Grammar I (Ro’s version)

What is Grammar? Introduction. Morphology and Syntax. Grammatical units. Words and word classes.
Language → Linguistic approaches
Prescriptivism Descriptivism
 Focuses on how language should be  Focuses on how people actually use
used language, including variations and changes
 Establishes consistent rules and patterns  Recognizes that language evolves over
for "correct" language at a given time. time.

Grammar – the structure and system of a language, including rules for forming
words (morphology) and arranging them into sentences (syntax). It helps us understand how
language works and allows us to communicate effectively.
Morphology – studies the form of words and their parts (roots, prefixes, suffixes). It
looks at intonation, stress, and how context changes word meaning. Example:
o CONtrast (noun) vs. conTRAST (verb).
o Adding "-ly" to quick creates the adverb quickly.

Syntax /ˈsɪn.tæks/ –studies how words are combined into larger units like phrases,
clauses, and sentences. Example: Rearranging words changes meaning:
o "BTS released a new album" (standard).
o "A new album, BTS released" (emphasizes the album).
Grammatical units – a unit consists of one or more elements on
the level below, establishing a hierarchy of units (structure of a sentence):
– group of words with a subject and a verb.
o "Jimin sings beautifully."
– part of a sentence with a subject and a verb.
o "When Jungkook dances, the crowd cheers."
– group of words without a subject and a verb, used as a single part of speech.
o "A fantastic movie."
– the smallest element that can be pronounced in isolation. "Dynamite"
– the smallest meaningful grammatical unit of language.
o Free morphemes: Can stand alone – ARMY, mic, drop.
o Bound morphemes: Must attach to a root – Prefixes and suffixes.
o Compound words: Combine roots – Blackboard, stage-light, concert-hall.
Different senses of “word”
– Written words separated by spaces or punctuation.
– Categorized by grammatical roles.
o Leaves: noun ("autumn leaves") or verb ("She leaves soon.").
– Groups of related grammatical words sharing a meaning.
o "Sing, sings, sang, singing" belong to the lexeme sing.
Three major families – based on function and grammatical behavior:
(open classes)
 Words that carry the main meaning in communication.
 Includes: Nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
 Have complex structures (e.g., un-friend-li-ness).
 Stress is placed on these words in speech.
 Essential in headlines or shortened text (e.g., "Concert crowd cheers wildly.").
(closed classes)
 Words that show relationships between lexical words.
 Includes: Prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, and conjunctions.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

 Frequently used in all text types: "She is going to the theater."

 Words/phrases used in spoken language for emotional or conversational effects.

 Includes: Interjections like well, oh, and wow.
 Not part of the sentence structure, marked by breaks or punctuation (e.g. Well, I did it)
 Simple form but often an atypical pronunciation
Feature Open classes Closed classes
Definition Flexible and can easily grow as new More fixed, adding new words is rare.
words are created or borrowed
Includes  Nouns (movie, selfie),  Pronouns (he, they),
 Verbs (stream, binge-watch),  Prepositions (in, at),
 Adjectives (iconic, viral),  Conjunctions (and, but),
 Adverbs (quickly, aesthetically)  Articles (the, an).
Key Open to innovation as culture and Indicate relationships and grammar
Feature technology evolve. rather than adding meaning, so they do
not change as often.
Example New noun: "Stan" (from fan culture). Pronouns: "they" or prepositions: "on"
remain consistent across time.

Structure of words:
Lexical words consist of morphemes (smallest units of meaning). They can be:
 – can stand alone with a specific meaning (book, play)
 – must attach to a root (-s, un-, -ing).
Word Parts – Morphemes are comprised of two separate classes:
 : Core meaning (WOMAN-ly, BEAUTI-ful). A morpheme in a word that
gives the word its meaning.
 : bound morphemes: Prefix: Before the root (*un-*happy); suffix: After the root
(*quick-*ly); infix: Inserted inside the root (im-freaking-possible).
Word and lexeme categories:

Leaving aside interjections, there are eight such categories recognized:

