MODULE 7

Vegetable Production
Compiled by
Mr Sidwell Tjale and Mr Musa Mtileni
([email protected] & [email protected])
Contributors
Manaka Makgato, Khomotso Maboka, Mr Andy Sithole, Lulu Vitshima, Ms Erika Van Den
Heever, Dr Nadia Araya and Dr Hintsa Araya
([email protected], [email protected], [email protected] & [email protected])
Agricultural Research Council – Vegetable and Ornamental Plants
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Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION 267
2 CROP SELECTION 269
2.1 CLIMATE 270
2.2 QUALITY OF THE SOIL 272
2.3 WATER 274
2.3.1 Water availability 274
2.3.2 Water quality 274
2.3.3 Watering methods 275
2.4 CROPS AND CULTIVARS 276
2.5 SIZE, SUPPLIES AND COST ANALYSIS 276
2.6 BIOLOGY OF PLANT PESTS AND DISEASES 277
2.6.1 Diseases 278
2.6.2 Pests 281
2.6.3 Common vegetable pests 281
2.7 WEEDS 286
2.8 CONVENTIONAL VEGETABLES VERSUS INDIGENOUS OR TRADITIONAL VEGETABLES 286
2.9 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF VEGETABLES TO DROUGHT TOLERANCE 288
2.10 SEED PRODUCTION SYSTEMS – ACCESS TO CLIMATE-RESILIENT
PLANTING MATERIAL THAT IS DROUGHT RESISTANT
(FARMER PRODUCTION SYSTEMS) 289
3 SOIL MANAGEMENT 290
3.1 ORGANIC MATTER OF SOILS 290
3.2 HOW TO MAKE COMPOST 291
3.3 MULCHES (DROUGHT-RESISTANT SOIL) 294
3.4 ROTATION OF CROPS 298
3.5 BAG SYSTEM 298
3.6 COVER CROPS 300
3.7 GREEN MANURE 302
3.7.1 Sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) 302
4 SOIL IMPROVEMENT AND IRRIGATION 303
4.1 RAINWATER HARVESTING 303
4.2 INTERCROPPING STUDY AT ARC 306
4.3 VERMICULTURE 307
4.4 IRRIGATION SYSTEMS 307
4.4.1 Influence of environmental factors in the selection of the irrigation system 307
4.4.2 Types of irrigation systems and a comparison of the different systems 308
4.5 SOIL MOISTURE 312
4.6 WATERING TECHNIQUES 314
4.7 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF VEGETABLE CROPS 314

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4.8 WATER-SAVING TECHNIQUES 315

4.8.1 Use of greywater 315
4.8.2 Rooftop water harvesting 315
4.8.3 In-field rainwater harvesting 318
4.9 INSTRUMENTS MAKING IRRIGATED SYSTEMS MORE EFFICIENT 318
5 SELECTED DROUGHT TOLERANT VEGETABLES 319
5.1 PEARL MILLET 319
5.2 TARO (COLOCASIA ESCULENTA (L.) OR AMADUMBE 319
5.3 WILD MUSTARD (BRASSICA JUNCEA L.) 319
5.4 WILD MELON (CITRULLUS IANATUS L.) 320
5.5 SWEET POTATO 320
5.6 SPINACH (SWISS CHARD) 321
5.6.1 Introduction 321
5.6.2 Soil requirements 321
5.6.3 Climatic requirements 321
5.6.4 Cultivars 321
5.6.5 Crop rotation 321
5.6.6 Soil preparation 321
5.6.7 Planting method and spacing 322
5.6.8 Fertilisation 322
5.6.9 Water requirements 322
5.6.10 Harvesting 323
5.6.11 Storage 323
5.6.12 Disease control measures 323
5.6.13 Pests 323
5.7 AMARANTH (AMARANTHUS SPP) 323
5.7.1 Origin and distribution 323
5.7.2 Production level: South Africa 324
5.7.3 Major production areas 324
5.7.4 Cultivars 324
5.7.5 Description of the mature plant 324
5.7.6 Climatic requirements 325
5.7.7 Soil requirements 325
5.7.8 Propagation 326
5.7.9 Soil preparation 326
5.7.10 Field layout and design 326
5.7.11 Planting 326
5.7.12 Fertilisation 326
5.7.13 Irrigation 327
5.7.14 Weed control 327
5.7.15 Pest and disease control 328
5.7.16 Other cultivation practices 328

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5.7.17 Harvesting maturity 328

5.7.18 Seed harvesting 329
5.7.19 Post-harvest handling 329
5.7.20 Screening 329
5.7.21 Grading 329
5.7.22 Packing 329
5.7.23 Storage 329
5.7.24 Preserving methods 329
5.7.25 Transport 329
5.7.26 Marketing 329
5.7.27 Utilization 330
5.8 COWPEAS 331
5.8.1 Introduction 331
5.8.2 Soil requirements 332
5.8.3 Climatic requirements 332
5.8.4 Cultivars 332
5.8.5 Crop rotation 332
5.8.6 Soil preparation 332
5.8.7 Planting time 333
5.8.8 Growth period 333
5.8.9 Seed 333
5.8.10 Spacing 333
5.8.11 Fertilisation 333
5.8.12 Water requirements 334
5.8.13 Planting process 334
5.8.14 Cultivation after planting 334
5.8.15 Weed control 334
5.8.16 Diseases 334
5.8.17 Harvesting 335
5.9 PIGEON PEAS 335
5.9.1 Background 335
5.9.2 Production areas 335
5.9.3 Climatic requirements 335
5.9.4 Soil requirements 336
5.9.5 Rainfall 336
5.9.6 Propagation material 336
5.9.7 Soil preparation 336
5.9.8 Planting 336
5.9.9 Fertilisation 336
5.9.10 Irrigation 336
5.9.11 Weed control 337
5.9.12 Pest and disease control 337
5.9.13 Harvesting methods 337
5.9.14 Uses 337

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5.10 BAMBARA GROUND NUTS (VIGNA SUBTERRANEA) 337

5.10.1 Origin and distribution 337
5.10.2 Production levels in South Africa 338
5.10.3 Major production areas in South Africa 338
5.10.4 Varieties and cultivars 339
5.10.5 Mature plant 339
5.10.6 Climatic and environmental requirements 340
5.10.7 Soil requirements 340
5.10.8 Cultivation practices 340
5.10.9 Weed control 340
5.10.10 Pest and disease control 341
5.10.11 Other cultivation practices 341
5.10.12 Harvesting 341
5.10.13 Post-harvest handling 342
5.10.14 Marketing 342
5.10.15 Utilization 342
6 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 343

LIST OF FIGURES 345

LIST OF TABLES 346

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1 INTRODUCTION

Vegetables are the fresh edible parts of some input prices, and population growth. Increased
herbaceous plants such as roots, stems, leaves, water-use restrictions and severe droughts
flowers, fruit, or seeds. These plant components continue to have a negative impact on rural
are consumed raw or prepared in a variety of people in South Africa.
ways, most often as a savory rather than sweet
meal. For millennia, the term "vegetable" South Africa is an arid country that ranks in the
referred to any edible plant materials, including world's top 30 driest. South Africans use 237
flowers, fruits, stalks, leaves, roots, and seeds. litres of water each day, which is more than the
Another rather arbitrary concept is utilised in world average of 173 litres.
culinary and cultural traditions. Savoury fruits
and vegetables like tomatoes and courgettes Food and nutrition security is a major concern
are included, as are blossoms like broccoli and in South Africa. Moreover, extreme weather
seeds like pulses (Harri & Bianchini, Franca, occurrences such as El Nino and El Nina, as well
2003; Melissa Petruzzello, 2018). as increasing temperatures, poor soil fertility,
and unpredictable rainfall, will worsen food
Vegetables are produced throughout the and nutrition security, negatively impacting
whole world, with various degrees of success resource-poor households.
depending on the global climate. As a result of
global agricultural trade, it is now feasible to Another issue that contributes to the need
buy vegetables grown hundreds of kilometers is water quality. Water quality is the ability
abroad, from subsistence farmers supporting of a body of water to be safe, drinkable, and
their families' food needs to agribusinesses appealing to all forms of life on the planet.
with huge acreages of single-product crops. The already scarce fresh water in South Africa
After harvesting a crop, common procedures is deteriorating in quality due to increased
include grading, storage, processing, and pollution and the devastation of river catchments
selling. Because they are abundant in vitamins, caused by urbanization, deforestation, river
minerals, and dietary fiber while being low in damming, wetlands destruction, industry,
fat and carbs, raw vegetables are an essential mining, agriculture, energy consumption, and
element of human nutrition. Many nutritionists accidental water contamination. Pollution and
recommend that people should consume five watershed degradation are becoming more
or more servings of fruits and vegetables each prevalent as the human population rises.
day.
South Africa is one of the nations most likely The amount of water on the earth is constant
to suffer severe water scarcity due to a lack of and cannot be raised or decreased, although it
effective water management systems (Mjoli, is distributed unevenly.
2010). This will almost probably lead to water South Africa receives only 300-400 mm of rain
tensions between residential, agricultural, and each year. This is nearly half the global average.
industrial needs (Mjoli, 2010). Improvements As a result, South Africa is classified as a water-
in water use efficiency (WUE) in agriculture are stressed country.
necessary due to a lack of freshwater, growing

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This manual does not provide a step-by-step will need to adapt to local, regional, and global
action plan. There is no one-size-fits-all solution situations, and they may differ significantly from
that can be applied to every scenario. Mulching, farmer to farmer.
intercropping, conservation agriculture,
crop rotation, integrated crop-livestock As a result, this manual will provide solutions
management, agroforestry, improved grazing, that can be tailored to various crop systems.
and better water management will all play a It approaches the subject from a technical
role in the transition to climate-smart vegetable standpoint, such as research outputs. Definitions
production systems, as will innovative practices for technical terms are provided in some cases.
like better weather forecasting, more resilient
food crops, and risk insurance. These strategies

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2 CROP SELECTION

Crop selection is very important to crop farming • Mustard greens

success. It is a criterion that must be satisfied • Okra
before starting a farming business. Even in • Summer squashes
the absence of a predetermined location and • Most herbs
site for a farm, the crop to be grown can be
chosen primarily based on its marketability and Drought-tolerant crops produce deeper root
profitability, as well as the current farm conditions systems to adapt to both heat and low water
(biotic factors refer to living organisms and levels. Many of them grow fast, reducing
topographic features, various climatic factors their long-term water requirements. Drought-
such as water availability, temperature, and so tolerant strains exist for several vegetables
on). Before planting, farmers should consider that demand a lot of water, such as the Black
drought-tolerant vegetables that have been Diamond watermelon and the Heatwave II
specifically chosen for drought tolerance, as well tomatoes. When looking for drought-resistant
as those that thrive in hot, dry environments. seeds and plants for gardening, look for labels
Among the most popular options are: that state the plant can thrive in higher temps
• Cowpeas, black-eyed peas and field peas and needs little to moderate water (Figure 1).
• Edible amaranth
• Quinoa

Figure 1 Grouping vegetables according to their water needs.

Source: Linda, 2019.

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If you anticipate a dry year, instead of sowing 2.1 CLIMATE

seeds, buy seedlings to develop your garden.
A nearby nursery will have a big selection of The climate of a given region is defined as the
drought-tolerant vegetable seedlings. temperature, humidity, daylight, and wind
conditions of that location. Climate has a
If you select a fast-maturing item, such as substantial impact on all stages and processes
zucchini (which grows in approximately 60 days of vegetable development. Water is an
from seed to fruit), you will have a bountiful important consideration, and South Africa has
harvest within a month of putting it into your been classified as one of the world's 30th driest
garden. If you must start from seeds, choose countries (Figure 2), with an annual average
vegetables that develop quickly from seed to rainfall of less than 500 mm, significantly less
harvest, such as spring radishes, which may be than the global annual average rainfall of 860
harvested in less than 30 days. mm (FAO, 2016), and which is expected to
decrease as a result of climate change due to
Different plants require different amounts of global warming.
water for optimal growth. If you don't design
your garden with the water demands of Rainfall in South Africa is also unevenly
particular plant species in mind, you may end distributed. The eastern half of the country is
up over- and under-irrigating. Instead, focus on significantly wetter than the western half due to
giving the right quantity of moisture to plants the nature of the weather. Droughts and floods
while conserving water by grouping vegetables occur regularly in South Africa, impacting the
in your garden based on their drought tolerance quantity of water available across the country.
and watering requirements.

Figure 2 Annual rainfall distribution in South Africa.

Source: Rand Water, 2021.

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Table 1 Water use in South Africa.

Source: Ashwell & Hoffman, 2001.

Water user Usage

(%)

Agricultural use (including irrigation) 60

Environmental use 18
Urban and domestic use 11.5
Mining and industrial use 10.5

Growing season is defined as the period during by these two dates on a broad scale. Depending
which the conditions necessary for plants to on where you live, it is possible that you will
mature and produce are present in your area never see frost; instead, your dry season will
for them to grow and produce. The length of the serve as "winter." You cannot control the length
growing season is determined by the number of of your growing season because it is entirely
days that elapse between the last frost in the determined by the climate in your region (Table
spring and the first frost in the fall, which is 2). Vegetable farmers should consider the
measured in days. The beginning and endpoints following climatic parameters when growing
of the period of time during which plants vegetables.
develop from seed to maturity are represented

Table 2 Climatic conditions to be considered in the production area.

Temperature
• Hottest month: Maximum & minimum temperature
• Coldest month: Maximum & minimum temperature
Rainfall
• Average annual rainfall
• When the growing season is
• When the dry or wet season is
Position
• Latitude and longitude
• Height above sea level
• Slope of the land
Soil
• Soil type (sandy, silty, clay, mixture)
• pH
• Soil Salinity
• Soil depth
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• Temperature • Radiation
What are the lowest and highest temperatures The plot should receive at least six hours of
in the area? The temperature of an area direct sunlight per day. In the early stages of
determines which crops may be grown and growth, however, some shadowing from natural
when they can be planted. or manufactured sources may be beneficial to
keep young plants from wilting due to excessive
• Relative humidity sunshine.
This can cause problems with irrigation
scheduling. At sea level, the relative humidity 2.2 QUALITY OF THE SOIL
is greater than on the Highveld. Infestation of
diseases, such as mildew on pumpkins, can be Soil quality refers to a soil's ability to perform
worsened by hot and humid conditions. specific functions for specific land uses or within
specific ecological boundaries. Despite the fact
• Frost that this capacity is an inherent characteristic
The latest date of frost determines when frost- of soils, it varies from one to the next. Organic-
sensitive crops may be sown. Frost may have matter content, salinity, tilth, compaction,
an influence on the growing season of a crop. accessible nutrients, and rooting depth are
Planting a certain crop poses a risk if it takes just a few of the indicators that may be used to
a long growing season to develop and there is measure the health or condition of the soil in
frost in the area. any given area, as well as its quality.
• Wind • Slope
The wind direction influences planting The slope of a field must be addressed when
arrangement since it affects irrigation and crop preparing and farming the soil. Erosion
development. Windbreaks may be necessary may easily occur if the slope is steep and
for high-wind areas. The continuous breeze inappropriate farming methods are utilised.
affects water evaporation.
• Soil conditions
• Rainfall The site should have enough drainage. The most
To plan your irrigation, you'll need to know essential component of a farm is the soil, and it
how much rain has fallen. It is critical to deduct must be well-managed. The percentage clay, pH,
the quantity of water that must be applied at kind of soil, soil texture, and planting depth are
a specific period (monthly and/or seasonally) all important factors to consider. Each location
from the overall amount of water that must be has its own type of soil, and understanding the
applied. Watering must be timed according to soil's history and keeping track of agricultural
the plant's developmental cycle. operations is essential for crop rotation.

• Hail Quality loam to clay loam soils are suitable for

The history of hail falls should be kept since it vegetable cultivation as depicted in Table 3.
is essential to plan around the risk of hail in a
given location, as it can be a substantial risk that
can result in crop loss, either partial or whole.

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Table 3 Depicts some of the characteristics of typical soil types.

Soil type Features Methods of improvement

Sand Less than 10% clay, won’t aggregate or Regularly add organic matter and
will slightly aggregate fertiliser, use green manure crops
Sandy loam 15-20% clay, forms a stable ball without Add organic matter, fertiliser and use
difficulty green manure
Sandy clay loam 20-40% clay, can be rolled into a stable Organic matter is less important. The
to clay loam sausage amount of fertiliser required will be
determined by soil analysis.
Clay More than 40% clay, good water holding Add organic materials, compost, and
capacity, very hard when it dries gypsum
Silt Poor structure, good fertility Add loose organic matter, use green
manure

Sandy soils may be troublesome due to excessive The greatest physical quality of the soil is
water and nutrient drainage, as well as the contributed by fresh organic matter that
presence of nematodes. All of these variables decomposes fast. The presence of moisture,
will result in crop stress and lower yields. nitrogen, and warm temperatures accelerates
decomposition. Organic matter slows the loss
Good soil is required for a high yield. All of of minerals through soil leaching until they are
the nutrients necessary for healthy plant liberated by microorganisms. Organic waste
growth must be present in the soil, as well as breakdown increases soil structure, allowing
a structure that permits plants to stand erect. roots to penetrate deeper into the soil. Organic
The soil structure must be capable of retaining matter incorporation can enhance the water-
sufficient air and water for plant roots while holding capacity of sands and sandy soils,
allowing excess water to drain. The bulk of whereas aggregation in heavy soils can aid in
nutrients are recycled from the soil naturally drainage. Crop rotation is required to maintain
by plant roots and returned to the soil by high soil productivity. Although some soil is
falling leaves and other organic debris. Organic naturally fertile, the majority of soil is infertile
waste is consumed by earthworms and other or has lost nutrients as a result of bad farming
creatures and converted to humus, which methods.
darkens and strengthens the topsoil. Humus is
readily removed or washed away if the soil is
left exposed. In most instances, the subsurface
yields less.

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A soil laboratory should examine the nutritional 2.3 WATER

quality of the soil on a regular basis. The optimum
rate of fertiliser application is determined by the Water is vital in the process of transporting
nutritional state of the soil. It is usually a good nutrients and carbohydrates from the soil to
idea to have your soil tested. Enquire with your the plants. At some point in their existence,
local extension service or a fertiliser company all plants will be harmed by water scarcity or
for assistance. drought. This can be lethal to plants or lead
them to grow at a much slower rate in some
The soil analysis is broken down into two sections: situations. Plants that have been exposed to
soil characterization and fertility status, and soil extended drought may be more susceptible to
fertilisation recommendations. The study covers secondary infection by pests and diseases than
a variety of topics, including soil characteristics they would be otherwise. The following are
(pH, texture, percent exchangeable sodium, some examples of water parameters that can
percent organic matter, and salinity expressed affect plant growth:
as electrical conductivity). The plant's fertility
condition is described in terms of nutrients 2.3.1 Water availability
available to it. The second section, named
"fertility recommendation," lists the amounts The amount of water required to grow
of fertiliser that should be used. These amounts vegetables at maximum yield might be rather
are determined by the crop requirements, crop large. On a 1 000 m2 (very small scale) of
management strategies that affect the crop (as vegetable growing, 15000-20000 litres of water
described in the information sheet), existing are required per week.
soil fertility levels, and the producer's desired
yield target. A special notification is given if the Vegetable production will be limited to 100-200
results of the tests suggest that a salt or sodium m2 if a borehole is the sole accessible water
hazard exists, or if the information provided source and does not supply water at a rate of at
reveals any other unique problems. least a litre/sec.

