:
o Positrons (e⁺)
o Neutrinos (ν)
o Gamma-ray photons (γ)
Net Reaction:
scss
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4 ¹H → 1 ⁴He + 2e⁺ + 2νₑ + energy (~26.7 MeV per reaction)
Secondary processes in massive stars: CNO cycle
(Not dominant in the Sun due to lower core temperature)
5. Magnetic Activity and Solar Phenomena
Solar Dynamo:
• Caused by differential rotation + convective motions.
• Converts kinetic energy to magnetic energy → generates solar magnetic field.
Solar Cycle:
• ~11-year cycle of sunspot activity (22 years for full magnetic reversal).
• Solar maximum → more flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs).
Phenomena:
Feature Description
Sunspots Darker, cooler regions with intense magnetic fields
Solar flares Sudden eruptions of energy from sunspot regions
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) Huge clouds of plasma ejected into space
Prominences/Filaments Arched loops of hot plasma trapped by magnetic fields
Helioseismic Waves Sound waves in the Sun reveal internal structure (helioseismology)
6. Effects on the Solar System and Earth
• Solar wind: Continuous flow of charged particles → shapes heliosphere, causes auroras.
• Geomagnetic storms: Caused by CMEs; can disrupt satellites, GPS, power grids.
• Space weather: Directly affected by solar activity and monitored continuously (e.g., by
SOHO, Parker Solar Probe).
7. Solar Observation Missions
Mission Agency Highlights
SOHO ESA/NASA Real-time solar wind and flare monitoring
SDO NASA High-res imaging of solar atmosphere and magnetic field
Parker Solar Closest human-made object to the Sun; studies corona and solar
NASA
Probe wind
Solar Orbiter ESA/NASA Studies Sun's poles and inner heliosphere
ISRO
Aditya-L1 India's first solar observatory mission (launched in 2023)
(India)
8. Advanced Topics in Solar Physics
• Solar neutrino problem: Discrepancy between predicted and detected neutrinos (solved via
neutrino oscillation theory).
• Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD): Governs solar plasma dynamics; explains sunspot
formation, corona heating.
• Corona heating problem: Why is the corona hotter than the photosphere? (possibly due to
magnetic reconnection or wave heating).
• Helioseismology: Study of pressure waves to probe internal structure.
• Turbulent convection: Drives sunspot cycles and solar surface dynamics.
Summary Table
Aspect Key Detail
Type G2V main-sequence star
Energy Source Proton-proton chain nuclear fusion
Surface Temp ~5,778 K
Internal Structure Core → Radiative → Convective → Photosphere → Corona
Magnetic Activity Driven by solar dynamo; cycles every ~11 years
Importance to Earth Light, heat, radiation, solar wind, space weather
Aspect Key Detail
Current Missions SDO, Parker, Solar Orbiter, Aditya-L1