Nouns – it names physical objects and abstract concepts
 They show possession by adding ‘s
 Roles in Sentences: Subject, object, or complement. Subdivided into:
o (general names) vs. (specific names)
o (ideas, quality) vs. (physical objects)
o (used to replace nouns to avoid repetition)
Verbs – it shows actions or states
 Inflectional contrast of tense between past and present. Subdivided into:
o carry meaning – help lexical verbs
Adjectives – it expresses characteristics of nouns or pronouns
 Combined with the verb BE , the clause describes a state. Types:
o – before a noun (a fantastic film) as modifier.
o – After a verb (The film was fantastic). Occurs after the verb BE or one of
a small subclass of similar verbs (become, feel, turn)
Adverbs – it describes and modifies a verb, adjective or other adverb
o "She danced beautifully" (verb). – “The movie was very exciting" (adjective).
Prepositions – it shows relationship between a noun / pronoun / other words
Followed by an object, noun or pronoun: “the article about bugs is interesting.”
Determinatives – used in front of nouns to specify or clarify its meaning. Types:
o (the): Refers to something specific (The microphone was broken)

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

o (a, an): Refers to something general (I need a microphone)

–
Coordinators – join words, phrases or sentences of equal rank

Subordinators – connect a depend clause to a main clause

That, whether and one use of IF (“I don’t know whether / if it is possible”)

–
A) Tense and aspect: Time, tense and aspect. The tenses: simple present, present
progressive; stative and dynamic verbs; simple past, past progressive, the perfect tenses:
present and past. The future: Be + to forms and other tenses with future reference.
B) Modality: Modal auxiliary verbs: characteristics. Semi-modal verbs. Modals in the past.
Meanings expressed by modal auxiliary verbs.

Tense and aspect

Tense – Refers to when an action happens:
 : Before now (He walked.)
 : Now or includes now (He walks.)
 : After now (He will walk.)
TENSE is a grammatical category that is realized by verb inflection. Since English has no future
inflected form of the verb, verbs in English can show only two tenses, present and past.
Aspect – Describes the speaker's perspective on time:
 : No focus on whether the action is complete or ongoing (He sings.)
 : Focuses on ongoing actions (He is singing.)
 : Focuses on completed actions (He has sung.)
 : Combines both (He has been singing.)
Verb Phrases Provide Information About:
 – When the action occurs (I speak vs. I spoke).
 – The speaker's view of time (simple, progressive, perfect).
 – Active: the subject performs the action (She destroyed it.); or passive: the
subject receives the action (It was destroyed.)
English Tenses – English has only two grammatical tenses:
 Present (walk) – Past (walked).
The future is expressed using auxiliary verbs or special constructions (will walk, is going to
walk).
Stative Verbs vs. Dynamic Verbs
: Refer to states (e.g., feelings, ownership, opinions).
Not typically used in progressive forms (I understand, not I am understanding).
 : feel, hear, see, smell, taste, etc.
 : adore, detest, dislike, enjoy, like, etc.
 : agree, believe, suppose, understand, think, etc.
 : belong, concern, contain, have
(=possess), appear (=seem), know, mean, owe, want, prefer, possess, etc.
Some stative verbs have continuous forms but there is a difference in meaning:
o I see what you mean. (understand) =/= She is seeing Peter. (meeting)
: Refer to deliberate or voluntary actions, often used in progressive forms.
Examples: dance, climb, jump, fly – The girl is dancing.
Present simple – uses:
 Facts: BTS is a globally famous band.
 Permanent Situations: Jungkook lives in South Korea.
 Opinions/Ideas: I think Pied Piper is their best song.
 Likes/Dislikes: Jimin loves dancing. I love horror movies.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

 Regular Actions/Habits: Actions that happen repeatedly – They rehearse every day.
 Use adverbs of frequency (usually, often, always) or time expressions (every week, on
Fridays).
Namjoon always writes lyrics late at night.
 Describing Films, Books, or Plays: The movie Inception explores the concept of dreams
within dreams.
 Live Commentary for Sports: She scores! The crowd goes wild!
Spelling Rules for 3rd Person Singular (He/She/It):
o Most verbs add -s: He sings.
o Verbs ending in -o, -x, -s, -ch, -sh add -es: She watches movies.
o Verbs ending in -y change to -ies (unless preceded by a vowel): He studies cinema.
Present continuous – uses:
 Actions Happening Now: I’m watching Kiki’s delivery service.
 Temporary Situations: Ongoing for now but not permanent – Jimin is staying in Paris for a
photoshoot.
 Criticism/Annoyance (with "always") about another person’s actions – You’re always
listening to the same songs.
 Changes and Trends: Evolving situations – Streaming services are ruining cinema culture.
 Describing Pictures/Photos: In this photo, Yoongi is playing the piano.
 Future Arrangements: Planned events – We’re meeting to watch the BTS concert
tomorrow.
Spelling rules for -ing:
o Add -ing to most verbs: dancing.
o Double the last consonant if stressed: running.
o Drop silent -e: driving.
o Keep -ee: agreeing.
Present Simple Present Continuous
Permanent situations (Jin sings.) Temporary situations (Jin is singing today.)
Actions happening now (They are performing
Regular actions (They release music often.)
live.)
Describes events in films (The plot twists
Describes photos (He is smiling in this scene.)
shock the audience.)
Time expressions: usually, often, every day Time expressions: now, at the moment, today