The pH of the soil, for example, determines If municipal water is used, the cost should be
whether it is acidic or alkaline in nature. The pH carefully calculated.
of acidic soil is 7, while the pH of alkaline soil is
7. A pH of less than 7 indicates that the soil is Select irrigation systems that are appropriate
acidic, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates for the land and crops being grown. The system
that the soil is neutral. A plant that grows well must be easy to use and maintain.
in acidic soil will suffer in alkaline soil, while a
plant that grows well in alkaline soil will struggle 2.3.2 Water quality
in acidic soil. Without a soil testing kit, it's
impossible to detect the pH content of the soil Another significant factor to consider is the
but local farmers and extension officials should water quality. If the water quality is inadequate,
be able to tell you whether it's neutral, acidic, it will have a negative impact on the soil quality,
or alkaline. which will have a negative impact on the crop
quality. Wastewater (greywater) is, for example,

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the water that comes from sinks, bathtubs, Transplants

showers, and washing machines, among other Watering is necessary before and after
places. Water for the garden usually does not transplanting, especially in hot weather when
need to be treated with chemicals or biological immature plants can't replace water lost via
agents before use. It is vital to consider the their leaves.
following while using wastewater for your
garden: wastewater that contains an excessive Leafy crops
amount of dirt should be removed. The water Leafy crops (such as cabbage and spinach)
from a washing machine's final rinse, on require roughly 25 litres per square meter
the other hand, can only be used in modest per week of water and should be actively
amounts. The safest sort of wastewater is bath developing from the time they are seeded
or shower water. There is a scarcity of clear or transplanted. Any interruption in the
scientific information on the long-term impacts water supply might have an impact on yield
of bath/shower water on soils after extensive and quality. In the summer, splitting the
use. When this product has been used in the water supply into two applications may be
past, no detrimental impacts on the soil or plants preferable. As the crops mature, more water
have been observed. According to estimations, should be applied. In cooler months (winter),
excellent soil with a high organic matter content however, single weekly irrigation is sufficient.
can hold about 25 L of wastewater per square
metre of the surface area every week. Using Root crops
wastewater in a cycle with freshwater to purify The typical weekly water requirement for
the soil of possibly dangerous chemicals is potatoes, carrots, and sweet potatoes is
an effective method. To aid in the natural between 10 and 15 litres per square meter.
decomposition of waste leftovers, thick mulches In the absence of rain, regular watering is
should be spread to areas that are maintained required, with the goal of ensuring that water
by wastewater. permeates deeply into the soil. Poor root
development is hampered by insufficient
2.3.3 Watering methods irrigation. When tubers begin to form,
potatoes require more water.
For all vegetable crops, good yields are
impossible without enough water during the Other crops
entire growing season. Some crops require more The average water need for crops including
water than others, and the water requirements green beans, green peas, pumpkin, tomato,
of various cultivars of the same crop might and cowpea is 25 litres per square meter,
vary. The following are merely suggestions that but this varies depending on the stage
should be tweaked depending on the season of development. Excessive leaf growth is
and conditions on your plot or garden: encouraged by too much water up to this
point.
Seedlings
The critical time is between sowing and the Water-efficient vegetables
emergence of the seedlings. At all times the Cowpeas, amaranth, pigeon peas, and
soil in contact with the seed must be moist. Bambara, for example, are drought-tolerant
crops that may be cultivated in rain-fed
environments if the rain is evenly distributed.

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2.4 CROPS AND CULTIVARS production in your area and for selling in your
market. The seed firm wants to know what the
When determining which crops to grow in summer and winter temperatures will be when
a given year, it is vital to make an informed the first frost will occur, and how long each
decision. The first condition is that your crop has season will persist in each site.
a market that is appropriate for it. Determine
the market's size, the distance between the 2.5 SIZE, SUPPLIES AND COST
market and its location, as well as the quality
and quantity of products that the market
ANALYSIS
requires. Make sure you understand the crop's
Producing vegetables is an expensive endeavor.
climatic requirements and compare them to the
High input and labor expenses are required
climate in your area to see if the crop will grow
to produce vegetables commercially, and as a
in your area of production.
result, the best possible yield and quality are
required. Almost all of the aforementioned
Crop selection is also influenced by the types
aspects have an impact on costs and financial
of nutrients that the crops under consideration
resources. You should abandon the concept if
may provide. Vitamin A is one of the nutrients
you don't have enough money to purchase all of
in our diets that is badly lacking, so dark-green
the necessary inputs for vegetable cultivation.
leafy vegetables and orange vegetables should
be ingested on a regular basis. Carrots, butternut
The materials that will be required, such as
squashes, and orange-fleshed sweet potatoes,
fertiliser, seeds/seedlings, and chemicals, will
as well as leafy vegetables like Amaranthus and
be determined as part of the planning phase.
spinach, are among the most significant crops
The size of the garden or field will dictate the
to plant in your vegetable garden.
type of cultivation procedures and equipment
that will be used. If the fields are small, the task
It's crucial to choose the right cultivars. A
can be accomplished by hand, requiring the use
tomato, for example, is more than just a tomato;
of tools such as garden forks, rakes, hand hoes,
there are numerous varieties, including short
and a wheelbarrow. In all other circumstances,
growers, long growers, processing cultivars,
a tractor with the necessary implements is
and fresh market cultivars. To guarantee that
required. Because vegetable seeds are often
the appropriate cultivar is selected for all
very small, successful planting necessitates a
vegetable crops, it's a good idea to first figure
fine seedbed.
out who the crop's target market will be. The
most successful technique is to talk to several
The size of the plots that will be created will be
seed firms and figure out which cultivars are
determined by the volume of products that will
best for production in your area and for selling
be sold. Plant in accordance with an anticipated
in your market. The seed firm wants to know
marketing date as well.
what the summer and winter temperatures will
be when the first frost will occur, and how long
When deciding on the arrangement of the
each season will persist in each site. The most
vegetable plots, keep in mind the crop rotation
successful method is to talk to several seed
strategy that will be utilised.
firms and figure out which cultivars are best for

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2.6 BIOLOGY OF PLANT PESTS Pest and disease control can be exceedingly
costly, even prohibitively so in some cases. If a
AND DISEASES farmer chooses to apply pesticides, he or she is
liable for the expense of the chemicals, spraying
Vegetable growers are constantly confronted
equipment, and protective clothes. Pesticides
with insect pests and diseases that wreak
are sometimes applied haphazardly, causing
havoc on their crops (Figure 3). Typically,
environmental damage. Disease control may
they'd seen these in past seasons, and the
need extra effort on the farmer's or gardener's
symptoms appear to be the same. There are
part. It's possible that this is one of his or her
times, however, when an atypical pest (not
creations. He or she could also be forced to pay
native to South Africa) may appear. Exotic
for the services of others in order to carry out
pests are a source of concern for farmers,
disease control initiatives. Small-scale farmers
as they have the potential to disrupt the
who cannot afford these management methods
agricultural and horticulture industries, as
may experience a different form of loss than
well as raise production costs and consumer
their larger counterparts.
prices (Hoffmann, Learmonth & Wood, 2014).

Figure 3 General plant pests and diseases.

Source: ARC.

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They may need to sell their product as quickly to causing severe damage. Plant diseases can
as possible due to its limited shelf life. For the cause mouldy coatings, wilting, scabs, blotches,
development of a disease, the presence of rusts, and decay, to name a few symptoms
the three components listed below (Scholthof, (Bost, 2021).
2006) (Figure 4) is required.
• Pathogen 2.6.1.1 Disease transmission
• Host
• Favorable environmental conditions Windblown, rain, or dust are common ways for
invasive species to travel from plant to plant
2.6.1 Diseases in vegetable crops (Table 4). Humans spread
germs through a variety of techniques, including
The plants that they infect and reproduce on plant cultivation, grafting, pruning, and moving
provide the energy for vegetable diseases. infected plant material. Animals such as insects
They are typically encouraged by wet weather, and mites, in addition to humans, are common
poor drainage, and limited airflow, in addition disease vectors (lvarez-Hernández, 2019).

Figure 4 The disease triangle.

Source: Scholthof, 2006.

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Table 4 The method by which plant diseases transmitted.

Components of epidemics
Resistance refers to the ability of a plant to exclude or overcome the effect of a
pathogen or any other damaging factor. Levels of resistance vary.
Susceptibility refers to the inability of a plant to resist the effect of a pathogen or
Host any other damaging factor.
• Type of crop.
• Age of host plant: Some hosts become more susceptible to a particular disease
as they get older. Some pathogens only attack hosts in the seedling stage.
• Presence or absence of virulent races, i.e. races of the pathogen that can
attack the crop.
• Amount of inoculum near the host, e.g. the amount of plant debris in the field
Pathogen
infected with fungi, bacteria or viruses, or the number of virus-infected weeds
growing in or near the crop.
• How does the pathogen spread?
• Moisture. Increasing levels of moisture will increase the incidences of most
fungal and bacterial diseases.
Environment • Temperature: Too high or too low temperatures can “break” resistance in the
host, destroy the pathogen, or affect the rate at which the pathogen infects or
multiplies.
• How long do particular events last, e.g. how long does the environment remain
Time favorable for disease to attack the plant? How many cycles can the pathogen
go through in the life span of the crop?
• Choice of site, e.g. is the soil well-drained drained or poorly drained?
Human • Choice of planting material e.g. does the grower use clean seed.
activities • Disease control. Does the grower use chemical sprays, resistant varieties,
sanitation, etc.?

• Wind • Runoff and flood irrigation

The wind has been shown to play a significant Runoff and flood irrigation play an important
impact in the spread of some fungus. Spread role in the transmission of soil-borne illnesses,
can occur over long distances. particularly fungus and bacteria.

• Rain and overhead irrigation • Insects and other vectors

The spread of germs and fungi in the environment Many viruses, including aphids, that are
is aided by splashing water. Spreading is often transmitted through insects and other vectors,
done over a short distance. rely on this mechanism of transmission.

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• Seeds ̶ DISEASES
People can spread diseases across extraordinarily Because disease organisms are microscopic,
long distances, even between countries, by they cannot be seen and therefore their
using sick seeds as planting material. Vaccines: arrival and accumulation in the crop cannot
Vaccines are effective at stopping the disease be monitored as easily as the arrival and
from spreading. accumulation of insect pests in the crop. To
protect the crop from possible infection, it is
• Diseased nursery seedlings possible that regular preventative sprays will be
This is how some fungi, bacteria, and viruses required in some cases.
spread from one plant to another in a nursery.
̶ SYMPTOMS
• Boots and shoes Since disease organisms are small, they can't
This method allows people to spread many be seen, thus their arrival and buildup in the
pathogens, mostly soil-borne pathogens. crop can't be tracked as easily as insect pests. In
rare circumstances, regular prophylactic sprays
• Field equipment (e.g., tractors) may be necessary to protect the crop against
People use this method to spread both soil- infection.
borne and foliar diseases.
In other circumstances, the farmer's
• Why is accurate diagnosis important? observations and careful sampling can make
Disease control requires a significant investment the difference between a correct diagnosis and
of time, effort, and money. A faulty diagnosis can none at all.
result in control errors that are both damaging
and expensive. As a precautionary measure, one It is helpful for farmers to know what types of
should strive to become as proficient at making symptoms to look for, even if they do not do the
diagnoses based on symptoms as possible in final diagnosis.
case expert assistance is unavailable and the
situation demands it. • Expand awareness of what is going on
around
• Identification of pests and diseases You must be aware of what is going on in
Due to a lack of knowledge, it might be difficult your immediate surroundings. You must know
for a farmer or gardener to effectively diagnose whether summers are typically hot and dry or
pests and illnesses in the field. He or she will need whether they are typically mild and wet; in other
to call a plant pathologist or an entomologist words, you must know the climate. You must
who works in a laboratory in these cases (for know whether it was warm and rainy during the
example, the Agricultural Research Council, previous week or the previous month.
Vegetable, Industrial and Medicinal Plants).
You also need to know what kinds of crops
̶ INSECTS people are growing in your area and the way in
It is vital to inspect the crop at least once a week that they are commonly produced in the area.
to see if any pests are present. Chemicals are Certain disease patterns in your area become
only used to counteract them if they are present more apparent if you pay attention to growers as
and in harmful amounts. they describe what they do and what problems
they encounter.

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• Ask yourself: How soon does the farmer/ • In some form or another, pests attack
gardener need an answer? all vegetable crops to varying degrees of
If you think a farmer or gardener is suffering severity. To effectively control an insect
from a significant disease outbreak, you must infestation, it is critical to first identify the
intervene within two to three days in order type of insect that is attacking your crop as
to save the crop. Even if the situation appears accurately as possible.
bleak, you should take the appropriate steps if • Keep track of pest and disease problems
you need more time to make a diagnosis since throughout the season so that you can
you are diagnosing a problem you are unfamiliar plan and prepare better for the following
with. It can help you learn from the experience, season. The success of vegetable gardening
in addition to supporting the farmer in planning is greatly enhanced by the implementation
for the future season. of a pest and disease management
programme.
The equipment that advisors will need to bring • When it comes to reducing the need
with them when conducting field assessments. for chemical control, good agricultural
Apart from your mental equipment, you may practices and maintaining high fertility
find it useful to have the following items with and vigorous growth are two of the most
you: effective methods.
• A pocket knife • Pesticides should be used with caution. The
• A spade or trowel first rule of safety is to carefully read the
• A notebook instructions on the container's label and to
• Plastic bags to collect samples follow them exactly as they are written
• Labels • Before purchasing a pesticide, check to
• Questionnaire see if it contains a list of the pests that will
be controlled. Use the proper products
2.6.2 Pests in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions, and avoid using higher
The presence of insect pests in any vegetable concentrations or larger dosages than what
garden can cause significant problems. Insects is recommended.
feeding on the plant may prevent the plant • Store pesticides out of reach of children and
from growing properly, resulting in a poor crop animals, behind locked doors, and away
or even a complete crop loss. The use of natural from food. Always store pesticides in their
and biological methods to reduce the damage original, clearly labelled containers, and
caused by insect pests is becoming increasingly properly dispose of any empty containers
popular in the long run. There are cultivars of after they have been used.
various vegetables, for example, that have been
specifically bred to be pest-resistant (Masabni, 2.6.3 Common vegetable pests
Dainello & Cotner, 2009).
Pests that attack leafy vegetables include flies,
Developing an integrated pest management bugs, mites, worms, and molluscs, to name a
(IPM) strategy that incorporates insect-resistant few. Flies, bugs, mites, worms, and molluscs
cultivars as well as environmentally friendly are the most common pests that attack leafy
pest control methods can help to reduce insect vegetables. Here is a list of the most common
damage. When growing vegetables, keep the pests of leaf vegetables and information on how
following considerations in mind: to prevent, control, and manage them if you
grow greens or plan to grow them.
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2.6.3.1 American bollworm 2.6.3.2 Aphids

Beans, brassicas, peas, potatoes, and tomatoes With soft, pear-shaped bodies that are
are among the crops that are attacked by the predominantly green or black, these insects
bolworm, (shown in Figure 5). Black, brown, (see Figure 6) are typically found in colonies
green, or pink larvae with an off-white stripe sucking sap from the new tender growth parts
running along the sides and abdomen are of most vegetables.
common colours for this species. It can cause
damage to the leaves, flowers, pods, and fruit
of a plant.

Figure 5 American bollworm.

Source: BASF, 2017.

Figure 6 American Aphids.

Source: Levy & Sideman, 2016.

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2.6.3.3 Bagrada bug and flower petals at night. Vegetables that are
young and in bloom are particularly vulnerable
With an orange cross on its back and spots and to attack.
bands of colour across its abdomen (see Figure
7), this shield bug looks like a small dragonfly. 2.6.3.5 Cutworm
It is capable of attacking a wide variety of
vegetables, but it prefers cabbage. Usually grey, waxy worm-like grubs as in Figure
8. It is possible that colour variations will occur.
2.6.3.4 Spring/Chafer beetle They can be found in the upper soil surface and
chew on seedlings that are at or just below soil
A medium-sized beetle that is yellow-brown level, according to the USDA. Mostly active at
in colour and feeds primarily on young leaves night, they prey on all types of crops.

Figure 7 Bagrada bug.

Source: ARC, 2016.

Figure 8 Cutworm
Source: Plant Care Today, 2021.

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2.6.3.6 Diamond-back moth motion. Bean pods and developing tomatoes

are the primary targets of this pest.
A light-green caterpillar (see Figure 9), which
usually feeds on the undersides of leaves 2.6.3.10 Thrips
making holes in the leaves. The main target are
brassicas (cabbages). Minute/very small insects that can be found
hiding between the folded leaves of a variety
2.6.3.7 Fruit (pumpkin) fly of plants (see Figure 11). As they damage the
foliage, they leave silvery blotches on the
Brown flies with yellow bands or spots on their leaves. It primarily targets beans, pumpkins,
wings (see Figure 10). Young fruit is stung, and onions, and tomatoes, but it also targets a wide
the stinger lays eggs under the skin. Maggots range of other crops.
are most commonly found on small, immature
fruits. Attack all different kinds of pumpkins. 2.6.3.11 Red spider mites

2.6.3.8 Greater cabbage moth Microscopic, spider-like insects that range in

colour from red to brown. Although difficult
Caterpillars are green when young, but older to detect with the naked eye, this pest spins a
caterpillars may have a white line and black web on the underside of foliage, causing it to
spots on their backs as they mature. Frequently brown and yellow. All vegetables are vulnerable
encountered in groups where a web is being to attack, especially in extremely hot and dry
spun. Specifically, cabbages are targeted. conditions (see Figure 12).

2.6.3.9 Plusia looper 2.6.3.12 Other

A green caterpillar that feeds on the outside of Many other lesser important insect pests can
beans and tomatoes, as well as on the inside of sometimes become more important depending
beans. When they move, they create a looping on several factors.

Figure 9 Diamond-back moth.

Source: Maulana et al., 2016.

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Figure 10 Fruit (pumpkin) fly.

Source: ARC.

Figure 11 Thrips.
Source: Varela, Seif, & Lohr, 2003.

Figure 12 Red spider mite.

Source: Finkle, 2021.

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2.7 WEEDS Because of this, weeds must be eliminated. In

a vegetable garden, weeds are typically pulled
Weed is a general term used to describe any out by hand or with a hand hoe, which is a tool
plant that grows in an area where it is not specifically designed for weeding.
wanted. Since the beginning of human attempts
to cultivate plants, humans have had to contend
with the invasion of weeds into areas designated
2.8 CONVENTIONAL VEGETABLES
for crop production. Some undesirable plants VERSUS INDIGENOUS OR
were later discovered to have virtues that were TRADITIONAL VEGETABLES
not initially suspected, and as a result, they
were removed from the category of weeds and The dietary diversity, food security, and
placed under cultivation. When other cultivated livelihoods of populations across Sub-
plants were transplanted to new climates, they Saharan Africa are enhanced by the presence
escaped cultivation and became weeds or of approximately 1000 different species of
invasive species, resulting in the extinction of indigenous and naturalised vegetables. These
the cultivar. As a result, the category of weeds foods are also important components of
is constantly evolving, and the term itself is a alimentary traditions and cultural identity, but
relative one (Chandrasena, 2019). they have been neglected and underutilised
as a result of their status as a threatened
• Weeds compete with plants for resources and endangered species. Slowly but steadily,
such as light, nutrients, water, and soil. universities, research centres, and development
• Can serve as a breeding ground for pests organisations are beginning to pay attention to
and diseases. African vegetables (Figure 13).
• Endanger the health of both animals and
humans.
• It interferes with the operation of the farm.

Amaranth Spider Corchoru Leafy Nightshad

plant s Mustard e

Cowpea Amadumb Okra Bambara

e Groundnut

Figure 13 Examples of indigenous and naturalised vegetables.