Action vs. State Verbs

– describe an action and can usually be used in both tenses.
o They dance on stage every night. (simple) – They are dancing now. (continuous)
– describe states, not actions. Rarely used in the continuous form:
o : like, love, dislike, hate, prefer, need, want, wish (but
we often use enjoy in the continuous) – I love BTS’s music.
o : believe, doubt, forget, know, mean, realise,
recognise, remember, think, understand - I know all their songs by heart.
o : appear be seem
o : belong contain have (got) own possess
o : hear see smell taste
The verbs agree, cost, promise and thank are also rarely used in the continuous tense: I agree
with you.
Exceptions (Continuous Form for Emphasis)
 To highlight unusual situations, and probably temporary:
o I’m finding it difficult to organize my time.
 Some verbs which express physical states (feel, hurt…) can be used in the simple or
continuous forms with no (or very little) difference in meaning
o How do you feel / are you feeling today?
 Informal English uses some state verbs (like, love and hate) in the continuous:
o I’m really loving this song!
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Past simple
 Regular verbs: Add -ed to the base verb. BTS released their first album in 2013.
 Irregular verbs: Have unique forms in the past. Jin sang beautifully at the concert.
– – depends on the sound that comes before it:
 /ɪd/ after /t/ and /d/ – wanted, decided
 /t/ after unvoiced sounds – /p/, /f/, /s/, /ʃ/, /ʧ/ and /k/: hoped, laughed, faxed, washed,
watched
 /d/ after all the other sounds – allowed, begged, lived
How to Pronounce -ed | Learn English

1. Completed actions at a specific time (stated and known)

o I watched a Studio Ghibli movie last night.
2. Repeated past actions or habits
o I used to dance every day when I was younger.
3. Series of actions in the past
o She bought tickets, watched the movie, and took photos with friends.
4. Finished situations
o My family and I lived in Corrientes for a while.
– to say when a past action happened: ago, for (with periods of time), last
week/month/year. We can also use when/after + past simple.

 Add -ed: call → called.

 Drop final -e, then add -d: love → loved.
 Verbs Ending in –y:
o Preceded by a consonant, replace -y with -ied: study → studied.
o Preceded by a vowel, just add -ed: Annoy → Annoyed.
 Double the final consonant: plan → planned (if preceded by a single vowel).
 Verbs ending in vowel + -L:
o British English: Double the -L and add –ed: Cancel → Cancelled.
o American English: No doubling; just add -ed: Travel → Traveled.
 Monosyllable verbs ending in consonant preceded by a vowel
o Double the final consonant and add -ed: Chop → Chopped.
o Exceptions – Verbs ending in -w or -x do not double the consonant: Fix →
Fixed, Snow → Snowed.
Past continuous – uses:
1. Action in progress in the past (do not mention when the action started or finished)
o They were practicing their choreography at 8 PM.
2. Temporary past situations
o She was staying in Seoul during the event.
3. Two simultaneous actions (happening at the same time)
o While they were watching a movie, the power went out.
4. Interrupted actions: to show that one action (PS) interrupts another action (PC)
o I was listening to Radiohead when the phone rang.
5. Plans that did not happen: verbs like plan, hope, intend
o Dad was hoping to attend the concert, but it was canceled.
6. Background description; to ‘set the scene’ for a past story > actions that follow in PS
o The fans were waving their banners as BTS walked on stage.

 When with both PS and PC: When I was watching the show, the Wi-Fi went off.
 While (= as) only before a continuous action: We cheered while BTS were performing.
 Always to criticize another person’s actions
Past Simple Past Continuous
Single or repeated completed actions : Unfinished actions or actions in progress:
She watched the movie twice last weekend. She was watching the movie when the lights went out.
SERIES of actions INTERRUPTED actions

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Used to and would

– used to + base verb: I used to work there – I did not use to work – did you use to
work there? Also didn’t used to / did you used to?
1) Past habits or repeated actions (that do not happen now): Jungkook used to practice
singing every night.
2) Situations no longer true: They used to perform in small venues before they got
famous. Do not confuse ‘used to do’ with ‘be/get used to doing’
– always, once a week, every year
(more formal):
 Would + base verb for past habits and actions that do not happen now (not situations
or states) – repeated actions
o When BTS were trainees, they would practice for 14 hours daily.
 Descriptions with used to and then would
Used to Would
To emphasize a difference between the past For single actions in the past, periods of time,
and the present. a number of times.

Present perfect
Have/has + past participle: "My aunt has visited Santiago del Estero twice."
 Regular verbs: Add -ed (play → played).
 Irregular verbs: Unique forms (go → gone, eat → eaten).

1. Past Experiences (No Specific Time)

o Actions or experiences up to now.
o Often with expressions like ever, never (-), before (first time doing something):
"Have you ever met a famous actor?" (ever = in your life)
2. Past Actions that affect the present: "I’ve lost my keys."
3. Recently Completed Actions with
o Just – a very short time ago. They’ve just arrived at the game.
o Already (+) – before the expected time. Tom’s already finished watching it.
o Recently – it happened in the last few days or months.
4. Unfinished Time Periods
o Actions in a time frame still ongoing (today, this week): "I’ve watched three
movies this week."
o So far (up to now): "How many units have you studied so far?"
5. Situations Up to the Present, repeated actions that may happen again or present
situations that started in the past
o For (period) – "They’ve been married for 10 years."
o Since (specific time) – "She’s lived here since 2015."
o How long? – In questions, with state verbs: how long have you known her?
6. Superlative adjectives and phrases like First Times: "This is the best performance
I’ve ever seen."
7. Still, yet:
o Yet in questions to ask about something we expect to happen has occurred.
o Still or yet in negative sentences when we expected something to happen
before now
o Yet at the end of a question or negative statement, still before hasn’t / haven’t
o Still in positive sentences to say that an earlier situation has not changed, in
present simple or continuous BUT not in present perfect
still yet
(-) to emphasize that something hasn’t (?) to ask about something we expect to happen has
happened when it was expected to occurred
(+) a situation hasn’t changed (present s & c) (-) something that hasn’t happened but expected to
Before hasn’t/haven’t At the end of a question or negative statement
Present perfect > how many times we have done something, or how much we have done.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Present perfect continuous

Have/has + been + -ing form – I have been studying for hours.

1. Actions Cntinuing Up to Now: Emphasis on duration (for/since).

o "I’ve been studying for the test all morning."
2. Recent Actions with Present Results: Explains a current situation.
o "She’s been crying; her eyes are red."
3. Focus on Activity (Not Result)
Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous
Action ongoing or just ended; focus on the
Action completed; focus on result.
cause or duration.
"I’ve written the essay." "I’ve been writing the essay all day."
Use with: just, already, yet, ever, never. Use with: for, since.
‘How much?’ or ‘how many? ‘How long?’
Present perfect simple or continuous (NOT PS) for a situation that is still continuing
State verbs in present perfect simple
 ‘Always’ and ‘never’ – I’ve always known Queen.
 live, work, teach, study – action that continues over a period of time
Present Perfect Past Simple
No specific time mentioned. Specific time mentioned.
Action impacts the present. Action completed in the past.
Time expressions: this morning, today, so far. Time expressions: yesterday, last week, ago.
"I’ve seen that movie." "I saw that movie yesterday."

Giving news – Present perfect for new information, past simple for details.
o BTS have announced their new tour. They revealed the dates yesterday.

Past perfect simple

Had + past participle: Bru had finished the book before the movie adaptation was
announced.

1. To Show Which Action Happened First: The PP marks the earlier action; the past
simple marks the later one. Both in PS if one action happens immediately after the other
o By the time they released the new series, fans had watched the all the trailers.
2. Adverbs of Time and Linking Words: already, before, by the time, after, when.
o By the time the final season of Stranger Things aired, the cast had grown up.
3. In stories for a series of Past Events: earlier events when the timeline is unclear
Avoid Past Perfect When:
 The order of actions is clear: "She ate and left for Hogwarts." (Both in PS)
 The sentence reflects the same order of events: "He saw the monster after it roared."
4. Giving Reasons for an Action or Situation: Often with because.
o "She was upset because she had missed the final GOT premiere episode."
5. Superlative Adjectives + Past Perfect: expressions like the first, the best.
o "That was the first time I had watched Game of Thrones."
Past perfect continuous
Had + been + -ing form – I had been rehearsing all morning before the class started.