Source: ARC.
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The ARC has been researching these crops, increasing crop water productivity must be
focusing on cultivation practices, resource considered.
use efficiency, nutritional value, drought
tolerance, and their similarities and difference The findings support the idea that traditional
to commercial or conventional vegetables in vegetable crops are drought-tolerant and can
terms of yield and quantity. handle adverse climatic conditions. Increasing
the amount of water and fertiliser applied to
To measure the nutritional value of water-sown the crop will increase the water productivity of
crops, an investigation was conducted at the traditional vegetable crops. The study disproves
ARC. This research studied orange-fleshed sweet the notion that traditional vegetable crops do
potatoes, among other crops, like amaranth, not require fertiliser or water, as claimed by
swiss chard, and spider flower. the researchers. Agricultural production was
conducted with low inputs reduced all of these
Food and nutrition security is only possible in outcomes (i.e., without water and fertiliser). This
resource-poor households if they make efficient indicates that water and soil fertility stresses
use of agricultural resources and incorporate significantly impact traditional vegetable crop
traditional vegetable crops into their food productivity.
systems. Swiss chard produced the highest raw
edible biomass, both underwater stress and According to the findings of the study, Swiss
with no water, and traditional vegetable crops chard has significantly higher levels of Fe,
produced stems that were unusable for human Zn, and -carotene than traditional vegetable
consumption. crops. The average content of micro nutrients
under normal operating conditions with no
In addition, when there is no water stress, crop water stress is 5.3 mg 100 g-1 for iron, 0.5 mg
evapotranspiration is ordered in the following 100 g-1 for zinc, 1.6 mg 100 g-1 for zinc, and 3
order: mg 100 g-1 for -carotene. Under severe water
I. Orange-fleshed sweet potato leaves, stress conditions, Fe and Zn demonstrated
for example. consistency, whereas -carotene decreased
II. Amaranth, also known as sarsaparilla significantly, which is consistent with previous
III. Spider flowers, as well as findings. Low input agricultural practices
IV. Swiss chard is a type of cabbage. (with low water and fertiliser inputs) did not
necessarily lead to nutrient-depleted crops,
The crops, on the other hand, can be ranked according to the study. They raised the nutrient
from most water-intensive to least water- levels in some cases. for example, Fe content
intensive when faced with severe water scarcity: of Amaranth increased from 8.2 mg 100 g-1 to
28.1 mg 100 g-1, whereas Fe content of Spider
I. Orange-fleshed sweet potato leaves, flower increased from 7.5 mg 100 g-1 to 34.4
for example. mg 100 g-1 The nutrient content of crops cannot
II. Spider flower, also known as be evaluated in isolation as regards yield or raw
III. Swiss chard, as well as edible biomass, as they are interdependent.
IV. Amaranth.
The nutritional yield is a critical crop
Previous research suggests that Amaranth management parameter in agriculture. It
is more tolerant of water stress than other indicates the amount of nutrients that can
vegetables. Because water is a limited resource, be harvested over the course of the entire
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growing season. In water-stressed conditions, leaves were the top-ranked for their Zn content.
the highest average nutritional yield of Fe was Amaranth, Swiss chard, and orange-fleshed
1444 g ha-1 from Spider flower, 213 g ha-1 from sweet potato leaves were ranked first, second,
Swiss chard, and the highest average nutritional third, and fourth for -carotene. The following
yield of -carotene was discovered in Amaranth are the key findings: I traditional vegetable crops
(1933 g ha-1). Traditional vegetables are capable (Amaranth and Spider flower) have exceptional
of yielding higher levels of Fe and -carotene, as productivity when compared to Swiss chard,
opposed to Swiss chard. Aside from that, the and nutrition water production can be achieved
nutritional yield of traditional vegetable crops with minimal input (supplemental irrigation and
declined when grown with low input agricultural no fertiliser application).
practises, where the nutritional yield of -carotene
saw a significant decrease. With supplemental 2.9 OTHER IMPORTANT ASPECTS
irrigation (water stress), no fertiliser application,
and leaf harvesting treatment combinations, OF VEGETABLES TO DROUGHT
the nutritional yield of Fe, Zn, and -carotene TOLERANCE
in orange-fleshed sweet potato storage roots
dropped by approximately 50%. Despite the To combat both heat and low water levels,
low nutritional yield of orange-fleshed sweet drought-tolerant vegetables develop deep root
potato storage roots, it is recommended that systems. Because many of them grow quickly,
RPHs use orange-fleshed sweet potato storage they have lower water requirements in the
as a dual crop to increase their nutritional yield. long run as well. Difficult-to-grow vegetables,
In unfavourable production conditions, using such as the Black Diamond watermelon and
the dual crop option offers more benefits. The the Heatwave II tomatoes, are now available
nutritional yield of orange-fleshed sweet potato in drought-tolerant varieties. In your search for
storage leaves increased from 518 to 574 g ha-1 seeds and plants suitable for drought-resistant
for Fe, from 35 to 37 g ha-1 for Zn, and from 281 gardening, look for labels that state the plant
to 300 g ha-1 for -carotene. prefers hot temperatures and has low to
moderate water requirements (Linda, 2019).
The average nutritional water productivity for
selected micro-nutrients ranged from 740 mg • Seed color as an important
m-3 (orange flesh sweet potato leaves) to 1392 morphological characteristic
mg m-3 (Spider flower) mg 100 m-3 for Fe, (ii) 35 The morphological characteristics of landraces
mg m-3 (orange flesh sweet potato leaves) to and indigenous crops are identified based on
177 mg 100 mg m-3 (Spider flower) for Zn, and the hypothesis that they are associated with
(iii) 617 mg 100 mg m-3 (Swiss chard) to 2748 performance, such as the hypothesis that seed
mg Fe, Zn, and -carotene. The highest water colour is associated with drought tolerance. A
productivity for Fe (1981 mg m-3) and Zn (230 study confirmed that the colour of the seeds
mg m-3) was found in Spider flower, whereas the has an impact on early crop establishment.
highest water productivity for -carotene (3119 Compared to light coloured seeds, dark-coloured
mg m-3) was found in Amaranth. In the most seeds had a better chance of emergence.
severe water-stressed conditions, spider flower, Under field conditions, this trend was able to
amaranth, Swiss chard, and orange-fleshed be extrapolated successfully (e.g. groundnuts,
sweet potato leaves are the four highest- wild melon, maize landraces, cowpeas and wild
ranked crops for Fe. Spider flower, Swiss chard, mustard).
Amaranth, and orange-fleshed sweet potato
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• Cultivar selection ability to sustain one's livelihood. Seed systems

Seed companies invest a great deal of time and are critical in ensuring that farmers have access
money in research so that the best cultivar for to adaptable crops and varieties, as well as the
each region can be identified and the necessary flexibility to obtain seed when they need it
data can be collected to aid in the decision- (Kansiime & Mastenbroekvan, 2016). Farmer
making process. It is also necessary to include seed systems, which include the following,
information from local comparative strip trials provide this seed security:
that have been conducted by study groups and
individual farmers. • The right seeds
Smallholders can only gain access to crops that
The risky option is to rely solely on the advice are not prioritised by the private sector, but
of a neighbour because the current season which are locally adapted, drought-resistant,
will be different from the previous one. As a and important for household food and nutrition
result of combining all of the information, the by way of seed production systems, which are
identity of three to five cultivars that can be primarily focused on smallholders. These are
used will be quickly determined. It is critical to typically grown by women for women.
choose cultivars with a short growing season,
i.e., those that mature early, to achieve better • The right time
performance under drought conditions. Farmers can access what they need quickly
if they have access to locally available farmer
• Market-driven horticultural characteristics seed, which is critical in the current context
• Maturity required to coincide with cropping of shortages in the formal seed sector and if
season, supply the market and reduce the farmers are forced to plant early or replant as a
risk of weather-related crop failure result of unpredictable weather.
• Resistance to diseases, insects, stress,
and physiological disorders that can be • The right price
depended on is essential (For example, Farmer seed systems offer low-cost seed to
blossom-end rot) smallholder farmers who cannot afford to make
annual purchases of hybrid maize seed, let alone
2.10 SEED PRODUCTION the even more expensive package of chemical
inputs required to unlock their yield potential.
SYSTEMS – ACCESS TO As the economy continues to deteriorate, they
CLIMATE-RESILIENT PLANTING provide an important safety net for vulnerable
MATERIAL THAT IS DROUGHT communities, as well as a lifeline for smallholder
farmers with limited financial and technical
RESISTANT (FARMER resources. Furthermore, farmer seed systems
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS) provide reservoirs of plant genetic resources
that farmers will need to continue to adapt to
Given the complexity that African agriculture is climate change in the future. Farmers surveyed
facing as a result of climate-induced stresses, by the farmer field schools look for certain traits
increasing agricultural resilience should be a top that they need to adapt to local conditions,
priority. Seed systems are critical for enhancing primarily high-yielding, drought-tolerant, and
such resilience because seed security is directly early maturing varieties.
linked to food security and, in general, to the

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3 SOIL MANAGEMENT

3.1 ORGANIC MATTER OF SOILS organic matter (SOM) varies considerably, SOM
is typically estimated to contain 58 percent
Soil organic matter (SOM) is the organic matter C, and the term "soil organic carbon" (SOC) is
component of soil, consisting of plant and animal frequently used as a synonym for SOM, with
detritus at various stages of decomposition, cells measured soil organic carbon content often
and tissues of soil microbes, and substances serving as a proxy for SOM. Solvents in soil
synthesised by soil microbes. SOM has a variety are one of the world's largest carbon sinks,
of beneficial effects on the physical and chemical and their contribution to the global carbon
properties of soil, as well as on the soil's ability cycle is significant. As a result, the dynamics
to provide regulatory ecosystem services. SOM of SOM/SOC and the ability of soils to provide
is particularly important for the functions and the ecosystem service of carbon sequestration
quality of the soil. through SOM management have recently
received a great deal of attention.
Soil organic matter (SOM) benefits soil function
through a variety of complex, interactive When it comes to most upland soils, the
edaphic factors. A partial list of these benefits concentration of SOM in the soil generally
to soil function includes improvements in soil ranges from 1 percent to 6 percent of the
structure and aggregation, water retention and total mass of topsoil. Soils with less than 1%
biodiversity, pollutant absorption and retention, organic matter in their upper horizons are most
buffering capacity, as well as the cycling and common in deserts, whereas soils in low-lying,
storage of plant nutrients. SOM increases soil wet areas can have up to 90% SOM in their
fertility by providing cation exchange sites upper horizons. Organic soils are those that
and acting as a reservoir of plant nutrients, have 12 to 18 percent soil organic carbon (SOC)
particularly nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and in their composition.
sulphur (S), as well as micronutrients, which are
slowly released as a result of the mineralization The living biomass of microbes can be divided
of SOM over time. As a result, the amount of into three categories: fresh and partially
SOM present in the soil and soil fertility are decomposed detritus, and humus (composted
highly correlated. organic matter). Surface plant litter, also known
as fresh vegetal detritus, is typically excluded
SOM also serves as a major sink and source of from the composition of SOM.
soil carbon, according to the USDA (C). In spite
of the fact that the carbon (C) content of soil

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3.2 HOW TO MAKE COMPOST • What can be used in making compost?

Composting is a viable option for approximately
• Where to make a compost heap? half of the waste we generate each day. Almost
Build the compost pile on soil or grass rather anything that was once alive or was once a part
than concrete or asphalt to take advantage of of something alive can be used in a compost
the earthworms and soil microorganisms that pile, and it does not have to be organic. Look at
will migrate from the soil into the compost pile the activators in Table 5 for more information.
as they break down organic matter. Building • Building a compost heap
a pile in a warm, partly shady spot that is »» A good size for the compost heap is 2
protected from too much wind and sunlight spades by 2 spades (2m x 2m).
will prevent the pile from drying out too quickly »» The heap should be about twice as big
in warm, dry climates (it must have at least 6 at the bottom as at the top.
hours of full sunlight per day). Build the pile in »» Start by levelling the spot for compost
a sunny location if you live in a cool climate. Do making.
not place the pile in an area where water may »» Have all the material to be used for the
collect. Excessive moisture at the bottom of the compost ready.
pile may halt the composting process or cause
odor issues.

Table 5 Compost making.

Activators Other materials you can add Very slow to rot

• Comfrey leaves • Wood ash • Egg boxes • Autumn leaves
• Young weeds • Cardboard • Fruit and • Tough hedge
without seed • Paper towels and vegetable remains clippings
• Grass cuttings bags • Tea bags • Woody prunings
• Chicken manure • Cardboard tube, • Coffee grounds • Sawdust
• Pigeon manure • Manures mixed • Old flowers • Wood shavings
with straw • Bedding plants
• Young hedge • Old straw, hay,
clippings • Gerbil, hamster
• Soft prunings and rabbit bedding
• Perennial weeds
Do NOT add the following ingredients to compost
• Meat • Cooked food • Coal and ash from • Manure from
• Fish • Very soapy water coal dogs, cats and pigs
• Diseased plants • Disposable may carry disease
nappies organisms and
• Glossy magazines parasites that can
be transmitted to
humans

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material they are consuming

All large pieces should be cut into smaller • Place a 15-20 cm layer of dry brown material
pieces before being assembled. Do not use on the ground to begin the pile building
more than one type of material in a layer. It process
is critical to maintaining the proper balance • The base must be constructed in such a
between carbon-rich (brown) and nitrogen- way that sufficient air can pass through
rich (green) materials. The rate of composting it. If possible, it is preferable to add water
and the quality of the finished compost can be to each layer of dry material rather than
affected by the way certain types of material attempting to wet the entire pile after it has
are mixed or the proportions of the materials been constructed.
are changed. Ideally, 3 parts brown to 2 parts • The entire pile should be as wet as a sponge
green and 1 part manure should be used in this that has been thoroughly wrung. After the
ratio. A large number of browns will decompose dry material layer has been constructed, it
too slowly, whereas a large number of greens should be moistened but not soaked.
will produce an odour. Assemble enough of the
following materials to form a pile that is at least First layer
2 metres long, 2 metres wide, and 1 metre high: • To establish the first layer, spread a 10-15
Carbon-rich brown (dry) material: cm layer of fresh green material on the
• Wood shavings, sawdust, hay, wheat straw ground. A pitchfork can be used to quickly
and corn stalks, shredded cardboard and mix the layers together for better results.
newspaper
• Green (fresh) material: Nitrogen-rich Second layer
materials such as grass clippings, fresh • Use kraal or chicken manure, mature
leaves and twigs from harvested plants, compost, or bone meal to cover the top
thinned seedlings, fruit and vegetable layer of the first layer with a layer about
waste (such as peelings), tea bags, and egg 10 cm deep. The manure, old compost,
shells can all be used bone-meal, and blood-meal speed up the
• Animal manure that is high in nitrogen: decomposition of the compost heap.
fresh chicken, cattle, or horse manure are
examples Third layer
• Lastly, apply a thin layer of soil and ash
Compost piles develop most effectively when approximately 3 cm deep
they are constructed in layers. A good way to • You should repeat the process (base layer,
ensure that the material is added in the proper first layer, second layer, third layer) three or
proportion is to layer it on top of each other as four more times or until you have used up
follows: all of the material
• As you build the compost heap, moisten
Base layer each layer with water as you go
• Loosen the soil in the area where you will • The organisms in the soil, in particular
be constructing the compost heap. This earthworms, will aid in the rotting process
will aid in the growth of bacteria and fungi. by mixing the material and increasing
Microorganisms in the heap require air to airflow
break down and decompose the organic

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• A top layer of soil, dry grass, leaves, or • After approximately three weeks, the
sawdust is required to keep odours in compost must be turned over, covered,
and to deter flies from entering. When and allowed to re-heat to its original
the construction of the compost heap is temperature. When the compost is free of
completed, take two sticks of about 2m in offensive odours and is a dark brown color,
length and push them into the heap, shake it is ready to be utilised
these from side to side and pull them out,
so that the pile can be aerated When it comes to vegetables, compost should
not be used on the following:
Cover • Carrots and beetroot because it has a
• Straw, soil, old sacks, or plastic can be used tendency to cause split and malformed
to cover the heap. Moisture and heat are roots
kept in by this method • Beans because it attracts harmful insects
• Onions, because it causes early bolting and
Heat thick-necked onions, which are undesirable
• Contribute to the decomposition of plant characteristics
and animal matter as well as the destruction
of weeds and weed seeds

Figure 14 How to make a compost heap.

Source: ARC.

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3.3 MULCHES (DROUGHT- Aside from providing soil cover, mulching

also serves several other purposes, including
RESISTANT SOIL) preventing soil water loss through evaporation,
delaying weed growth and promoting the more
Garden soil can behave in two ways: as a sieve,
efficient use of nutrients, maintaining good
allowing water to filter down quickly, or as a
soil structure, and protecting harvested crops
sponge, allowing water to soak in slowly. Soil
from contamination by soil. It also serves to
that is porous and drought-resistant holds water,
protect the soil from erosion caused by water
allowing the plant to have a constant supply
and wind, as well as hail damage. It is true that
of moisture. To improve drought resistance,
herbicide application is effective at suppressing
incorporate high-quality organic material (such
the growth of weeds, but it can have negative
as compost) into drought-resistant soil at the
consequences for soil ecosystems and the
start of each growing season.
environment, such as decreasing soil microbial
activity and increasing water contamination.
If one wants to reduce evaporation or limit the
amount of water that evaporates before it can
It is possible for smallholder and commercial
be absorbed into the soil, one should plant
farmers, depending on the type of material used,
more water-wise plants. The use of a thick
to increase yield while simultaneously lowering
layer of organic mulch in a garden or field saves
the costs associated with vegetable cultivation
water more quickly, easily, and economically
by mulching their fields. Mulch application has
than any other method available. Mulch aids in
been shown to improve water use efficiency
the conservation of moisture, the prevention
(WUE), crop growth, and yield, according to the
of water runoff, and the improvement of soil
research. In the root zone, mulch directs excess
health, all of which contribute to stronger,
rainwater away from the plant's roots, allowing
deeper root growth and improved plant health.
the moisture regime to remain more consistent.
Organic mulch should be applied around
Mulches are defined as a thick layer (50-150
drought-tolerant vegetables at a depth of
mm) of organic material that is spread over bare
5-7cm. Straw mulch is an excellent choice for
soil to protect it from the elements. Mulches
vegetable gardens. It decomposes over time,
have a number of advantages that come with
releasing organic material and nutrients into
their use, including the following:
the soil as a result. Mulches are divided into
• Regulates soil moisture and temperature
two categories: organic mulches and inorganic
• Enhances water infiltration
mulches. Molasses derived from animal or
• Prevents soil erosion
plant materials are known as organic mulches;
• Suppresses weeds
on the other hand, inorganic mulches include
• Prevents crop damage
gravel, crushed rock, and synthetic plastic in a
variety of colours. When compared to plastic
Wet, low-lying soil should not be mulched. Also
mulch, organic mulches such as dry grass,
keep in mind that mulch can attract termites and
sawdust, and paper would have the advantage
has other drawbacks, such as being less long-
of decomposing in the soil at the end of the
lasting and potentially creating a fire hazard.
growing season, gradually increasing soil organic
Organic mulches can be made from a variety of
matter and contributing to waste reduction.
sources, including the following:

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Lawn mowing used, it should be thoroughly decomposed

It is high in nitrogen and can be used as a before being used.
mulching material. The mowings from most
lawns contain more than 1% nitrogen and 2% Newspaper
potash, respectively. The mowing of lawns can Unlike most other materials, newspapers have
also be used as green manure, which can be excellent moisture-retaining properties. A layer
worked into the soil and used to make compost. of hay, straw, or wood shavings placed over the
paper will improve its appearance while also
Straw preventing the paper from being blown away
This is clean, contains few weed seeds when by the wind. Paper is extremely effective at
purchased directly from farms, is inexpensive inhibiting the growth of weeds. Because it is
when purchased in bulk, and is quick and dense enough to prevent sunlight from readily
simple to lay down. Dig it into the soil during passing through to the soil, it is most effective
the autumn, and by the spring, it will have when applied after irrigation or precipitation.
assimilated and become indistinguishable from Paper eventually decomposes and contributes
the rest of the soil. humus to the soil, albeit at a slow rate.

Wood shavings/sawdust Plastic mulches

It is generally agreed that sawdust and wood Plastic covers are inorganic and extremely
shavings are safe and effective soil improvers effective, but they are only partially compatible
that do not acidify the soils when used in with drip irrigation systems in most cases. When
appropriate quantities. Additionally, it aids in planting early in the spring, plastic can also be
soil aeration while also increasing the soil's used to raise the temperature of the soil.
moisture-holding capacity. When sawdust is

Figure 15 Examples of mulching spinach beds.

Source: ARC.

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In order to demonstrate the benefits of mulches, such as newspaper and grass, were
mulching, a research study was conducted at used in this study to provide an alternative
ARC. The researchers used a variety of mulching weed control technique. These organic mulches
materials in their research, including newspaper, may be beneficial when degrading into the
black plastic, and grass/hay mulches, all of soil to increase soil organic matter. Weeds
which were found to effectively stop or reduce frequently emerge from planting holes, no
weed growth, possibly as a result of the matter how small and insignificant they were
incoming radiation being absorbed. Newspaper in terms of number and size, and black plastic
mulch and grass mulch were found to be just as and newspaper mulches are ineffective at
effective at suppressing weeds as black plastic completely eliminating them.
mulch at suppressing weeds. When it comes to
newspaper mulch, the results are consistent, According to this study, mulching (grass/hay
with the application of newspaper mulch on and white plastic) improved water use efficiency
sweet potato plants suppressing weeds in the (WUE) while also increasing yield in Swiss chard
field. production. If you live in a country with limited
water resources, like South Africa, water savings
of up to 65% can make a significant difference
It is recommended to avoid using maize-meal in the success of a crop's production. For both
sacks as mulch because they degrade over commercial and small-scale farmers, grass/hay
time and can pollute the environment. In both mulch could be a viable strategy for increasing
cases, weeds were allowed to grow beneath water use efficiency (WUE) and weed control.
the mulch and pressure was applied against the More research on different colours of plastic
mulch as it rose upwards, resulting in the maize- mulches and organic mulches is needed to
meal bag mulch being torn to pieces. Despite increase yield and water use efficiency (WUE).
the fact that herbicide treatment is effective in
weed management, there are concerns about Both organic and inorganic mulches conserved
its limitations, such as the cost of the chemicals water while also lowering electrical consumption
and the manner in which they are used. in proportion to irrigation water consumption,
resulting in a net water conservation benefit.
A negative impact of herbicides on soil Comparing white plastic and grass/hay mulches
ecosystems and the environment will include to other mulching treatments, white plastic and
lowering microbial activity in soils and grass/hay mulches significantly increased water
contaminating the water. Natural organic savings.

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Figure 16 How to apply mulch.

Source: ARC.

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3.4 ROTATION OF CROPS The crops included in the plots shown above
are as follows:
It is essential to follow crop rotation practices • Legumes: beans, peas, cowpeas, pigeon
when growing vegetables, and it should be peas, Bambara
done on a consistent basis. When it comes to • Brassicas: cabbage, chinese cabbage, kale,
crop rotation, the best definition is that it is a radish, cauliflower
crop production strategy that involves planting • Root crops: carrots, onions, beet, sweet
different crops in a specific order so that no potato, amadumbi
crop is planted on the same piece of land more • Solanaceae: tomato, potato, peppers
than once every three to four years, preferably • Leafy crops: swiss chard, amaranthus,
four to six years (Table 6). cleome

Crop rotation is recommended for improving It is possible to include cucurbits (such as

soils and conserving resources, but it may have pumpkins, squashes, melons, and cucumbers)
the greatest impact on disease levels in the soil and green mealies at any point in the rotation.
when used in conjunction with other practices. Another general rule is to avoid planting an
Many infections can survive after a crop has underground-bearing crop in the same soil for
been removed from the soil, according to two consecutive seasons if possible.
experts (e.g. black-rot of cabbage).
3.5 BAG SYSTEM
Without the practice of rotational cropping,
the incidence of infestation will undoubtedly In order to maximise yield per unit area for
increase, and the cost of control measures will household production, this method of growing
rise in lockstep with it. It also has the potential vegetables is an alternative to traditional
to reduce insect populations and perennial methods. Plants grown in a bag system grow
weed infestations, which are both detrimental vertically upwards, resulting in more plants
to crop production. Perennial weeds, which are and yield per unit area than plants grown in a
expected to become a serious problem with traditional system (Figure 17).
continued cultivation, are also a concern.

Table 6 An example of a rotational cropping system with four plots over five years.

Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3 Plot 4 Plot 5

Year 1 Leafy crops Legumes Brassicas Root crops Solanaceae
Year 2 Solanaceae Leafy crops Legumes Brassicas Root crops
Year 3 Root crops Solanaceae Leafy crops Legumes Brassicas
Year 4 Brassicas Root crops Solanaceae Leafy crops Legumes
Year 5 Legumes Brassicas Root crops Solanaceae Leafy crops

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Figure 17 Bag system just after transplanting.

Source: ARC.

This system is recommended for small-scale soil, less effort is required to clean the leaves
household gardens with a limited supply of prior to consumption or marketing. It is possible
good-quality soil available. The availability to produce organically.
of good soil and land/space for household
vegetable production is increasingly becoming The Swiss chard/spinach in this small bag
a major source of concern. However, there is an system, when fully planted, can provide a family
alternative method of growing vegetables and of four with a bunch of spinach once a week for
optimising yield per unit area for household a month (Figure 17).
production that is worth mentioning. Plants
grown in a bag system grow vertically upward, Inputs required to plant vegetables in a bag
allowing for more efficient use of available system
space/land because of the vertical growth. The • Empty maize-meal bag (80, 50 or 25, 12.5
bag system can be used in places that were kg bag
previously thought to be unsuitable for food • Water-soluble fertiliser (multi-feed and
gardens, such as paved land and balconies, and calcium nitrate)
has the potential to save money. The bag has • Growing medium (compost, sawdust or soil
the ability to hold water for a longer period with very good drainage)
of time, preventing water and nutrients from • Watering can
being washed away into the soil. Because the • Seedlings
leaves of the plant are not in contact with the

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Figure 18 Bag system (pictured, Ms Hellen Mokitlane).

Source: ARC.

Advantages of the bag system of regular crop production, with the goal of
• It conserves water since there is a minimum improving soil health and moisture retention,
amount of water draining out of the bag. preventing soil erosion, and adding nitrogen or
• It suppresses weeds, no weed control is organic matter to the soil (USDA, 2021).
needed.
• Plant leaves are free from soil particles A cover crop is a fundamental and long-lasting
since plant leaves face upwards. tool that can be used to manage a variety of
• There is a high yield per unit area, compared soil health functions. It is defined as any type of
to growing on a flat area. plant that is grown for the purpose of improving
• Requires less area to produce food (56 any number of conditions associated with long-
plants m-2). term agricultural production. a cover crop is a
crop that is planted to manage soil fertility, soil
Disadvantages of the bag system quality, water, weeds, pests and diseases, as well
• Poor drainage medium can have a negative as biodiversity and wildlife in an agroecosystem,
effect on moisture distribution and root which is an ecological system managed and
aeration. largely shaped by humans to produce food
• Bags need to be supported and kept upright across a range of intensities. Agroecosystems
for uniform distribution of water. are ecological systems that are managed and
• Maize-meal bag cannot be re-used, with largely shaped by humans to produce food
time it can tear apart and disintegrate, (Sarah, 2013).
depending on the durability of the bag.
Why consider a cover crop?
3.6 COVER CROPS • Cover crops can be used to suppress the
growth of weeds. In reality, they are capable
As defined by the USDA, a cover crop is any plant of much more. Some popular cover crops,
population that is grown between the rows of such as oats, rye, and sorghum, produce
another crop, or that is planted between periods biochemical exudates that are toxic to weed
seeds and prevent them from germinating.
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• Cover crops can provide protection against • Cover crops have a significant impact on
root knot nematodes, which are the most erosion reduction. However, at our current
costly pest in the world. Brassicas produce rate of topsoil loss, we will have no food-
isothiocyanates in their root exudates, producing soil in just 60 years, making it a
which are toxic to this invading organism. precious and life-sustaining medium (in all
Furthermore, isothiocyanates have been contexts). Soil erosion is caused by only
shown to provide protection against some 0.1% of all rainfall events, which accounts
of the most destructive fungal diseases. for 75% of all soil erosion. It was anticipated
• Cover crops containing brassicas can also that the residues from no-till farming would
produce an allelopathic response, which aid in the prevention of losses due to
can be used to discourage the growth of extreme weather, but this has not proven
weeds. Several unidentified compounds, to be the case. If you compare living mulch
as well as isothiocyanates, appear to be from a cover crop with crop residues from
involved in this process. It has long been no-till farming, there is no comparison.
known that the decaying residues of • Cover crops provide a habitat for beneficial
crucifers inhibit the germination of weeds insects, as well as providing them with
and the growth of some crops (particularly nectar and pollen. They are becoming
small-seeded crops). Due to the fact that an increasingly important component of
weed seeds are typically smaller in size than the Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
crop seeds, they are at a disadvantage in this strategy. While velvet beans are not suitable
situation. Growers must be cautious when for human consumption, when used as
planting small-seeded crops such as lettuce a cover crop, they help to increase the
after a cover crop dominated by brassicas number of beneficial free-living predatory
because the seeds will germinate quickly. nematodes in the soil, which is beneficial to
The breakdown compounds produced the environment.
by mustard as the leaves decompose are
particularly effective against grasses that Recommended cover crops include oats, velvet
are a source of concern. Additionally, rye, beans, cowpeas, forage sorghum, dry beans,
wheat, and hairy vetch produce compounds soya beans, clover, chickpeas, buckwheat,
that discourage the growth of weeds. barley, wheat, lupines, lucerne, teff, ryegrass,
and vetch.

• In addition, cover crops provide a constant Elements affecting the choice of a cover crop
supply of glucose to the soil's microbial • Know what the desired outcome should be
workforce through the roots of the plants. • What the farm’s environment is
However, this is not the end of the story. • What the farm’s existing soil fertility levels
When these crops are harvested, they are
provide a tremendous humus-building • What are the growth patterns and nutrient
opportunity, as well as all of the benefits requirements of the farm’s commercial
that accrue as a result of increasing humus crops
levels in the soil. Cover cropping has been • Need sufficient financial resources to
shown to improve soil structure, particularly implement a cover-cropping program
when a cocktail of cover crops is used,
according to extensive research.

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Also, consider the following before a crop is 3.7 GREEN MANURE

chosen
• Climate They are called "green manure" because they
• Soil type, soil depth, and composition, pH provide nutrients to the soil much as manure
level does. Growing specific plant or crop varieties
• Fertility and turning them into the soil to improve the
• Existing soil surface covering overall quality of the soil is referred to as green
• Frost patterns and severity manure. The crop can be harvested and then
• Crop pests and diseases ploughed into the soil, or it can be simply left
in the ground for an extended period of time
Advantages of cover crops before being tilled into garden areas (Tilley,
• Contribute to soil nutrients which are then 2020). Examples of a few crops know for green
made available to growing crops manuring are included below.
• Increase soil fertility
• Improve soil structure 3.7.1 Sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.)
• Reduce soil erosion
• Reduce weed pressure Do you want a cover crop that will increase
• Contribute to breaking pest and disease organic matter, provide nitrogen, grow in low
cycles fertility sandy soils, and is free of nematodes?
• Trap nutrients Do you want a cover crop that will increase
• Increase the organic matter in the soil organic matter, provide nitrogen, grow in low
• Reduce effects of compaction and plough fertility sandy soils, and is free of nematodes?
pans Because of its rapid growth and requirement for
• Improved macro- and micro-organism a relatively short growing season, sunn hemp
activity in the soil can be an excellent alternative. It thrives in
• Lower soil temperatures well-drained soils with pH levels ranging from
• Reduction in quantities of pesticides and 5-7.5. Sunn hemp has been used extensively
herbicides used on regular crops as a soil improvement or green manure crop
in the tropics due to its ability to produce large
Potential disadvantages amounts of biomass in as little as 60-90 days,
• Higher direct input costs and management making it an excellent choice for this application.
requirements As a result, it has the potential to increase
• More competition for soil nutrients and organic matter levels in the environment
moisture between the cover crops and the while also sequestering carbon. Furthermore,
regular crops because it is a legume, it has the ability to fix
• A potential rise in weed pressure if cover large amounts of nitrogen. A cover crop such
crops are not managed correctly as sunn hemp can improve soil properties
• Increased risk of fire due to the large by reducing erosion and conserving water
quantities of dry material left on the land while also recycling nutrients from the plants
• Increase need for specialized machinery to that grow in it. Suitable for use in hot, humid
manage cover crops summer rainfall areas (or irrigation). The best
time to plant is as soon as soil temperatures
reach 16oC (October - November). Sow at a rate
of 40-50 kg ha-1.

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4 SOIL IMPROVEMENT AND IRRIGATION

4.1 RAINWATER HARVESTING season or climates with average annual rainfall

greater than 600 mm, can be sufficient to
Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting maximise the productivity of Amaranth and
rainwater after it has fallen. Storage of water is Swiss chard. When grown under the in-field
required in order to make it available for use rainwater harvesting technique during a wet
later on. Surface runoff of rainwater is being rainfall season, both amaranth and Swiss chard
generated, collected, stored, and conserved yielded significantly less than when grown
in order to mitigate the effects of rainwater under normal conditions (see Figure 20). In
shortages that occur on a temporary basis. contrast to Swiss chard, this reduction in yield
Trapping and holding rain where it falls can help was more pronounced in Amaranth, indicating
to increase the amount of water stored in the that Amaranth is better adapted to high rainfall
soil profile over time (see Figure 19). events, in which soil available water exceeds
crop water requirements.
Testing rainwater harvesting and conservation
techniques for vegetable crops: Case study As a result, during drier rainfall seasons, or
using Swiss chard and Amaranth at ARC in arid and semi-arid climatic regions where
annual rainfall is typically less than 600 mm, the
Results of this study indicate that the use of yield of both Amaranth and Swiss chard is lower
simpler tillage techniques such as conventional in comparison to the yield during wetter rainfall
tillage, in conjunction with a wet rainfall seasons.

Figure 19 Preparing rainwater-harvesting plot and plastic covered catchment area.

Source: ARC.

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Furthermore, the infield rainwater harvesting water-logging conditions than Swiss chard and
technique (IRWH) outperformed the tied ridges that it is, therefore, likely to require a lower
and conventional tillage techniques for both water supply in order to produce its maximum
crops in terms of yield and quality. According yield. Agro-processing benefits from Amaranth
to the results, the response of Swiss chard to cultivation in dry-land conditions during a
the implementation of the IRWH technique wet season have been demonstrated for
was more pronounced than that of Amaranth, postharvest agro-processing applications. The
indicating that Swiss chard has a greater crop's response to severe drought conditions (as
demand for water than Amaranth. In addition, measured by seasonal rainfall received during
when comparing Swiss chard and Amaranth, the growing season, as well as the length and
the reduction in canopy growth and yield frequency of dry spells during a dry season) still
caused by water stress was more severe in the needs to be assessed in order to provide a more
former crop. detailed assessment of the crop's performance
when grown on dry land.
The results obtained thus far in this study
indicate that Amaranth is more tolerant of

Figure 20 Rainwater harvesting and mulching trial of Swiss chard and Amaranth
planted in November 2015.
Source: ARC.

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Investigating the interactive effects of water equation, there are no statistically significant
and nitrogen on yield, nutritional water differences in water use between 33% FC and
productivity and metabolomics of nightshade 66% FC. This is due to the fact that the trial was
(Solanum retroflexum) at ARC conducted in open field conditions and rain
had to be factored into the soil water balance
The results revealed that nightshade responded equation.
in a variety of ways to different irrigation and
nitrogen (N) treatment regimes (Figure 21). In The highest average Zn content was obtained
comparison to the well-irrigated treatments under rain-fed irrigation treatments, and the
(66% and 100% FC), the 33% FC (field capacity) highest average N content was obtained at a
treatment produced lower fresh biomass yield rate of 100 kg ha-1, with an average yield of 75 kg
but had higher water productivity, indicating ha-1. This study found that the lowest Zn content
that increasing water application up to an was found in the 100% FC and 200 kg ha-1 N
optimum level could result in increased biomass treatments. This suggests that maintaining 100%
yield. Given that nitrogen is a highly mobile FC soil moisture content while increasing your N
nutrient in the soil and that irrigation water is application rate from 150 kg ha-1 will result in a
applied on a frequent basis, the reduction in decrease in Zn content in the leaves. Fe content
fresh biomass yield observed with the 100% of nightshade under rain-fed and irrigated
FC treatment could be attributed to leaching conditions was identical when fertilised with 0
out of N beyond the root zone. Fresh biomass kg N ha-1 of nitrogen. When fertilised with 150
yield was significantly higher with the moderate kg ha-1 of nitrogen, the lowest iron (Fe) content
irrigation treatment (66% FC), and crop water was obtained and the values decreased sharply;
productivity was highest with the rain-fed however, when fertilised with 150 kg ha-1 of
irrigation treatment (66% FC). Because the trial nitrogen, the lowest Fe content was obtained
was conducted in open field conditions and rain and the values decreased sharply.
had to be factored into the soil water balance

Figure 21 Improving water and nitrogen efficiency of nightshade.

Source: ARC.

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4.2 INTERCROPPING STUDY AT In general, the study's goal was to generate

knowledge about the cultivation of indigenous
ARC leafy vegetables by smallholder farmers through
the use of intercropping and rotational farming
Comparative analysis of advantages provided
systems.
by legumes to native non-leguminous
indigenous leafy vegetables when grown in
The following objectives were established in
intercropping and crop rotation systems. The
order to achieve the study's overall goal:
majority of smallholder farmers have depleted
Aims: To determine the impact of legume
their soils of nutrients in large quantities
(cowpea) and non-legume (Amaranth)
without replenishing them, either through the
intercropping nutritional values on soil
application of sufficient manure or the use of
fertility and crop productivity at various levels
chemical fertilisers. However, nitrogen and
of nutrition (25, 50, 75, and 100% of the
phosphorus are essential in the soil, and farmers
recommendation) (Figure 22).
will not be able to maximise their yields if these
• To determine the level of microbial activity
nutrients are not present. As a result, improving
in legumes (acid and alkaline phosphatase
soil fertility is a critical component of increasing
activity)
crop productivity in Africa, which is currently
• To determine the amount of nitrogen fixed
experiencing low production trends. Because
by legumes
of the reduced use of chemicals, this can be
made more affordable for smallholder farmers
The overall goal of the study is to generate
by intercropping leafy indigenous legumes
new knowledge about intercropping and crop
with non-legumes and, as a result, making the
rotation systems for smallholder farmers who
environment more sustainable.
cultivate indigenous vegetables.

Figure 22 Cowpea and amaranth planted (intercropping) at ARC-Roodeplaat.

Source: ARC.