1. Action or situation Continuing Before Another Action or Time (with WHEN) the
action began earlier and may or may not stop when the second action happens.
o Bts had been having dinner when they got the Grammy nomination.
2. Emphasize a period of time (highlighting the duration)
o George R.R. Martin had been writing GOT for decades.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

3. Give reasons for Past Feelings or Actions (why something happened)

o He was exhausted because he had been writing his thesis all month.
Comparison: Past Perfect Simple vs. Continuous
 Past perfect simple – Focuses on the completion or number of actions, whereas PPC
focuses on the activity itself and its duration.
o They had filmed five scenes before the director arrived.
o They had been filming for hours before the director arrived.
 Avoid continuous forms with state verbs like know, believe, love

Future forms:

Going to
am/is/are + to + the infinitive form of the verb (Informal: gonna)

1. Plans/Intentions: intend to do something but haven’t finalized all arrangements.

o I’m going to end Operación masacre this weekend.
2. Immediate Future: To talk about plans for the near future.
o He’s going to call the studio soon.
3. Predictions Based on Evidence: When there is visible proof or something obvious.
o Look at the sky — it’s going to rain.
Present continuous for future
am/is/are + -ing

1. Definite Arrangements: When plans are already set

o I’m meeting the director at 5 PM.
2. Excuses for Future Unavailability: I can’t come; I’m studying tomorrow.
Will
Will (not) + infinitive

1. Predictions: Based on opinions, knowledge, or facts.

o I think The substance will win an Oscar.
2. Immediate Decisions: Decided at the moment of speaking.
o I’ll buy the bodysuit now.
3. Promises, Offers, Warnings:
o I’ll help you with the script.
4. Certainty with Adverbs: Definitely, certainly, probably.
o The sequel will definitely break box office records.
Note: Use shall (formal) instead of will with I and we. "Shall we start filming?"; ‘will’ is not used
to talk about personal arrangements, but to inform formal arrangements (not going to)

Future continuous
will + be + the –ing form of the verb

1. Actions in Progress in the Future:

→ At this time tomorrow, they’ll be filming the final scene.
2. Polite Questions About Plans (less direct than present continuous or going to)
→ Will you be attending the premiere?
3. Inability in formal Situations: to say we can’t do something
→ I’m sorry, I won’t be joining the press conference.

Future perfect:

Future perfect simple

will + have + past participle; for actions (we expect to be) completed by a specific
future time: I’ll have finished studying this unit by tomorrow.
by this evening, before we get there…
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Future perfect continuous

will + have + been + the –ing form of the verb

1. Actions Continuing Up to a Point in the Future (it may stop or continue)

o Fabrizio’ll have been doing exercises for hours, so he’ll be tired.
2. Explain Future Situations with ‘So’:
o He’ll have been reading all day, so he’ll need a break.
Present simple with future meaning
1. Timetables or Fixed Programs: Present simple + a time, date (will in the same way)
o The movie starts at 7 PM.
2. Personal Arrangements with present continuous or going to, not the present simple
o I’m meeting my friend tomorrow.
3. Future Events After Time Expressions: when, as soon as, before, after, once,
until, PS is used to refer to the future. If the action is completed > present perfect.
o I’ll watch it when I get home. – I’ll call you when I get there. – I’ll message you
after I’ve arrived.
Other ways to talk about the future
Was/were Going to
 Future in the Past: Plans or expectations that did not happen.
o They were going to release the film earlier, but it was delayed.
 To make excuses about something we failed to do
Am/Is/Are to + Infinitive
 Formal future arrangements or news, instructions or orders
o The actor is to appear in court next week.
Am/Is/Are About to + Infinitive
 For immediate future actions: it will happen in the immediate future
o The show is about to start.
Other Verbs with Future Meaning
 Be due to, be sure/certain to, be likely to, expect, hope, want.
o "The substance is likely to win an award. I hope Demi Moore gets it.

Ability and possibility:

Structure: Modal verb (e.g., can, could, may, might) + base verb.
 Modal verbs + infinitive without TO
 Modal verbs like can, could, may, and might are used to show ability, possibility, or
necessity. Also to ask permission or to give advice
 Same form for all subjects
o Bran can walk in visions, not Bran cans walk.
 Negatives with NOT; form questions by placing the modal verb before the subject:
o Can Sansa trust him?
 No -ing or -ed forms; instead, use be able to for different tenses, or change the main
verb: they can’t be waiting for us > they can’t have used it yet.
 Passive voice: Modal verb + be + past participle
o The wall can be defended.