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The study's specific objectives include: We will organic fertiliser rich in NKP and micronutrients
be measuring the nutrient concentrations in and can be applied to the soil. Vermicompost
plant and soil samples in order to assess the also contains beneficial soil microbes, such
benefits of intercropping and crop rotation of as nitrogen-fixing and phosphate-solubilizing
indigenous vegetables grown in South Africa. bacteria, as well as actinomycetes, which help
This has not yet been looked into further. the soil to function properly. Vermicompost is
Non-legumes are expected to benefit from more nutritive when lime is added to it, and
intercropping and crop rotation, which are both it has made a significant contribution to the
recommended. When legumes are grown with improvement of plant growth.
little or no fertilisation, higher nitrogen fixation
is expected. Using indigenous vegetables, the The project's goal is to persuade smallholder
project will demonstrate the beneficial effects farmers to use organic soil amendments
of intercropping and crop rotation on the instead of chemical fertilisers in their efforts to
plants. The project will be implemented in rural increase the production of native vegetables.
communities in six South African provinces by Utilizing such practises will result in an increase
the end of the five-year period (Limpopo, North in fertility, water holding capacity, and organic
West, Mpumalanga, Kwa Zulu Natal, Gauteng matter in your soils. More sustainable farming
and Eastern Cape). will be achieved in the long run, contributing
to increased crop productivity, increased food
4.3 VERMICULTURE security, and poverty alleviation while also
caring for the environment and conserving
Improvement of indigenous vegetable natural resources.
production among smallholder farmers in
South Africa through the use of vermiculture 4.4 IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
products to improve soil quality is being
pursued. Agricultural productivity has increased Even though there are many different types of
in part as a result of the depletion of natural irrigation systems available, no single irrigation
resources as a result of the farming systems system is optimally suited for every situation
currently in use. Consequently, an urgent call and every crop. The most important factors to
is needed to reverse the trend by encouraging consider when deciding on the type of irrigation
farmers to adopt farming methods that are system to use are discussed in greater detail
environmentally friendly and have a long- below.
term benefit to the environment. It is difficult
for farmers to manage intensive farming 4.4.1 Influence of environmental factors in
operations on a sustainable basis because they the selection of the irrigation system
lack the necessary knowledge, resources, and
skills. In turn, inappropriate technologies and When deciding on the irrigation system
unsustainable practises are employed, which to be used, the influence of agro-climatic
contribute to the depletion of natural resources conditions must be taken into consideration.
and the pollution of the environment in which Despite the fact that taking into account agro-
they are used. It is possible to significantly reduce climatic conditions is critical in the selection
the problem by using soil organic amendment of an irrigation method and the effective
products such as vermicompost, which is an implementation of that method, irrigation

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methods are frequently selected and promoted localized/drip irrigation methods or surface
without taking this into consideration. Thus, irrigation methods are preferred. Surface
the following checklist identifies agricultural- irrigation may be preferable in areas where
climatic factors that should be considered when supplementary irrigation is required because
determining the most appropriate irrigation of the flexibility and adaptability of sprinkler or
method: localised irrigation systems to varying irrigation
demands in these areas.
Soil type
Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity Water availability
and a high infiltration rate, making them ideal Surface irrigation has a lower efficiency than a
for irrigation. As a result, they require more sprinkler and localized/drip irrigation, which is
frequent but smaller irrigation applications, why these methods are more commonly used.
which is particularly important when the As a result, when water is in short supply, these
sandy soil is also shallow. Rather than using a methods are preferred. Nevertheless, it should
surface irrigation system, sprinklers or localised be remembered that the efficiency of a method
irrigation are more appropriate in these is just as much a function of the duration of
situations. If the soil is loam or clay, any of the the crop cover, the evaporative demand, and
three irrigation methods can be used; however, the standard of water management as it is
surface irrigation is the most commonly used of the method itself. When irrigation water
method. Clay soils with low infiltration rates are contains dissolved salts, localised irrigation is
ideal for surface irrigation because they allow particularly advantageous because less water is
water to pass through quickly. A sprinkler system applied to the soil than with surface application
or localised irrigation is recommended when methods, resulting in better water quality.
there are several different soil types present in Sprinkler systems are generally more efficient
one irrigation scheme because they will ensure in the leaching of salts than surface irrigation
a uniform distribution of water throughout the methods, according to research.
entire system. For this soil type, drip irrigation
may also be an option to consider. 4.4.2 Types of irrigation systems and a
comparison of the different systems
Slope
When dealing with steeper or undulating terrain, • Systems that are permanent (drip, micros
sprinkler or localised irrigation is frequently and permanent sprinkler systems).
preferred over surface irrigation because it • Systems that can be moved by hand (such
requires little or no land levelling. Crops that are as the dragline and overhead sprinklers) are
grown on terraces are an exception to this rule. available.
On a sloping terrace, drip irrigation can also be • For flood irrigation, hosepipes and furrow
an effective method of watering the plants. irrigation are frequently used methods.
Hand watering systems, bucket irrigation
Climate systems, drip irrigation systems, as well as
Strong winds will have a negative impact on the sprayers that use portable hoses, are all
uniform distribution of irrigation water as well examples of irrigation systems that have been
as on the efficiency of sprinkler irrigation, which developed specifically for small garden plots
will be reduced. When there is a lot of wind, (draglines) (Table 7).

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Table 7 Comparing irrigation systems for Climate-Smart Agriculture.

Surface irrigation Overhead irrigation Drip irrigation

Water quantity Average/plant More/plant Less/plant
Suitable for water with
Water quality should be
Water quality sediment loads too high Recycled, non-potable
potable to remain safe
needed for overhead or drip water can be safely used
for people and animals
irrigation
Not suited to highly
Suitable soils sandy soils with high Suited to any soils Suited to any soils
infiltration rates
Uniform, but Can be patchy if the Uniform and
Water
uncontrolled. Needs correct right pressure is controllable. Minimal
distribution
pressure not there pressure required
Suited to water-limited
Suited to areas with Suited to areas with
areas, where wind
Climate unlimited water and little unlimited water and little
may contribute to high
wind wind
evaporation rates
Requires know-how,
Little know-how Requires know-how,
Preparation no field levelling,
required, requires labour little field levelling,
and maintenance of pipes
intensive field levelling maintenance of pipes
maintenance and filtration to prevent
and digging needed
clogging
Often determined by
Field shape Any shape Any shape
sprinkler, e.g. pivots
Soils vulnerable to floods Soils easily eroded if
Erosion Soil erosion minimized
and erosion water pools
Soil salinization may
As for surface irrigation, Salinity problems may
occur due to capillary
but salts may be leached occur at wetting front
Salinity action drawing up salts
out of rooting zone if system is not flushed
from below to the
easier periodically
wetted soil above
Soil can be fertigated,
Soil can be fertigated
Fertilisation Not suited to fertigation but involves nutrient
without wastage
wastage
Need to choose fertilisers
Chemicals No limitation on type of No limitation on type of
and biocides that do not
added fertilisers and biocides fertilisers and biocides
require surface wetting

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Germination may be
Germination generally Germination generally limited water only
Crop health
not limited by water not limited by water occurring in the wetted
area
Foliage remains dry and Foliage gets wet and Foliage remains dry and
Diseases less susceptible to fungal encourages disease in less susceptible to fungal
disease some crops disease
Weeds get as much Weeds get as much Weeds minimized as
Weeds
water as crop water as crop water targets crop
Generally has highest
investment and
High investment costs, replacement costs
Lowest cost, initially and relatively high labour (plastic degrades in the
Costs
labour intensive and energy costs to sun or may be attacked
maintain by rodents), but there
are lower labour and
energy costs

4.4.2.1 Movable sprayers (Draglines) 4.4.2.3 Dripper irrigation

• Labor intensive. • Drip irrigation is the most water-efficient

• The spray radius will seldom exceed 8 m. way of irrigation and is utilised when the
• The application rate is high and if the water supply is limited.
sprayer is left in one position for too long, • Irrigation efficiency is good as water is
water will run off and not infiltrate the soil. placed within the root zone.
• Runoff and evaporation are limited to the
4.4.2.2 Micro sprayers minimum.
• Micro-irrigation systems are used when • This system can be adapted to suit a wide
water is sprayed directly onto the plants and variety of crops and growing conditions.
can increase infestation by fungal diseases. • The use of drip irrigation is limited mainly
• Micro-sprayer nozzles have different delivery because of additional costs for filters and
rates and patterns of water distribution and control systems.
should be selected according to the crop • Drip systems are permanently installed for
requirements. the duration of the crop’s growing season
• Evaporation losses in the air and from the and can be removed after harvesting to be
soil surface can be significant. re-used for new planting.
• Normally these systems are permanently • Drippers are a high maintenance system
installed for the duration of the crop’s and need good management skills.
growing season and can be removed after
harvesting to be re-used for new planting.

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4.4.2.4 Flood irrigation Some vegetables, particularly lettuce and

potatoes, have sparse root systems that do not
• The slow soaking of the water into the soil make good contact with the soil moisture that is
will wet the soil evenly to the depth you available in their root-depth zone as a result of
want, but there is a danger of applying too this. Application of sufficient water to bring the
much water this way. soil moisture content in the effective rooting
• Furrow irrigation is most successful on level zone of the crop up to the field capacity level.
ground and with soil that is not very sandy. Irrigating vegetables should not be delayed until
Make the furrows before planting, making they show signs of wilting or develop color or
them up to 30 cm wide and 15 cm deep, texture changes that indicate that they are not
and make them as level as possible. growing properly (see Table 8).
• Hoses can also be used for hand watering
and many nozzles have been designed to
deliver a shower of water rather than a jet
of water.

Table 8 Characteristic rooting depths of selected vegetables.

Shallow Moderately deep Deep

(45-60 cm) (90-120 cm) (More than 120 cm)
Broccoli Amaranthus Pigeon pea
Brussels sprouts Bambara nuts Pumpkin (Boer)
Cabbage Beans bush Pumpkin (Butternut)
Cauliflower Beans climbing Squash
Celery Beetroot Sweet potato
Cleome Carrots Tomato
Garlic Cowpeas Watermelon
Leek Cucumber
Lettuce Eggplant
Onion Melon
Parsley Pea
Potato Peppers
Radish Turnip
Spinach

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Even though irrigation systems are expensive in the root zones. Squeeze the soil sample in
to install, sub-surface or normal drip systems the hand and compare its behavior with those
reduce the need to retrieve pipes and may of the soils listed to get a rough idea of its
become more common as water becomes moisture content.
scarcer in South Africa as a result of the drought
there is currently. Drip irrigation systems, while During rainfall or irrigation, water seeps into the
having the lowest water and electricity efficiency soil pores and completely fills them with water.
of the various types of irrigation systems, also The air has been forced out of the space, and the
have the advantage of lowering the cost of soil has become saturated with liquid. If the rain
cultivation. It keeps weeds under control by or irrigation continues, it is possible that surface
restricting their growth to the wetting front/ pooling or runoff will occur. It is important to
area. take into account the texture and structure of
the soil when it comes to soil absorption.
4.5 SOIL MOISTURE
Water holding capacity is generally low in all
After rainfall or irrigation, all the soil pore spaces sands and loamy sands, regardless of their
are filled with water. The air is displaced and the composition. Clay and loam have medium
soil is water-saturated. If the rain or irrigation water-holding capacities, whereas very fine
were to continue, then surface pooling or runoff sandy loam, silt loam, peat bogs, and other soils
would occur. The rate at which a soil can absorb with a high water table have high water-holding
water is influenced by its texture and structure. capacities. Clay soils frequently contain a large
amount of water, but this water is not available
All sands and loamy sands tend to have a low to plants for use as a source of nutrition because
water holding capacity. Loams and clay have it is not available to them.
a medium water holding capacity, while very
fine sandy loam, silt loams, peats, and any soil For the purpose of collecting soil samples
with a high water table have high water-holding from shallow soils or when growing crops with
capacities. Clay soils often have a large amount shallow roots, a shovel must be used. In order
of water within them, but it is not available for to collect samples from deeper in the root zone,
plant use. it is necessary to use a soil auger or a soil tube
to collect the samples. You can get an idea of its
A shovel will serve to obtain a soil sample from moisture content in a rough sense by squeezing
shallow soils or when a shallow-rooted crop and comparing the soil sample in your hand to
is being grown. A soil auger or soil tube is the behavior of the soils listed in Table 9.
necessary to draw samples from greater depths

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Table 9 Practical soil-moisture interpretation guidelines.

Amount of Sand Sandy lam Clay loam Clay

readily available (gritty when (gritty when (sticky and plastic (very sticky when
moisture moist, almost like moist, dirties when moist) moist, behaves
remaining for the beach sand) fingers, contains like modeling
plant silt and clay) clay)
Hard, baked,
cracked surface.
Close to 0%
Dry, loose, single- Dry clods that Hard clods
Little or no Dry, loose, flows
grained‘ flows break down into difficult to break,
moisture through fingers
through fingers powder sometimes has
available
loose crumbs on
surface
Still appears Somewhat Somewhat
50% or less to be dry, will Still appears to be crumbly, but will pliable, will form
Approaching time not form a ball dry, will not form hold together a ball when
to irrigate when pressure is a ball when pressure is pressure is
applied applied applied
Tends to form Forms a ball,
a ball when somewhat plastic, Forms a ball,
50% - 75%
Same as sand pressure is will sometimes will ribbon out
Enough available
under 50% applied, but will stick slightly between thumb
moisture
seldom hold when pressure is and forefinger
together applied
Tends to stick Forms a ball and
75% to field
together slightly, Forms weak ball, is very pliable, Easily ribbons out
capacity
sometimes forms breaks easily, will becomes slick between fingers,
Plenty of available
a very weak ball not become slick readily if high in feels slick
moisture
under pressure clay content
Upon squeezing,
At field capacity
no free water
Soil will not hold
appears, but Same as sand Same as sand Same as sand
any more water
moisture is left on
(after draining)
hand
Above field
capacity Puddles and free
Free water Free water will
Unless water Can squeeze out water form on
appears when soil be released with
drains out, soil free water surface
is put in hand kneading
will be water-
logged

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4.6 WATERING TECHNIQUES It is necessary for water to reach the root zone
of the plants in sufficient quantities. The depth
From the time of planting until the time of to which a given amount of water will penetrate
harvest, food crops require a consistent supply is determined by the soil type. Water applied to
of water. If you give your plants too little water, a square metre of land at a rate of 25 litres per
they will begin to wilt and, if the situation is not square metre will wet a sandy soil to a depth of
corrected, they will die eventually. Giving plants 30 cm, while clay soil will be wet to a depth of
too much water may cause the roots to become 10 cm to 15 cm..
drowned, resulting in the plants ceasing to grow
or dying. Proper (correct) watering is something 4.7 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF
of an art – the best way to learn how often and
how much to water your crops is through trial
VEGETABLE CROPS
and error in the field.
Vegetables require a consistent supply of
water from the time they are planted until
The frequency with which you water your
they are harvested, and they cannot be grown
crops is determined by the types of crops you
successfully in rain-fed conditions. The following
are growing, the age and size of the plants, the
are only general guidelines that should be
type of soil, and the weather. In order to keep
tailored to your specific plot or garden based on
their root zones moist, young seedlings with
the season and local conditions:
small shallow roots that are located in the top
• Seedlings: The critical time is between
layer of the soil will require frequent watering –
sowing and the emergence of the seedling.
sometimes as frequently as twice or three times
At all times the soil in contact with the seed
per day. Crops with deep roots in the soil (such
must be moist.
as pigeon pea) may only require watering once
• Transplants: Watering before and after
a week or only once every two weeks.
transplanting is essential, particularly in hot
weather
Watering frequency is determined by the
• Leafy crops: Leafy crops such as Brassicas
amount of clay, sand, silt, and organic matter
(e.g. Swiss chard, Cabbage) generally need
present in the soil. Clay is the most common
about 25 litres per square meter soil a
type of soil. Clay soils retain a large amount of
week and should be actively growing from
water and release it slowly, whereas sandy soils
the time they are sown or transplanted.
retain a small amount of water and release it
Any lack in water supply can affect yield
quickly.
and quality and during summer it may be
necessary to irrigate twice a week
The weather also has an impact on how
• Root crops (e.g. Potatoes, carrots, sweet
frequently the crop needs to be watered. Cool,
potato): The average weekly water
cloudy weather allows any soil to retain moisture
requirement is between 10-15 litres per
for a longer period of time than it would in hot,
square meter during the first month after
dry weather. In a few places, rainfall during the
planting. From one month after planting
growing season is sufficient to meet all of the
until plants approach maturity 30 litres per
water requirements.
square meter will be adequate. Regular
watering must be maintained in the

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absence of rain and it is important to ensure • Plant vegetable plants at optimal spacing.
that water penetrates deeply into the soil. Using this method decreases the amount
Shallow watering discourages good root of water needed per unit area, and reduces
development. Potatoes need additional evaporation from the soil surface.
water when tubers start forming. • Use drought-tolerant (water conserving)
• Other crops (e.g. green beans and other plants or varieties. Separate water-
legumes, cucurbits, Solanaceae): The conserving plants from water-demanding
average weekly water requirement is 25 plants. Group plants with similar water
litre per square meter but varies according requirements together.
to the stage of development.
Other methods that can be used to supplement
Water-efficient vegetables (e.g. cowpeas, water in the garden will be discussed.
amaranth, pigeon peas and Bambara). These
crops are known to be tolerant to drought and 4.8.1 Use of greywater
can be grown under rainfed conditions if the
rain is well distributed. Use the wastewater, usually referred to as
greywater (all the non-toilet wastewater
4.8 WATER-SAVING TECHNIQUES produced in the average household, including
the water from bathtubs, showers, sinks,
Watering slowly, deeply, and infrequently is the washing machines, and dishwashers) (Figure
key to success. Plants with shallow root systems 23):
are encouraged to grow as a result of frequent
shallow watering. • Apply the greywater directly to the soil
• Use drip or trickle irrigation. This method surface. Do not use an overhead sprinkler,
wets the soil slowly, allowing for slow, or allow the recycled water to splash off the
deep penetration. Up to 60% of the soil and be exposed to the above-ground
irrigation, water can be saved using drip portion of the plants.
vs. conventional sprinkler irrigation. A • Rotate applications of greywater with
perforated hose placed upside down (with fresh water. The freshwater will help leach
holes facing down) makes a very good out any soil contaminants that might be
temporary drip irrigation system. building up.
• Water at low application rates. If water runs
off the soil surface or forms puddles, the 4.8.2 Rooftop water harvesting
water application rate is too high and water
is wasted. Rooftop catchments and cistern storage have
• Irrigate at night or in the early morning been the basis of domestic water supply in many
when the temperatures are cooler and countries. Collect rainwater from the roofs of
the humidity is higher. There will be less buildings into tanks as follows (see Figure 24).
evaporation.

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Figure 23 Use of greywater in the watering of vegetables and fruit.

Source: ARC.

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Figure 24 Collecting of rainwater from the roofs of buildings into tanks.

Source: ARC.

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4.8.3 In-field rainwater harvesting It is impossible to prevent droughts from

occurring, but interventions and preparedness
The principle is to transfer run-off water from for droughts can help (i) better prepared to
a land area that is not cropped to supplement cope with drought; (ii) develop more resilient
rainfall received directly on the area where crops crops and ecosystems; (iii) improve resilience
are grown (Figure 25). This is more relevant for to recover from drought, and (iv) mitigate
areas where drought is experienced and rainfall the consequences of droughts. Drought
is irregular. preparedness strategies include: (a) shifting
agricultural systems to more arid regions; (b)
There are two types of catchment areas: climate-proofing rainfall-based systems; and (c)
• Catchment strips within the boundary of introducing more efficient irrigation systems to
the cultivated area are altered to direct run- increase efficiency.
off to cultivated plots
• In the external areas (for example, the 4.9 INSTRUMENTS MAKING
playground and the roads), water is diverted
to the cultivated areas. Take, for example, IRRIGATED SYSTEMS MORE
the incline of the school grounds. Water will EFFICIENT
be directed to the school garden if trenches
are dug to direct it. Plant something, such as Tensiometer: Measures the water status in the
fruit trees, in a furrow that will receive this soil (increased reading indicates that the soil is
water. This method is not recommended too dry and vice versa).
for use in shallow soils or areas prone to Chameleon: Measures the water status in the
landslides, among other things soil.

Water collected from trenches on large school The above instruments use the same principle
grounds can be collected in a simple dam where they will give a certain meaningful
structure and then used for furrow irrigation. reading, but the chameleon is much more
This method is particularly useful for large farmer user friendly (blue, red and green lights
school grounds. will light up depending on the soil water status).

Figure 25 Rainwater catchment beds.