 Can or be able to – possible to do something, or somebody / something has an ability

to do something
o The Unsullied are able to fight without fear.
 Be able to – for effort or surprising situations
o Arya was able to kill the Night King despite all odds.

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

 Can/can’t with senses (see, hear, smell) and thinking verbs (believe, forget, remember)
to describe an action happening now
o Jon can see the approaching army. – I can’t believe Daenerys burned it all.
 May/might – uncertainty: The dragons might attack Winterfell tomorrow.

 Be able to – for certainty: Bran will be able to rule the Six Kingdoms wisely.
 Can – for future personal plans: Arya can sail west of Westeros after her journey.
 Could – for unlikely situations: Jon could reclaim the Iron Throne one day.
 Could or would be able to – for conditional situations

 Could/couldn’t or was/were able to:

General ability: Jon could wield Longclaw from a young age.
Positive statement of a single event: Brienne was able to protect Sansa during the
ambush. (NOT could)
 Couldn’t or wasn’t/weren’t able to – Negative statements
 Managed for – For difficulty or success, with expressions in the end, eventually, finally
o Sam managed to steal books from the Citadel eventually.

 Can – generally possible, and could – general truths in the past:

o "The North could survive harsh winters in the past."

Rules:
’
Present Rules: Must, have to, have got to. Negative forms: Must not and cannot.
Past Rules: Had to. Future Rules: Will have to.
Questions: More common to use have to than must

 Have to – Express necessity or external rules:

o The Night’s Watch has to defend the Wall.
 Must – personal obligation or formal instructions; less common than have (got) to
o Answers must be written in ink (in writing and with a passive verb)
 Past and Future Rules:
o They had to gather food before the winter.
o We will have to rebuild Winterfell after the battle.

 Can’t or not allowed to – there is a rule NOT to do something

o Wildlings can’t go south without permission.
 Mustn’t – formal prohibitions, explained rules and instructions
o You mustn’t enter the king’s chamber uninvited.
 Be allowed to – Negative rules in the past or future
 Don’t have to (NOT mustn’t) - No Obligation:
o You don’t have to fight if you are not ready.
Advice and criticism:

► : Subject + should + base verb – Subject + should not (shouldn’t) + base verb –
Should + subject + base verb?
► Subject + ought to + base verb – Subject + ought not to + base verb (less
common than shouldn’t) – Ought + subject + to + base verb? (formal or rare)
► Subject + must + base verb – Subject + must not (mustn’t) + base verb – Must +
subject + base verb?
► (specific advice/warnings): Subject + had better + base verb – Subject +
had better not + base verb – rarely used in questions, replaced with should
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

o You had better take an umbrella; You had better not ignore this warning.
Short forms of had better and should have in spoken English

 Should/shouldn’t and ought to/ought not to – for general advice

o You should trust Brienne’s loyalty.
 Should – to ask for advice
 Must or mustn’t – for strong advice and warnings (stronger than should or ought to)
o You must prepare for the Long Night.
 Had better (not) – for warnings about specific situations:
o Cersei had better leave the Red Keep, or she’ll face the dragon’s fire.

 Should / shouldn’t have + past participle:

o Tyrion shouldn’t have trusted Cersei’s promises.
o Jon should have told Sansa the truth earlier.

Permission:

Asking for permission: Giving permission Refusing permission

 Informal: can I use it?  Informal: yes, you can go  Informal: no, you can’t; no, I’m
 Formal, polite: could I ask…  Formal, polite: yes, you sorry
may I make… might I can/may, certainly  Formal, polite: no, you
interrupt… can’t/may not; I’m afraid not
Formality check - To ask for permission:
o Can > may, could > might (the most formal)
o ‘do you mind if…’ (formal), ‘is it all right if…’ and ‘Is it OK to…’
When we refuse permission we often give a reason

 Can/can’t or be (not) allowed to – for spoken rules:

o You’re not allowed to cross into the Night’s Watch lands.
 May/may not – for written rules:
o You may not approach the Iron Throne without permission.

 Could/couldn’t or was/wasn’t allowed to: Arya wasn’t allowed to train in combat.

To talk about permission for a single action in the past > allowed to, not could
 Will/won’t be allowed to: Sansa will be allowed to rule the North autonomously.