Source: ARC.
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5 SELECTED DROUGHT TOLERANT VEGETABLES

Drought is one of the most serious 5.2 TARO (COLOCASIA ESCULENTA

environmental threats to agriculture around the
world. Drought affects vegetables more than
(L.) OR AMADUMBE
other crops. Because of this, there has been a
Taro is a member of the Araceae family of plants.
renewed emphasis on identifying and improving
Taro leaves and corms are both edible and
underutilised indigenous and traditional crops
contain a high concentration of carbohydrate,
for drought tolerance (Mabhaudhi, 2009).
vitamin A and C, as well as protein. Taro is an
Crops that have either originated in South Africa
indigenized crop grown in South Africa, where
or have become "indigenised" over many years
it is neglected and underutilised, as are many
(>10 decades) of cultivation, as well as natural
other traditional crops. TARO's leaves and
and farmer selection within South Africa, are
corms are both edible and contain a significant
examples of underutilised indigenous and
amount of carbohydrate as well as vitamins A
traditional crops (Schippers, 2002, 2006).
and C and protein. It is most prevalent along the
coasts of KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape.
5.1 PEARL MILLET Taro production has increased as a result of
improved access to niche markets, according to
South Africa's pearl millet is an example of the USDA. Local studies into drought tolerance
an indigenous cereal that can be found in the and water use of some of the landraces currently
northern and western regions of the country. in production, on the other hand, have not been
Small-holder farmers in South Africa produce conducted in sufficient numbers. It is possible
the majority of the pearl millet that is consumed that taro production and commercialization will
by the country's population. There are some be expanded beyond their current levels as a
areas where it is only grown commercially as result of improved information availability.
forage for animal consumption, but this is not
the case everywhere. Despite the fact that pearl
millet can grow in a wide variety of soils ranging
5.3 WILD MUSTARD (BRASSICA
from clay to loam to deep sand, it performs JUNCEA L.)
best when grown in deep, well-drained soil.
Pearl millet is a crop that is easy to cultivate Wild mustard is a crop that is indigenous
and can be grown in arid and semi-arid regions to South Africa and is a member of the
where water availability is a constraint on crop Brassicaceae family of plants. There are many
production. different environmental conditions under which
it can be grown, and it has a significant impact
A "high energy" cereal, pearl millet is on the nutritional and economic well-being of
distinguished by having a higher oil content than rural South Africans. In addition to providing
maize, as well as higher levels of vitamin A and essential vitamins and trace elements (iron and
protein. Pearl millet is less susceptible to pests calcium), wild mustard also contains a variety of
and diseases when compared to other staple other nutrients necessary for good health. The
grains such as maize, wheat, and sorghum. oil and protein content of the seeds is high, but
this is dependent on the environment in which

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they are grown. In a short period of time, this 5.5 SWEET POTATO
plant establishes itself, achieving maximum
ground cover, which serves as a stress-relieving Sweet potato is still an important root crop,
mechanism, particularly in water-stressed and it has the inherent ability to produce more
environments. edible energy than most major food crops,
which makes it a valuable source of energy.
5.4 WILD MELON (CITRULLUS It is well-suited for production on marginal
lands and has the potential to be a significant
IANATUS L.) contributor to food security. It is impossible
to overstate the importance of orange-fleshed
Wild melon is a crop that is indigenous to
sweet potato varieties in preventing and treating
Southern Africa. The Kalahari Desert is thought
vitamin A deficiency. It is recommended that
to be the origin of this plant's existence. There,
the production of orange-fleshed sweet potato
the ancestral melon, known as the Tsamma
varieties be encouraged in areas where vitamin A
melon, grows in its natural habitat. It is a vine-
deficiency is prevalent. In South Africa's tropical
like plant or climber that bears edible fruits and
and subtropical regions, where warm weather
leaves, and it is native to Asia. Wild watermelons
prevails, it is possible to grow this crop and
were extremely bitter in the beginning, but this
have it available all year round, despite the fact
was overcome through selective breeding for
that drought poses a challenge for staple crops
improved palatability.
such as cereals. Wet weather in subtropical
environments causes rain-fed crops to be
Wild melon is a member of the Cucurbitaceae
subjected to water stress at all growth stages,
family, which includes cucumbers. It is cultivated
which is especially true during the growing
all over the world as a staple food, with edible
season. It has the advantage of being drought
seed and flesh, as well as for animal feed and
tolerant once established, which is an added
animal bedding. The skin is used for pickling
bonus. Therefore, its yield potential is generally
and the extraction of pectin from the fruit.
higher than that of popular staple crops in South
Seeds have the potential to be a good source of
Africa, such as maize. Farmers who grow sweet
protein. It is also considered to be a species that
potatoes in areas prone to drought stress will
is underutilised.
benefit from the higher nutritional value of the
crop, in addition to the higher yield advantage
Despite the fact that wild melon is considered
that sweet potatoes provide. It is also simple
drought tolerant, water stress during the
to obtain sweet potato because the vines
formation of the vines that will bear flowers and
and roots can be easily stored or multiplied,
fruits can have a negative impact on the amount
making it readily available. Despite the fact that
of fruit produced. In addition, the quality of the
sweet potato has been identified as a potential
seeds is a significant obstacle to the successful
food security crop for dryland production,
production of wild melon.
there are still challenges that may prevent it
from contributing fully to food security in the
future. A greater emphasis should be placed
on participatory research and extension in
order to educate smallholder farmers about the
importance of sweet potato as a major crop for
subsistence and rural economic development.

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5.6 SPINACH (SWISS CHARD) 5.6.3 Climatic requirements

5.6.1 Introduction Despite the fact that it is a cool-weather crop,

it can also be grown during the hot summer
In this document, the term spinach will be used months. Some cultivars, on the other hand,
to refer to Swiss chard. Despite the fact that may experience bolting as a result of this. The
Swiss chard has a similar appearance to spinach, optimal temperature ranges between 16- 24oC.
it produces much broader leaves with thicker The best time to plant in Gauteng is from the
stems and contains significantly higher levels of middle of February to the beginning of April,
vitamin A. Even though spinach itself contains and from August to the end of October.
a higher concentration of calcium (Ca), it does
so in an oxalate form that is not suitable for 5.6.4 Cultivars
children. Swiss chard has become increasingly
popular as a result of this, as well as the low Ford Hook Giant (FHG) and Lucullus are the
yield of spinach. It is a member of the beetroot two most widely planted spinach cultivars.
family of vegetables. In contrast to FHG, which is more resistant to
‘bolting' and therefore better suited for summer
The crop is grown on an annual basis for its production, Lucullus produces higher yields
nutritionally dense and luscious leaves. Both the and grows at a faster rate. In addition, there
leaves and the stems (petiole) are edible and is a third cultivar, Rhubarb (which is reddish in
can be prepared in a variety of ways. With the color), which produces good yields.
exception of vitamins, it also contains significant
amounts of readily available minerals, with iron 5.6.5 Crop rotation
being the most important of these minerals.
It is not recommended to plant the crop on
The crop is relatively simple to cultivate and can the same plot of land year after year because
be harvested on a regular basis due to its regular this can result in the accumulation of pests
harvesting. Average yields range between 8-10 and diseases in the soil. Other vegetables such
t ha-1, with a maximum yield of 15 t ha-1. as pumpkin, beans and peas are good to plant
Spinach can be used to do the following: alongside the crop. Other vegetables to plant
• Cooking with other vegetables such as alongside the crop include lettuce, tomatoes,
potatoes, onions and tomatoes potatoes and cabbage.
• Cooking with minced meat (green meat)
• Can be used in stir-fry recipes 5.6.6 Soil preparation
• Can be sun-dried and be stored for later use
It is important to clean the area intended for
5.6.2 Soil requirements planting at least a month before removing weeds
and grasses, just as it is with the production of
Fertile, well-drained soils are required for the any other vegetable. To work the soil, you can
production of spinach. The best soil for this use a fork to help you out. This practice can aid
plant is a sandy loam, but it also grows well in in the prevention of pests and diseases from
loam to clay soil with a pH of 6.0-6.8. infecting the newly planted crops in the future.

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Before beginning the preparation process, 5.6.8 Fertilisation

the soil must be thoroughly watered. This will
ensure that the soil is loose, which will improve Before planting, apply a fertiliser containing the
drainage, root penetration, and aeration of the ratio 2:3:2 (22) Zn. Apply 90 g m-2 and work into
soil. Using a plough or fork, loosen the soil to the the top 10 cm of the soil with a fork.
proper depth. In addition to fertiliser, spinach Topdressing is extremely important because
necessitates a substantial amount of compost spinach requires a lot of nitrogen in order
or manure. to produce high-quality, broad leaves and,
consequently, high yields.
When using direct sowing, make sure that the
seedbed is well prepared and that it has a very When planting or transplanting, a second
fine structural structure. Large clods will prevent topdressing should be applied 8 weeks after
the germination of seeds. the first, especially in lighter soil types. Caution
should be exercised when applying the
5.6.7 Planting method and spacing limestone ammonium nitrate (LAN) fertiliser
directly to the plants, as this will cause the plants
It is possible to plant seedlings in rows with a to burn. As soon as the fertiliser is applied, it
spacing of 10-20 cm between plants and 25-35 must be thoroughly mixed into the top 2 cm of
cm between rows, depending on the variety. the soil with a fork or a grob to ensure proper
Alternatively, seeds can be directly sown in incorporation. Take care not to damage the
shallow rows or furrows. Furrows should be shallow roots, which are particularly vulnerable
approximately 2-3 cm deep when made with a during the early stages of growth. After the
spade or rake. Sow seeds 2cm apart and cover fertiliser has been worked into the soil, make
with soil using a spade or a rake to ensure good sure to water the plants immediately.
coverage.
5.6.9 Water requirements
When growing crops in hot weather, the soil
must be watered immediately after sowing Spinach has a very shallow root system; therefore
and properly mulched with a thin layer of grass the soil must be kept moist throughout the
(mulching). It is necessary to keep the soil moist active growing season of the crop. One or two
until the seeds have germinated, which takes light irrigation periods is better than one very
approximately 7-8 days. Remember to remove heavy irrigation period because of the shallow
the grass after 5-6 days to avoid seedlings that root system.
are too long and leggy. These plants are heavy
at the top and are susceptible to damage from
the sun.

It is critical to thin out the plants to a distance of

10cm between them no later than 3 weeks after
the seedlings have emerged.

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5.6.10 Harvesting Cutworms normally hibernate beneath the

surface of the ground during the day and
The crop must be harvested on a regular basis in emerge at night to feed on young seedlings by
order to stimulate regrowth, increase yield, and cutting them down to the ground.
ensure that it does not bolt. It is only necessary Regular scouting is required for control. Make
to remove the outer leaves with a sharp knife, use of cutworm bait.
30-50 mm above the soil, in order to prevent
the plant from growing back. Take care not to Red spider mite: Stippled areas on the leaves
damage the newly formed buds. If the leaves are an early sign of an infestation of this mite.
are not used immediately, they can be bunched As a result of the chlorotic condition of the
together and placed in water to keep them fresh leaves, webs appear on the leaves and stems
for a longer period of time, if necessary. in severe cases. Regular spider mite scouting
is extremely important in the control of spider
5.6.11 Storage mites. Using soapy water, saturate the surface
(Sunlight Liquid diluted in water).
Because of the extremely high transpiration
rate of the broad leaves, the keeping quality Infestations of nematodes can be identified by
is extremely poor in this variety. You can store the presence of swellings on the roots.
spinach in the refrigerator for up to 6-8 days if
you have the proper storage facilities. Crop rotation is used to keep things under
control. Planting marigolds, mustard, and
5.6.12 Disease control measures rapeseed in between rows. Fallowing.
Solarization of the soil. Nemacur and EDB are
• Practice crop rotation two pesticides that have been approved for use.
• Remove infected plants from the field and
burn or bury it 5.7 AMARANTH (AMARANTHUS
• Remove all plant residues from the field
after harvesting SPP)
• No registered chemicals for disease control
of spinach 5.7.1 Origin and distribution
• Fertilize plants well
• Avoid over-watering Amaranth thrives in warm climates and requires
• Water plants early so that leaves can dry little irrigation. In South Africa, it is rarely
before nightfall cultivated due to the misconception that it
grows naturally, despite the fact that it has the
5.6.13 Pests potential to be developed as a cultivated crop
there. Amaranth leaves are high in protein,
Aphids feed on plant juices and are known to vitamins, and minerals, making them a nutritious
spread viral diseases. addition to any diet. Because of its nutritional
Regular scouting is required for control. Using benefits and ability to adapt to a variety of
soapy water, saturate the surface (Sunlight Liquid environmental conditions, it is considered
diluted in water). Phosdrin and Mevinphos are a promising crop for cultivation in marginal,
two pesticides that have been approved for use. arid, and semi-arid regions worldwide. It can
grow in a wide variety of soils and can tolerate

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pH levels ranging from 4.5-8. In addition, it is producers of amaranth in South Africa, with the
tolerant of moderate salinity, which means that rest of the country following closely behind.
it can be grown in semi-arid climates and areas
prone to salinity stress, such as deserts. Despite 5.7.4 Cultivars
the fact that amaranth can withstand adverse
conditions, irrigation and fertilisation will Amaranthus has a vast range of morphological
increase both fresh and dry mass in the crop. variability among cultivars (Figure 26), even
within specific Amaranthus species.
5.7.2 Production level: South Africa
• Amaranthus cruentus
Despite the fact that amaranth is not typically • hybridus (Africa)
planted in South Africa, it does appear as • spinosus (Africa)
a volunteer crop after the first rains and is • caudatus (America)
harvested from the wild. In South Africa, • thunbergii (America)
the reasons for cultivating this plant are
not particularly diverse, with the primary 5.7.5 Description of the mature plant
motivations being food security for the
household and replenishment of the country's Amaranth species are erect or spreading
seed bank. It is not known how much Amaranth annuals with a rough or prickly appearance
is produced at any given time. A recent study that can be found in a variety of colours. Grain
has found that under cultivated conditions, amaranths are available in a variety of colours
Amaranth can produce fresh leaf yields of up to for the flowers, leaves, and stems, but maroon
40 t ha-1, according to the researchers. The yield or crimson colouring is common in all three
of grain Amaranth is highly variable, with 1 000 plant parts. Some varieties have green flowers,
kg ha-1 considered to be a good yield in some while others have golden flowers. When they
areas. are in full bloom, some of the deep crimson
varieties can be quite eye-catching. Because the
5.7.3 Major production areas plant grows at different rates depending on the
species, growth habitat, and environment, its
The provinces of Limpopo, the North West, height can range between 0.33-2 m.
Mpumalanga, and KwaZulu-Natal are the main

A B C D

Figure 26 Amaranth cultivars (A) Amaranthus retroflexus (B) Amaranthus tricolor (C) Amaranthus
hybridus (D) Amaranthus cruentus.
Source: ARC.

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Stems Lower temperatures and shorter days will

Reddish-tinged, erect, occasionally ascending, cause flowering to occur, which will result in a
branched, with linear marks on the surface, reduction in leaf production.
and hairless to moderately pubescent
with multicellular hairs; erect, occasionally As long as the crop grows during the summer,
ascending, branched, with linear marks on the when the rains begin to fall, there should be no
surface. problem with frost damage. Frost, on the other
hand, has a significant impact on the harvesting
Leaves of the crop. The fact that amaranth is an annual
The leaves are variable in size and colour, crop means that it does not mature completely
ranging from green to purplish, and are borne in regions with a short growing season. Frost is
on slender stalks. According to the species, required in order to bring the crop's growth to
these are alternate, usually simple, with entire a halt.
margins and distinct markings on the underside.
Rainfall
Flowers Grain Amaranth is said to be drought tolerant
Tiny, green flowers are borne in dense, when compared to most vegetables, according
elongated clusters on the tips of the branches, to reports. Amaranth is considered to be
which are usually covered in leaves. They are drought resistant, but the exact mechanism
borne in spikes or plumes and are available in a by which this is accomplished is not well
variety of colours including white, green, pink, understood. In extremely dry conditions, one
and purplish. of its characteristics that helps it is its ability
to wilt temporarily before reviving after a
Seed heavy rainstorm. Because it has a low capacity
A shiny black coloration is common among the for water consumption, the crop is unable
small seeds, as opposed to the cream coloration to withstand waterlogging in its early stages.
found among grain types. There are up to 3000 When a plant is subjected to prolonged periods
seeds g-1 in this variety. The tiny, lens-shaped of severe drought, it flowers prematurely and
seeds are usually a pale colour due to their size fails to produce any leaves.
and shape.
5.7.7 Soil requirements
5.7.6 Climatic requirements
A variety of soil types, including marginal soils,
Temperature can be used to grow this crop, but it performs
Amaranth grows well in arid conditions and is best in fertile, well-drained soils and deeper
extremely drought tolerant. The soil temperature soils, according to the USDA. In order to produce
must be between 18 and 25oC for amaranth an early and heavy yield, loose and friable soils
seeds to germinate, and the air temperature with high organic matter content are ideal. It
must be above 25oC for optimal growth. When is possible to achieve good stands by selecting
the temperature drops below 18oC, the growth soils with lower clay content and managing the
stops. A major factor influencing the growth of seedbed to reduce the likelihood of crusting in
Amaranth plants during the growing season is the seedbed.
the number of growing days at the appropriate
temperature during the growing season.

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To ensure rapid germination and emergence, spacing, and the wide rows make it easy to use
amaranth requires good seed-to-soil contact, a row crop cultivator to control weeds in the
and sufficient soil moisture must be maintained field. This is critical because there are currently
at the seeding depth throughout the first few no registered herbicides for Amaranth.
weeks of establishment. The growth of the
vegetable Amaranth is negatively affected by When Amaranth plants are spaced closer
soil pH levels ranging between 5,5-7,5. A soil together, there appears to be an excessive
with a pH of 6.44 has the potential to produce amount of competition among them. As a
high yields. If the plants are properly cared for, it result, plants grow shorter and less vigorously,
should be possible to harvest leaves every two and grain heads grow smaller. On the plus side,
weeks if the plants are properly maintained. planting only 0.9 kg seed acre-1, which is the
recommended rate, results in an abundance of
5.7.8 Propagation seedlings, allowing a large number to be lost
while still having enough left over to establish a
Amaranth grows naturally, but can also be sufficient stand. Plants are spaced approximately
propagated from seed. 1 m apart in rows.