Requests and suggestions; offers, promises and

warnings

 Can + subject + base verb – to make requests in most situations

o Can you pass the salt, please?
 Could/Would + subject + base verb – more polite/formal
o Could you fetch the raven for me, please?
 Will + subject + base verb – for people we know well
o Will you guard the gates tonight?
 Add ‘please’ to make the requests polite or stronger: please send the letter for me.

Statements: We/you could + base verb; let’s + base verb

o We could send Jon Snow to negotiate.
Questions:
o Why don’t we + base verb? – Why don’t we go there?
o Shall/Should we + base verb? – Shall we prepare for the White Walkers?
o How/What about + -ing form? – What about sending a scout party beyond the wall?

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

o We/you could; should we –not sure the listener will like the suggestion
Agreeing or disagreeing:
o Agree: Yes, that sounds wise.
o Disagree (with reason): No, we can’t; it’s too risky without reinforcements.
(NOT present simple)
Will + base verb:
 Offering, promising: I’ll keep your secret, Arya. I’ll defend you if you need me.
 Warning: Don’t go alone, or you’ll get hurt. I’ll be with you in a minute.
 Agreeing or being able to do something (or not): Ask her and she’ll help you.
Shall I/We (or I / we could) + base verb? – Not sure that the listener will want to accept
o Shall we organize the Night’s Watch?

Making a guess
’
Certain guesses:
 Must + base verb: "They must be planning an attack."
 Can’t + base verb: "That can’t be true; the wall is impenetrable."
 Opposite of must is can’t, NOT mustn’t
Uncertain guesses:
 May (not), might (not), could + base verb: "They might be hiding in the crypts."
 Negative: May not/Might not: "They might not have reached King’s Landing yet."
Questions: Could / Do you think?
– Uncertain future guesses: May (not), might (not), could + base verb:
o The battle might end tomorrow. (NOT couldn’t)
– Should/Shouldn’t + base verb – to expect something to be true, or have a
strong feeling the guess is correct:
o They should arrive soon.

– Structure: modal verbs + have + past participle

o Arya must have trained hard to defeat the Night King.
Also a continuous form, modal verbs + have + been + -ing
Certainty:
 Must have + past participle: The dragon must have destroyed the fleet.
 Can’t/Couldn’t have + past participle: They can’t have crossed the desert so quickly.
Uncertainty:
 May (not), might (not), could + have + past participle:
o Tyrion might have known about the ambush.
– Should + have + past participle: Daenerys should have listened to Tyrion.
Also for an action that was planned but did not happen.
‘Was/were meant to’ or ‘was/were supposed to’ have similar meaning

Necessary and unnecessary actions:

’ ’
Modal Verb: Only forms used: Needn’t (present/future) and Needn’t + have + past participle
(past). Example: "You needn’t leave now." / "You needn’t have left so early."
Regular Verb (Need to): Follows standard verb conjugations (need/needed/will need).
Example: "We need to talk." / "We needed to act quickly."

Need to + base verb to express necessity:

 Physical necessity: We need to sharpen the swords before the battle.
 Beliefs about importance: You need to warn the king.
 Equivalent to ‘have to’: Arya needs to finish her training.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Past: Needed to + base verb: Jon needed to lead the charge yesterday.
Future: Will need to + base verb: The army will need to rest before crossing the desert.

Something is not necessary or is not a rule:

 Needn’t or don’t need to + base verb: "You needn’t worry about the wall; it’s secure."
 Don’t/Doesn’t have to or haven’t got to + base verb: "Daenerys doesn’t have to ride
Drogon now."
Unnecessary future actions:
 Won’t need to or won’t have to + base verb: "The Wildlings won’t need to defend the
North anymore."
– Something was not necessary in the past
 Didn’t need to or didn’t have to + base verb: it wasn’t necessary and didn’t happen.
o They didn’t need to fight because the enemy surrendered.
 Needn’t + have + past participle: Action was unnecessary but still happened.
o Sansa needn’t have trusted Littlefinger; it only caused more trouble.
Didn’t need to: Focuses on inaction due to Needn’t have: Focuses on unnecessary
lack of necessity. action already taken.
"The Night’s Watch didn’t need to fight since "Tyrion needn’t have confessed; it complicated
the enemy retreated." the trial."