5.7.9 Soil preparation 5.7.11 Planting

Fill in any gaps in the soil with cattle or chicken Sow seeds in seedbeds or directly in rows in
manure or compost at a rate of one bucketful the field, depending on your preference. It is
per 1 m2 after it has been thoroughly prepared. preferable for nurseries to be located in flat
It is critical to have a fine, firm seedbed for areas with fertile soil and close to a water
successful seeding. Seedbed preparation can be source, rather than in shaded areas. Seed and
accomplished with a disc or spike-tooth harrow, sand should be mixed in a one-to-two-to-one
followed by cult packing and planting, which ratio before sowing at a depth of 0.5-1 cm in
should be accomplished with a planter equipped rows or broadcasting directly in the field. After
with press wheels, if possible. Depending on the covering the seeds with a thin layer of soil and
soil texture and surface moisture at the time of watering them, they are ready to plant. If you
planting, seeds should be planted no deeper prefer, you can water the seed first, then spread
than 1.25 cm deep at most. Crusting can be a it over the soil and cover it with a thin layer of
serious problem, and although no solutions dry soil. Depending on the size of the plants, the
have been discovered, rotary hoeing may be of optimal spacing ranges from 20 x 20 cm to 50 x
assistance in some cases. 50 cm. If you are transplanting seedlings, they
will be ready to transplant after 3 to 5 weeks
5.7.10 Field layout and design when they have four true leaves on their stems
(15 cm).
Although no optimal plant population has been
identified, it is believed that approximately 272 5.7.12 Fertilisation
kg seed ha-1 is a reasonable estimate. Amaranth
trials have been reported to use row widths To get the best results from chemical fertiliser,
of 762 mm as the industry standard. The crop look for a 3:1:3 or 3:12: (NPK) mixture. By
provides good shade for the ground at this row hoeing a furrow and applying the fertiliser

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mixture at a rate of 40 g m-1 in the bottom of the frequency and volume of irrigation. Drought-
furrow, you can increase the yield significantly. prone sandy soils should be watered three
A normal-sized tea cup holds approximately times weekly, while sandy loam soils should be
200 g of chemical fertiliser, which is sufficient to watered once a week. Irrigation should be done
cover 5 m. To mix fertiliser into the soil after it once a week on clay, clay loam, and loam soils.
has been evenly spread in the furrow, use a stick Irrigate a 1 m x 1 m plot with 4 L water day-1
to stir the fertiliser into the soil. After you have for the first 30-35 days after transplanting for
watered the furrow, you can start making the the best results. Following that, irrigate a 1 m
holes for the transplants. To achieve exceptional x 1 m plot with between 5-6 L day-1, depending
growth, apply limestone ammonium nitrate on the weather. Amaranth can be irrigated with
(LAN) at a rate of 20 gm-2 when the plants both sprinklers and drip irrigation; however,
have approximately 5-6 leaves on them. The drip irrigation saves the most water of the two.
LAN should be spread along a row of 10 m, If you must use a sprinkler irrigation system,
one teacup at a time. LAN fertiliser should be avoid watering your plants in the late afternoon
applied to a growing crop by opening a furrow to avoid foliar disease problems. Overwatering
with a hoe about 10-15 cm away from the row causes nutrients to be leached away from
of plants, mixing the fertiliser into the soil with a the roots of the plants, so careful planning of
stick, and then watering the furrow and closing irrigation volume and frequency is required to
it again. avoid crop stress and to produce large, healthy
vegetable Amaranth plants.
In the case of poultry or pig manure, apply a
10L bucket in a band approximately 20 cm wide 5.7.14 Weed control
over a length of 15 m, work the manure into the
topsoil, thoroughly water the band, and wait Weeds are the most serious pest in the
1 or 2 weeks before planting. When applying production of amaranth. Before planting the
kraal manure, follow the same procedure as Amaranth, weeds are controlled either by tillage
described above, but apply a 10 L bucket over a or by applying a contact herbicide before the
5 m length of the land. Amaranth is planted. Because amaranth grows
slowly during the first few weeks, three or four
5.7.13 Irrigation cultivations may be required to keep weeds
under control during this time (no selective
Plants that are suffering from drought will begin herbicides are registered for use with Amaranth).
to flower and will cease to produce leaves Grain Amaranth seeds do not go into dormancy,
unless they are watered regularly. The amount and their growth is not particularly vigorous in
of water required by crops varies depending the early stages of the growing season. So there
on their growth stage, soil type, and weather is little chance of it becoming a weed problem
conditions (hot or cold). Because sandy soils dry in succeeding crops after it has been harvested.
quickly, it will be necessary to irrigate them on
a regular basis. Clay soils, on the other hand, However, although cover crops and no-till
drain more slowly than sandy soils and retain planting can help prevent weed seeds from
more water than their sandy counterparts. germinating, Amaranth seedlings grow slowly
There are a few "rules of thumb" that can be and are easily overtaken by early weeds in the
used as a starting point for determining the first few weeks after planting. Once Amaranth

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reaches a height of 6-10 inches, it will begin to 5.7.16 Other cultivation practices
grow at a rapid rate, allowing it to outperform
other emerging weeds. It is possible to grow amaranth as a double
crop following wheat or canola. In order for
5.7.15 Pest and disease control amaranth to be successful, it must be planted in
a two-year rotation with another crop.
Amaranth is susceptible to a variety of insects,
though the plants are able to recover after being 5.7.17 Harvesting maturity
attacked by the majority of leaf-chewing insects
that feed on them. Amaranth is susceptible The majority of amaranth cultivars grow quickly
to insect pests such as the tarnished plant and can be harvested between 30-55 days after
bug, leaf miners, flea beetle, grasshoppers, sowing, when they reach a height of 0.06 m.
caterpillars, and amaranth weevils, which are all Amaranth cultivars are available in a variety of
potentially damaging. Flea beetles are known colours and sizes. The timing of harvest is not
to cause damage to young leaf tissue. The adult as straightforward as it is with commodity crops
amaranth weevil feeds on the leaves of the such as corn and soybeans.
plant, but the larval stage is more destructive
because it bores into the central tissue of roots It is possible to lose the majority of the seed if
and occasionally stems, causing rotting and harvesting techniques are not followed carefully.
potential lodging in the process. It is necessary for a killing frost to occur before
harvesting can begin, followed by a week of dry
Disease problems can arise in large monoculture weather to allow the crop to become drier in
production systems, which is why they should preparation for harvesting.
be avoided. Phoma and Rhizoctonia can both
cause damping-off of young seedlings in certain
environmental conditions. Pythium can also When the plants are harvested at regular
cause stem canker, which is caused by Pythium intervals, begin picking the leaves 8 weeks after
or Rhizoctonia, in some situations. A. tricolour sowing or 4 weeks after transplanting to ensure
appears to be particularly susceptible to the that the plants are harvested regularly. It is
fungus Phomopsis, which colonises the leaves possible to harvest a small amount of leaves on
and stems of the plant and causes dieback. a daily basis in small quantities. When dealing
with large quantities, it is recommended that
Pests and diseases are eliminated through you do so every two weeks. By removing flowers
effective weed control. Weeds have the potential from the plant, it is possible to maintain leaf
to serve as a host for pests and diseases. Clean production.
seed and the establishment of sterilised soils
before sowing seeds can help to reduce the Leaves can be harvested in two ways:
amount of damping-off that occurs. Seed trays • Picking of individual leaves when these are
should be cleaned with commercial bleach after the size of the palm of your hand.
each planting. Plant seedlings in well-drained • Breaking off the leaves around the terminal
soil in a well-ventilated area to ensure a healthy growth tips of the stems. This is done by
start. pulling one hand up towards the growth tip
and breaking off the leaves with the other
hand.

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5.7.18 Seed harvesting 5.7.22 Packing

When the leaves of the plant begin to turn Immediately following harvest, the leaves are
yellow, it is time to harvest the seeds. It is placed in a bag and sold on the same day of
necessary to place the harvested seed heads harvest to avoid quality degradation. The leaves,
on a clean plastic sheet and allow them to dry on the other hand, can be stored in containers
in the shade. Seeds can be easily threshed by in places where there is cooling storage.
hand and cleaned by the wind blowing through
the fields. If you want to avoid insect damage, 5.7.23 Storage
store properly dried seeds in a tightly sealed
container. The maximum amount of moisture that can be
stored in the grain is approximately 11 percent.
5.7.19 Post-harvest handling By blowing air across the Amaranth, you can dry
small quantities of grain quickly and efficiently.
Thorough planning in terms of handling, The heated air may be required at certain times.
grading, packing and storage of products should Ideally, grain should be stored in wooden storage
be done. bins or heavy-duty (4 or 5-ply) paper bags after
it has been cleaned and dried to prevent mould
5.7.20 Screening growth. It is critical to store properly dried seeds
in a tightly sealed container in order to prevent
It is possible to remove the dry seeds by placing contamination.
them in a shallow bowl and swirling them
around until the large pieces of flowers rise to 5.7.24 Preserving methods
the top of the bowl, where they can be easily
removed. By tipping the bowl, you can get rid of Washing the leaves and drying them in the
a lot of the chaff that has accumulated. Remove shade allows you to store them for up to a year,
any remaining small particles of flowers or dirt ready to use during the winter months. Cooked
from the seed by shaking it through a small leaves can be dried and stored for later use.
mesh screen about the size of a window screen Fresh leaves can be stored in the refrigerator for
for a couple of minutes. It is also effective to up to two weeks.
winnow the seed in a light breeze to remove the
flowers and chaff from the seed. Because the 5.7.25 Transport
seeds are so light, it is critical to winnow them
carefully in only a light breeze. Amaranth requires refrigerated transport to
retain the turgidity of the leaves.
5.7.21 Grading
5.7.26 Marketing
A gravity table can be used to separate particles
that are the same size but have different Both the domestic and international markets are
weights, such as dark pigweed seeds, by using overrun with exotic crops, making it difficult to
the force of gravity. introduce new indigenous varieties. As a result,
indigenous crops such as amaranth continue to
be primarily the crops of small farmers, and they
are primarily consumed in the regions where

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they are grown. The leaves of this crop are sold A farmer who enters the market with grain
by street hawkers in Mpumalanga, KwaZulu- harvested from several hundred hectares
Natal, and the Eastern Cape, among other of Amaranth could cause a glut of grain and
places. Farmers who grow amaranth have sold consequently lower prices by a significant
their crop in a variety of ways over the years. margin. This is why amaranth should only be
Some companies sell small bags of whole-grain planted after a market for the crop has been
or flour to consumers who order it through the identified, and preferably after a contract with a
mail. Many of these buyers are allergic to wheat buyer has been drafted with the buyer.
products, which is understandable. Other
growers sell their produce to the local market, 5.7.27 Utilization
as well as to health food stores and restaurants
in the area. Also present are some middlemen Leaf Amaranth is a steamed vegetable that can
who purchase grain from farmers and sell it be added to soups and stews. One of the reasons
to the larger health-food corporations on a there has been a recent resurgence of interest in
commission basis. amaranth is the nutritional benefits it provides.
The grain contains a small amount of protein
As has been the case with leafy Amaranth, the (12-17%) and is high in lysine, an amino acid
grain market continues to be the most difficult that is found in small amounts in other grains.
obstacle to the development of this crop. Even As a result of the grain's high fibre content and
though Amaranth is beneficial to commercial low saturated fat content, it is popular in the
farmers, the relatively high price of the grain health food market. Calcium, iron, and vitamin
is a factor in limiting the extent to which it C are among the nutrients found in abundance
is currently used in the food marketplace. in this food. Potassium, vitamin A, riboflavin,
However, the beneficial characteristics of and niacin are also abundant, and protein is
amaranth grain, as well as its adaptability to a above-average in this food.
wide range of growing environments, make it a
very promising crop for the future of agriculture. Humans have used grain amaranth for food in
Despite the fact that the market for amaranth is a variety of ways for thousands of years. The
small, the popularity of grain as food is growing ground grain is used in a variety of products such
as a result of its nutritional benefits. as breads, noodles, pancakes, cereals, granola,
cookies, and other flour-based items. The grain
Despite the fact that the physical characteristics can be prepared in a variety of ways, including
of grain starch have the potential to be valuable popping it like popcorn or flaking it like oatmeal.
for both food and industrial applications, no Currently, there are more than 40 products on
products based on these characteristics have the market that contain Amaranth extract.
been commercialised to date.
There is little information available about the
When undertaking such initiatives, marketing production and use of amaranth as a forage
considerations must be taken into account in crop. The leaves, stem, and head of the plant
order to ensure that the communities reap are said to be high in protein (15-24% on a dry-
the greatest possible benefit from the efforts matter basis). Redroot pigweed, a relative of
they have made to re-establish and propagate grain Amaranth, has been shown to contain
underutilised, but undeniably popular species. 24% crude protein and 79% in vitro digestible
dry matter, according to research.

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Plants like vegetable amaranths, which are 5.8 COWPEAS

closely related, produce 30-60 tonnes of
silage per hectare of land (80% moisture). 5.8.1 Introduction
Depending on the results of further research,
grain Amaranth may prove to be a viable silage Various studies in South Africa have emphasized
alternative in areas where maize silage yields the importance of indigenous food crops in
are low due to moisture limitations. meeting many of the basic needs of rural
communities, including serving as dietary
There are many different species of Amaranth supplements, animal fodder, and generating
that are grown for food. The edible seeds of income.
some types of Amaranth are grown for human
consumption, while the edible greens of others Cowpea has been identified as a significant
are grown for human consumption. It is widely indigenous food crop in South Africa, with a
cultivated in West Africa for its edible greens, wide range of applications and advantages
particularly in Sierra Leone, and is one of the (Figure 27). Seeds can be consumed fresh or
most important crops in the region. The plant dried for storage, leaves can be consumed as
is a fast-growing annual that thrives in high a vegetable, and plants can be used as green
temperatures, allowing it to reach its maximum manure. It can be used as grazing for livestock
height of 5-6 feet in height. or baled for use as hay or silage for them.

Figure 27 Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata).

Source: ARC.

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Cowpea is generally regarded as a drought- 5.8.4 Cultivars

tolerant crop that is also simple to grow. It is
an especially good crop for rural areas, where There are primarily three types of plants
the rural poor typically rely on an energy-dense classified according to their growth habits:
carbohydrate food as their staple food, to which upright, semi-upright, and runner. Because
a protein-dense food such as cowpea can be runner and semi-runner cultivars have a
added to provide a more balanced diet. The tendency to produce fruit that ripens over a
protein content ranges between 24-36%, with longer period of time, they are more suitable for
lysine being the most abundant amino acid use as a vegetable, for forage, for silage, and as
found. green manure. Consult with your seed company
for assistance in selecting a cultivar.
Besides being beneficial for fixing atmospheric
nitrogen, it also helps to increase soil organic 5.8.5 Crop rotation
matter content while improving soil structure.
The crop can be grown in rotation with a variety Cowpeas have long been recognized for their
of other crops such as vegetables, herbs, cut value in crop rotation. The growth of grain crops
flowers, annual ornamentals, and root crops, and other vegetables on land that had been
among others. planted with cowpeas the previous season is
noticeably improved. This is due to the residual
5.8.2 Soil requirements effect of nitrogen (N) bound by the cowpeas
from the previous season, which has caused the
Cowpeas can be grown in a wide variety of soil crop to fail. It is important, however, to avoid
types, ranging from heavy clays to sandy soils, other leguminous crops in a rotation system
provided that the soils are well-drained. It is because they are more or less susceptible to
unable to withstand being submerged in water the same pests and diseases as cowpeas and
or being flooded. It is preferable to have medium should be avoided if possible.
loam soil with a clay content ranging between
15-35%. A pH range of 5.5-6.5 is preferred for 5.8.6 Soil preparation
soil acidity.
The majority of cowpeas are grown by gardeners
5.8.3 Climatic requirements and small-scale farmers in South Africa using
traditional agricultural methods and hand tools,
Cowpea is primarily a hot-weather crop that frequently in intercropping systems with maize,
grows well in semi-arid climates, according to sorghum, and millet. It is critical to remove all
the USDA. Temperatures in excess of 21oC are weeds and loosen the soil deeply with a fork
favorable for vegetative growth. Temperatures before applying fertiliser if necessary. When
above 35oC can cause flower and pod shedding, applying fertiliser, work the fertiliser into the
which can reduce yields. Cowpeas are sensitive soil with the fork, breaking up clods and evening
to frost and can suffer damage if they are out the soil. The final seedbed must be uniform,
exposed to temperatures ranging from 5-10oC fine, slightly firmed, free of clods, and free of
for periods as short as 24 hours. It is also sensitive weeds and weed remnants. It should also be
to day length, but cultivars with short days, day free of weeds and weed remains.
neutral days, and long days are available.

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5.8.7 Planting time when growing your own seed. Some diseases
caused by viruses and bacteria are frequently
Planting too soon may result in poor transmitted through seed.
germination. Planting too late may result in crop
losses if a frost occurs too soon, or it may not be 5.8.10 Spacing
possible for the pods to form before the frost
arrives. Cowpeas are planted after the first rains Types that stand upright perform better in
in October and continue to grow until the end narrower rows with 0.9 m between rows and
of December. The optimal planting date varies 10 cm between plants (12 kg seed ha-1). When
depending on the cultivar and the geographical there is enough water available (through heavy
location. Obtain information from your local rainfall or irrigation), the spacing between
extension services or seed supplier about the plants can be reduced to 0.45 m apart and 10
best time to plant in your specific area and cm between plants (24 kg of seed per ha).
cultivar choice.
Semi-runners and runners do better in wider
5.8.8 Growth period rows that are 1.5 m apart and 10 cm between
plants, as opposed to narrower rows (9 kg seed
It is influenced by a variety of factors, including ha-1).
the cultivar, planting date, soil type, rainfall, and
temperature over the course of the season. The 5.8.11 Fertilisation
following are general guidelines for growing
cowpeas during their growth period (see Table Cowpeas grow best in heavier clay soils with
10). high organic content, so fertilizing them is
rarely necessary. On sandy soils, approximately
5.8.9 Seed 100 gm-2 of a 3:2:1 (28) fertiliser mixture should
be sufficient to produce a good crop. It is
It is critical that you purchase high-quality seed preferable, however, to have the soil tested and
from your cooperative or seed supplier. The then consult with your available expertise to
importance of selecting healthy plants when develop a fertilizing programme for you based
growing your own seed cannot be overstated on the results of the soil test.

Table 10 Growth comparisons for cowpeas.

Growth period
Growth stage Cowpea types
(days)
Upright 50
Planting to 50% flowering
Runner 60
Upright 100
Planting to green uses (hay, vegetable, green manure, etc.)
Runner 120
Upright 120
Planting to harvesting of grain
Runner 140

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5.8.12 Water requirements 5.8.16 Diseases

However, even though it is generally considered Cowpeas can be infected by virus, bacterial and
to be a drought-tolerant crop, moisture stress fungal diseases.
during the period from emergence to the
development of the first flower can cause a Cowpea mosaic virus: Chlorotic lesions on
significant reduction in seed yield. The use of leaves which may develop reddish brown
three or four irrigations (at 25 mm per irrigation) necrosis.
during this period (only to supplement rainfall if Control: Avoid practices that injure plants,
necessary) is recommended if water is readily sanitation is important and use good healthy
available. seed.

5.8.13 Planting process Bacterial canker: Swollen canker-like lesions

on the stem. Leaves, stems, pods and seed are
In all cases, cowpeas should be planted at a prone to the disease.
depth of 4 cm or deeper. In a vegetable garden, Control: Use only good healthy seed.
the number of rows required for planting can
be determined, and then a furrow 4 cm deep Damping-off (Fungus): Cause pre-and post-
with a spade or hand hoe can be dug, the seeds emergence wilting and dying of seedlings. The
placed 10 cm apart in the furrows, and the soil disease is usually only important in humid,
covered with 4 cm of soil can be completed. warm, tropical conditions.
Fertilisers should not be allowed to come into Control: The disease is difficult to control. Avoid
contact with seedlings. infestation by good rotational practices.

5.8.14 Cultivation after planting Fusarium wilt (Fungus): The vascular tissue of
the plant becomes reddish extending to the
No extra cultivation is needed, except for weed tips of the runners. Leaves turn yellow in color
control. and drop, followed by fairly rapid wilting of the
whole plant.
5.8.15 Weed control Control: Resistant cultivars and crop rotation.

Herbicides can be used to control weeds, as Anthracnose (Fungus): Most legumes affected.
can manual or mechanical removal, as well as Affect all above-ground plant parts, especially
herbicide application. The weeds are typically the stems, peduncles and petioles.
pulled out by hand or with a hand hoe by the Control: Use healthy seed and practice good
average home gardener. Herbicides are not crop rotation.
recommended for use in vegetable gardens
because they are expensive and can cause Other diseases: Other diseases that can be a
damage to other crops as well as vegetables. problem are stem rot, leaf spot, downy mildew,
stem canker and various virus diseases.
Control: The most effective and cheapest
control measure are crop rotation and planting
only healthy seed and resistant cultivars if
available.

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5.8.17 Harvesting 5.9 PIGEON PEAS

Fresh, immature seed pods and seeds are Scientific name: Cajanus cajan L.
boiled and eaten as a vegetable in place of the Common names: Pigeon peas; Letlhodi; Ndozi;
mature seeds. It is possible to grow cowpea as Duifert; Udali; Dithlodi; Tintoji
a dual-purpose crop, in which the green pods
are harvested for use as a vegetable and the 5.9.1 Background
remaining plant material is used for animal feed.
Seeds that are not yet mature can be roasted Pigeon peas are believed to have originated in
and eaten as a snack in the same manner as India and first appeared in West Africa around
groundnuts. Shoots, leaves, and growth points 2000 BC, which is considered to be their second
from young plants are harvested, boiled, and major centre of origin (Figure 28). Pigeon peas
consumed as spinach. are currently found in abundance throughout
the tropics and subtropics of the world. They
When fresh vegetables are in short supply, are grown in India, Malaysia, Indonesia, the
mature leaves can be boiled, drained, and Philippines, the Caribbean, and East and West
then dried in the sun before being stored and Africa, among other countries.
later used as a meat substitute or as a relish to
supplement the diet. 5.9.2 Production areas

In some cases, the preparation of cowpeas in Limpopo-Bohlabela, Capricorn and Mopani

its various forms is regarded as indigenous Districts.
knowledge that belongs to the communities Mpumalanga - Gert Sibande, Ekangala,
who practice it. The ARC-VOP can provide you Ehlanzeni South and North districts.
with additional information in this regard.

Figure 28 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan).

Source: Planting Man.

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5.9.3 Climatic requirements 5.9.7 Soil preparation

Pigeon peas thrive in temperatures ranging Pigeon peas do best in a seedbed that has been
from 18-35oC. For the best possible yield, bright prepared by deep tillage to reduce the amount
sunlight is required. Waterlogging and frost of weeds. Primary tillage in the autumn allows
damage the plants, making them vulnerable. the soil to dry and warm up more quickly in the
spring, allowing for earlier seeding in the spring.
5.9.4 Soil requirements
5.9.8 Planting
Growing conditions for the crop are excellent in
a wide range of soil types, ranging from sandy to Planting takes place between October and
heavy loams, with well-drained medium heavy December, with the seeds being planted
loams being the best. approximately 4-5 cm deep. It is possible to plant
seeds with a seed rate ranging from 45-67 kg
In order for it to work, it needs a pH level ranging ha-1, or to seed with a maize planter, depending
from 5-7. Excessive acidity causes nodulation on the weather conditions. Approximately 70-
to be inhibited, and the plants become chlorotic 90 cm between the long and medium duration
and susceptible to die-back disease. plants is the recommended interspacing.
5.9.9 Fertilisation
5.9.5 Rainfall
Plants, in general, do not respond well to nitrogen
Pigeon peas are a legume crop that is drought and phosphorus fertilisers, and they require
tolerant, but they are not frosted tolerant. adequate amounts of calcium, potassium,
These plants are also tolerant of a wide range and magnesium. In order to increase nitrogen
of rainfall amounts; however, optimal rainfall fixation in such plants, Rhizobium must be
amounts ranging between 600-1000 mm year- introduced into the plant. Plants such as pigeon
1
are preferred over anything else. Pigeon peas peas have the ability to survive and produce high
produce a large number of seeds in dry areas economic returns in arid climates and low-input
with less than 600 mm of annual rainfall because farming systems. The root nodules of the peas
the crop matures early and the incidence of enrich the soil by supplying approximately 40 kg
pest damage is low. Pigeon peas are particularly N ha-1 of land planted with them. Pigeon peas
successful in dry areas with less than 600mm can be used as a green manure crop because of
of annual rainfall. It is best for pigeon peas to their high nitrogen content.
grow in moist conditions during their first two
growing seasons and in dry conditions during 5.9.10 Irrigation
their flowering and harvesting stages.
If you live in a dry area with less than 400 mm
5.9.6 Propagation material of annual rainfall per year, you can supplement
your water supply with irrigation for the first
Pigeon peas are best established by direct two growing months. Irrigation should be
seeding in a well-prepared seedbed, rather than discontinued between the time of flowering and
by transplanting from another location. The use harvesting in order to reduce damage caused
of a cowpea group strain of Rhizobium is not by pests and diseases.
usually required, but it can be done if desired.

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5.9.11 Weed control 5.9.14 Uses

As a result of their slow initial growth rate, Human uses: Pigeon peas are primarily grown
pigeon peas are extremely sensitive to weed as a vegetable food crop, where they provide
competition, particularly during their first 45-60 a good source of protein, carbohydrates,
days of growth. and other minerals, among other things. The
flavourful seeds are consumed in a variety of
Effective weed control during the crop's early forms, including fresh, shelled, and dried. For
growth stages is one of the most important cooking purposes, mature seeds are soaked for
factors in achieving high yields, particularly several hours, pounded, and fried or steam-
during the first 4-8 weeks of growth. Following cooked in Africa and Indonesia. Local South
that, herbicides such as Alachlor and Africans in Mpumalanga use the whole seed to
Metolachlor should be applied at a rate of 1.25 make porridge and soup, either with or without
L ha-1 within 2-3 days of planting, according to meat, according to their tradition.
the manufacturer's instructions.
Animal consumption: Pigeon peas are an
5.9.12 Pest and disease control excellent form of fodder that can be used for
animal and poultry feed.
Pests and diseases such as pod-sucking bugs
(Clavigralla spp.), pod fly (Melanagromyza Other uses: Pigeon peas are also important
spp.), pod borers (Helicoverpa armigera), as for nitrogen fixation and are a good crop for
well as rust, downy mildew, and Cercospora leaf intercropping and crop rotation, according to
spot, have a negative impact on the productivity the USDA. The branches and stems can be used
of pigeon peas and result in poor-quality seed to make baskets and fuel, among other things.
production. Crop stand is reduced by pests and It can also be used as a shadow crop in certain
diseases; however, pest-resistant cultivars, crop situations.
rotation, weed removal and inoculation with
a cowpea group strain of Rhizobium as well 5.10 BAMBARA GROUND NUTS
as intercropping with cereals can be used to
control these problems. (VIGNA SUBTERRANEA)

5.9.13 Harvesting methods Classification

Scientific name: Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc
The majority of the seed pods are harvested Common names: Bambara groundnut;
by hand, though mechanical harvesting can Jugoboon, ditloo-marapo, izindlubu, Indlubu,
also be used in some cases. A sickle is used to jugo bean, nduhu, phonda, ndlowu, njugo,
harvest the mature crop, which is harvested by tindlubu, inhlowa
cutting the entire plant in half. Harvest the dry
grain when 80% of the pods are fully matured 5.10.1 Origin and distribution
and have turned brown if you want to make
flour. When a second ratoon crop is required, Bambara groundnut, also known as Nyimo in
the pods can be harvested by hand when they Zimbabwe and Izindlubu in South Africa, is a
reach maturity. type of groundnut that originated in North Africa
and was brought to South Africa by indigenous

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people (Figure 29). It is a biennial legume with 5.10.2 Production levels in South Africa
a well-developed tap root system that grows
in the ground. Women have traditionally been In South Africa, it is primarily produced by local
the primary producers of bambara, which is people for subsistence purposes, according to
grown in semi-arid regions where water is the government. It has only been in recent years
scarce and where they lack access to inorganic that people have begun to sell it at farmers'
fertilisers as well as little guidance on improved markets (e.g. boiled groundnuts). It is grown
production practices. Bambara is considered as an intercrop with other crops such as maize,
to be a significant source of protein in these cowpeas, and melons, as well as a stand-alone
communities. Its protein content is comparable crop. The size of bambara plots varies from 300
to, and in some cases superior to, that of other to 2500 m2 per farmer, depending on the region.
well-established legumes, making it an excellent Because the crop is not grown commercially in
complement to diets based on cereal grains. South Africa, and because it has been neglected
As a legume, it also has the ability to replenish by National Research Institutes in the past, little
nitrogen in the soil through nitrogen fixation, is known about the best agronomic practices
which may be of particular importance to for this crop in the country.
farmers who have limited access to resources.
Similarly to other land races, the colours of 5.10.3 Major production areas in South Africa
bambara seeds are diverse, with the most
common being cream, brown and red, with The provinces of Limpopo, Mpumalanga, the
mottled and white being the most common as North West, Gauteng, and KwaZulu-Natal are
well. Because of the expansion of groundnut the primary production areas for bambara
production, bambara has been relegated to the groundnut in South Africa, with the rest of
status of an underutilised crop in most parts the country following. The Mopani, Capricorn,
of Africa as a result of groundnut production Waterberg, and Vhembe Districts in the
expansion. Limpopo Province are the primary producers of
bambara groundnut.

Figure 29 Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean).

Source: ARC.

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The Ehlanzeni District in Mpumalanga is home to to reach maturity, depending on the weather
a significant amount of agricultural production. and the cultivar.
Greytown, Msinga, Nkandla, Nguthuthu, Roots: A compact well-developed taproot with
Makhati, and Kosibaai are among the towns many profuse geotropic short lateral roots 20
where it is grown in KwaZulu-Natal. Smaller cm long. The roots form nodules for nitrogen
quantities are also produced in the Umzinyathi fixation, in association with African wild-type
and Illembe Districts, respectively. Rhizobia.

5.10.4 Varieties and cultivars Stem: It has lateral stems, which develop from
the root.
The seven types of the bambara groundnut
cultivated varieties include: Leaves: The leaves are trifoliate (± 5 cm long)
• Black: Early maturing, usually small to and are attached to the stem by the petiole. The
medium-sized kernels. Mainly one-seeded. petioles are about 15 cm long, stiff and grooved,
• Red: Late maturing. Kernels are large. A and the base is green or purple in colour. Leaves
good yielder, however, it is prone to rotting. and flower buds arise alternately at each node.
• Cream/black eye: A large kernel and a good Leaves are pinnately trifoliate, with erect
yielder. petioles and thickened at the base. Two stipels
• Cream/brown eye: A medium-sized kernel are subtended to the terminal leaflet, while
and a good yielder. only one is assigned to each of the two lateral
• Cream / no eye: Very small pods and leaflets. The terminal leaflet is larger than the
kernels. It mainly produces one seed and lateral leaflets, with an average length of 6 cm
yields are lower. and an average width of 3 cm.
• Speckled/flecked/spotted: Purple color
predominates. Kernels are small and pods Flowers: The flowers are typically papilionaceous
are mainly one-seeded. and are borne in a raceme on long, hairy
• Brown: Continuous variation between light peduncles, which arise from the nodes on the
and dark brown. Kernels are of medium to stem. The branching types are usually self-
large. pollinated, while the spreading types are cross-
pollinated by ants. Flowering starts 30-35 days
The bambara varieties, in general, have after sowing and may continue until the end
photoperiod requirements that are specific to of the plant’s life. After fertilisation, the flower
their location; as a result, high yielding varieties stem elongates. The sepal enlarges and the fruit
from one location may fail to thrive in another develops above or just below the soil surface.
location. As a result, rather than focusing Pods: The pods usually develop underground
on the introduction of exotic varieties, the after pollination and fertilisation. The unripe pod
emphasis has been placed on the selection and is yellowish-green, with up to six pods, while the
improvement of local cultivars. mature pods may be yellowish-green or purple.
The pod is small, about 1 to 5 cm long, round or
5.10.5 Mature plant slightly oval-shaped, and wrinkled with mostly
one or sometimes two seeds. Mature pods are
The bambara groundnuts are herbaceous indehiscent, wrinkled, ranging from yellowish to
annual plants with creeping stems that grow reddish dark brown in colour.
from the ground up to the surface of the soil. It
takes between three and six months for a plant
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Seeds: The seed is hard, smooth, usually round be between 5-6.5 for Bambara groundnut to
and varying in size, and can be up to 1.5 cm in thrive.
diameter. It also varies in colour from white,
cream, dark brown, red, or black and maybe 5.10.8 Cultivation practices
speckled or patterned with a combination of
the colours. The average seed mass is about Propagation: The bambara groundnut is
500-750 g. propagated by seed.

Essential part: The essential parts are the pods. Soil preparation: The bambara groundnut
produces the highest yields when planted in a
5.10.6 Climatic and environmental field that has been deeply ploughed and has a
requirements fine seedbed. Ploughing followed by harrowing
of the soil twice is recommended for compacted
Temperature: A fast-growing plant that soil and weed-infested areas in order to ensure
requires warm temperatures and will not good germination and stand development. It is
tolerate freezing temperatures during the best to plant on a level seedbed; however, when
growing season, the bambara groundnut is conditions are extremely wet, it can be planted
a good choice for a food source. For the crop on ridges.
to mature, it will require a growth period of
between 110-150 days. Temperatures between Fertilisation: Nitrogen fertilisation in excess
30-35°C are ideal for the germination of the promotes vegetative growth at the expense of
bambara groundnut, and sprouting can take crop yield. Potassium has no value because of a
anywhere from 5-21 days. The ideal daytime well-developed tap-root system that is shallowly
temperature for crop development is in the located in the soil. Phosphorus fertiliser, on the
range of 20-28°C on average during the growing other hand, has no beneficial effect on crop
season. Extreme temperatures cause the leaves yield.
to die, resulting in a reduction in the amount of
biomass produced. Irrigation: Bambara groundnut is commonly
grown under rain-fed conditions, so no statistical
Rainfall: From the time of sowing until the time information on water management for the crop
of flowering, the bambara groundnut requires is available at this time.
moderate rainfall. During the growing season,
annual rainfall of 500 - 1200 mm is required 5.10.9 Weed control
per hectare. Heavy rainfall is tolerated by the
plant, but an excessive amount of rainfall during Weed control can be done chemically before
harvest may result in yield losses. Additionally, planting, mechanically, or by hand, depending
the bambara groundnut can survive in hot, dry on the situation. Pre-emergent herbicides that
climates where other crops would fail. have been approved for use on bambara fields
can be used to control weeds in an effective
5.10.7 Soil requirements manner. The use of hand hoes is also acceptable,
but caution should be exercised when weeding
Because it can be grown in poor, sandy to around the plant, particularly during flowering,
sandy loam soils with good drainage, Bambara as the flower stalks are delicate and may break if
groundnut is easier to harvest than other handled roughly. Hoeing should be done twice
groundnut varieties. The pH of the soil should a week to ensure that the plot is free of weeds.
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5.10.10 Pest and disease control the affected plants. When the attack is severe,
the leaves fall off and the plant may die. A
Pest control reduction in disease incidence can be achieved
by practising crop rotation and burning of crop
Root-knot nematodes have the potential to debris from the previous season, as well as by
significantly reduce crop yields. Rodents, using disease-resistant cultivars.
termites, ants, and cutworms are among the
pests that can be attracted to seeds. Insects Fusarium wilt is characterised by vascular
may attack the plant and cause it to die. Insect discolouration, yellowing, necrosis, and wilting
pest control measures include the use of of the leaves. Plants that are affected become
insecticides, such as Malathion against aphids, stunted and eventually die. Fusarium wilt can
among other things. Beetles and maize weevils be controlled through the use of resistant
are two of the most common storage pests. cultivars and crop rotation, two practises that
Infestation frequently begins in the field during are recommended.
seed ripening and is then transported to the
store by the customer. Apply ash to stored seeds In South Africa, there are no chemicals that
to keep them safe. Chemical products such as have been approved for the control of diseases
Malathion and Carbamyl are also used. and pests on the bambara groundnut tree.

Root parasite Alectra vogelii (Mhlilwane) has 5.10.11 Other cultivation practices
been discovered to be a serious root parasite
of bambara, particularly in Mpumalanga, and Earthing up (Ridging)
has been shown to cause yield reductions of
up to 49%. The Lowveld Research Unit has It is necessary to earth up around the base of
developed two local variety selections, MPB51 the bambara groundnut plant in order for it
and MPB31, that have higher yields than their to grow properly. It has been discovered that
parent varieties. earthing up after the development of flowers
has a positive effect on yield and also makes
Pests such as Callosobruchus maculate, harvesting more convenient. The occurrence of
Callosobruchus subinnotatus, and Sclerotium rolfsii can be increased by earthing
Callosobruchus tenocampa hilda cause problems up the area where it is found.
during storage. If the seeds have been shelled,
they must be treated with insecticidal dust Crop rotation
before being stored. It is sometimes necessary
to store seeds in sand or treat them with wood In commercial production systems, the crop
ash in order to prevent insect damage. is typically planted after the maize crop. It can
also be grown as a stand-alone crop, but it is
Disease control more commonly intercropped with sorghum,
maize, and tuberous crops.
Cercospora leaf spot, powdery mildew, and
Fusarium wilt are just a few of the serious 5.10.12 Harvesting
diseases that can affect your plants.
Harvest maturity
Cercospora leaf spot is characterised by reddish-
brown circular spots on the leaves, as well as For the crop to reach its full potential, it requires a
lesions on the stems, petioles, and pods of growth period of 110 to 150 days. Ideally, plants
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should be harvested when they begin to yellow that it is ready for shelling. After drying, the
or wilt, or when approximately 80% of the pods pods are shelled by hand with a flat stone or
have reached maturity. Generally, seeds are brick to create a smooth surface. To handle the
considered mature when the parenchymatous crop on a large scale, groundnut shellers can be
layer surrounding the embryo has vanished and modified to work with it.
brown patches appear on the outer surface of
the pod. When growing in humid and moist Storage
conditions, it is likely that a delay in harvesting
will result in pod rot. Shells are commonly used to store the crop.
When nuts are needed for rations, sale, or
Harvesting methods seed, shelling should be done as soon as they
are harvested. As a result of the seed's high
Hand lifting and pulling out the plant is the susceptibility to weevil damage after shelling,
most common method of harvesting bambara Bambara groundnuts store exceptionally well in
groundnut, but cutting the taproot with a their pods.
groundnut harvester, ploughing out, or hoeing
out the groundnut plant is also common. Once 5.10.14 Marketing
the nuts have been removed from the plant,
they are dried and either stored or consumed The sale of bambara groundnuts in local
raw. markets, alongside other foods such as
boiled groundnuts, has only recently become
Harvesting small plots of land is often done over commonplace. In Bambara, the majority of
a period of several weeks or months. In some the crop is grown by local people, primarily for
cases, up to half of the pods can remain in the their own consumption, with any surplus being
soil and must be collected by hand, making sold by individuals who engage in street sales
it necessary to collect the pods in a manual at local markets. When it comes to marketing
manner. In order to minimise pod loss, plants the bambara groundnut, the size and colour
should be handled gently. of the seeds are important considerations.
The bambara groundnut has not yet reached
5.10.13 Post-harvest handling a significant level of value on the international
market.
Sorting
5.10.15 Utilization
Normally, seeds are separated into groups
based on colour and size. The small seeds are • Bambara groundnuts are essentially grown
consumed at the household level, whereas for human consumption
the larger seeds are available for sale in the • It can be eaten fresh or grilled while still
marketplace. immature
Packaging • Seeds are pounded into flour and used to
make porridge with maize
Immediately after the plants have been cut, they • Leaves can be used for animal feed after
are allowed to dry for a day or two before being harvesting
stacked in wind rows to dry further. When the
pods rattle when the crop is shaken, it indicates

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Ashwell A & Hoffman T (2001). Nature Divided Land Degradation in South Africa. South African Journal
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Baker RD, Ball ST & Flynn R (1997). Soil Analysis: A Key to Soil Nutrient Management, Guide A-137.
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Rodents)/Chewing-insects/American-bollworm.

Bost S (2021). Home Vegetable Garden Disease Control https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/

Documents/W316.pdf.

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Chandrasena NR (2019). Seeing Weeds with New Eyes’ Part II– Some Historical Perspectives and ‘Proto
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Grouping vegetables according to their water needs. 269
Figure 2 Annual rainfall distribution in South Africa. 270
Figure 3 General plant pests and diseases. 277
Figure 4 The disease triangle. 278
Figure 5 American bollworm. 282
Figure 6 American Aphids. 282
Figure 7 Bagrada bug. 283
Figure 8 Cutworm 283
Figure 9 Diamond-back moth. 284
Figure 10 Fruit (pumpkin) fly. 285
Figure 11 Thrips. 285
Figure 12 Red spider mite. 285
Figure 13 Examples of indigenous and naturalised vegetables. 286
Figure 14 How to make a compost heap. 293
Figure 15 Examples of mulching spinach beds. 295
Figure 16 How to apply mulch. 297
Figure 17 Bag system just after transplanting. 299
Figure 18 Bag system (pictured, Ms Hellen Mokitlane). 300
Figure 19 Preparing rainwater-harvesting plot and plastic covered catchment area. 303
Figure 20 Rainwater harvesting and mulching trial of Swiss chard
and Amaranth planted in November 2015. 304
Figure 21 Improving water and nitrogen efficiency of nightshade. 305
Figure 22 Cowpea and amaranth planted (intercropping) at ARC-Roodeplaat. 306
Figure 23 Use of greywater in the watering of vegetables and fruit. 316
Figure 24 Collecting of rainwater from the roofs of buildings into tanks. 317
Figure 25 Rainwater catchment beds. 318

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Figure 26 Amaranth cultivars (A) Amaranthus retroflexus (B) Amaranthus tricolor

(C) Amaranthus hybridus (D) Amaranthus cruentus. 324
Figure 27 Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). 331
Figure 28 Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). 335
Figure 29 Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean). 338

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Water use in South Africa. 271
Table 2 Climatic conditions to be considered in the production area. 271
Table 3 Depicts some of the characteristics of typical soil types. 273
Table 4 The method by which plant diseases transmitted. 279
Table 5 Compost making. 291
Table 6 An example of a rotational cropping system with four plots over five years. 298
Table 7 Comparing irrigation systems for Climate-Smart Agriculture. 309
Table 8 Characteristic rooting depths of selected vegetables. 311
Table 9 Practical soil-moisture interpretation guidelines. 313
Table 10 Growth comparisons for cowpeas. 333

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