–
A) The verb phrase: What are verbs? Types of verbs: functions and classes. Lexical verbs:
verb forms. Pronunciation and spelling. Valency patterns.
B) Primary verbs be, do and have. The structure of the verb phrase: operators, auxiliaries and
main verbs. Finite and non finite verb phrases. Copular (Linking) verbs: intensive
complementation, current and resulting copulas. The copula be and other copular verbs.
C) Multi word verbs: The use of multi word lexical verbs, phrasal, prepositional and phrasal
prepositional verbs. Particle movement. Multiword verbal expressions.

Verbs – words that express actions, states, or occurrences. Essential to forming

clauses and sentences.
Types of Verbs: Functions and classes
Main verbs vs. auxiliary verbs

 Central role in clauses, determining its structure (valency pattern).

 Jon snow fought bravely. (Main verb: fought determines the other elements of the
clause.)

 Support the main verb and modify its meaning (tense, mood, aspect).
 Arya could be hiding. (Could and be are auxiliary verbs.)
Classes of Verbs – According to their ability to function as main or auxiliary verbs:

 Function as main verbs (e.g., fight, rule, think).

 Open class: New verbs are added over time.
 Regular and irregular forms are common.
 Can form multi-word units (e.g., look after, take over).
o Daenerys ruled Westeros with fire and blood.

 Serve as both main and auxiliary verbs.

o (Main Verb): Tyrion has a sharp wit.
o (Auxiliary Verb): He has written his will.

 Always auxiliary verbs; express possibility, necessity, or permission (e.g., can, could,
shall, must): Cersei must face the consequences.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Lexical verbs: structures and patterns

Regular verbs – Inflections are morphemes that give extra information about the verb
without changing its basic meaning (like adding context to the word). Most verbs are regular,
meaning that they use the same inflections to mark person, tense, aspect (How the action is
happening), and voice.
Morphological forms – three suffixes added to a base:
 : infinitive, simple present (except 3rd person singular), and subjunctive
(something desired or imagined) – fight
 – : 3rd person singular (present simple) – fights
 – : Present participle (Continuous/Progressive Form) – fighting
 – : Past tense and past participle – fought
Pronunciation of regular endings (suffixes):
 /ɪŋ/
 – /s/, /z/, /ɪz/
o /s/ after voiceless consonants except /ʃ, tʃ, s/ talks
o /z/ after vowels and voiced consonants except /ʒ, dʒ, z/ runs
o /ɪz/ after /ʃ, tʃ, s, ʒ, dʒ, z/ (sibilant sounds) washes
 – /t/, /d/, /ɪd/
o /t/ after voiceless consonants except /t/ stopped
o /d/ after vowels and voiced consonants except /d/ begged
o /ɪd/ after /t, d/ waited
Spelling Rules
 – after s, z, x, sh, or ch (e.g., watches)
 and – : Drop final -e before adding -ing or -ed (e.g., live → lived).
 – and – : Change -y to -i if preceded by a consonant (e.g., cry → cried).
Irregular verbs – deviate from regular patterns and fall into seven main classes:
1. -t suffix replaces (–d) or adds to the base. May also have a regular form
o Learn → learnt/learned.
2. -t/-d suffix + vowel change.
o Feel → felt.
3. -ed for past tense, -en for past participle.
o Show → showed → shown.
4. No suffix for past, -en for participle, + vowel change.
o Give → gave → given.
5. Base vowel changes in past and participle.
o Begin → began → begun.
6. Forms identical to base.
o Put → put → put.
7. Completely different forms.
o Go → went → gone.
Valency patterns – describe the structure of a clause based on how the main verb
determines the required elements that follow it. These patterns outline how different verbs
interact with subjects, objects, and other clause elements.

 : Can be added to any pattern but are not mandatory.
 : The verb determines what other elements (e.g.,
direct object, indirect object) are needed.
The five major valency patterns:

 Pattern: Subject + Verb (S + V)

 No element follows the verb: Arya ran.

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

 Pattern: Subject + Verb + Direct Object (S + V + DO)

 Requires one direct object: Jon killed the White Walker.

 Pattern: Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (S + V + IO + DO)

 Requires two objects: an indirect object and a direct object.
o Daenerys gave Tyrion the command.

 Patterns:
 Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Object Predicative (S + V + DO + OP)
 Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Obligatory Adverbial (S + V + DO + A)
 A direct object is followed by either an object predicative (e.g., noun or adjective) or an
obligatory adverbial (e.g., location).
o They named Bran the Stark in Winterfell. (DO + OP)
o Tyrion put the wine on the table. (DO + A)
 Sub patterns and Verb Types in Complex Transitive Constructions:
 (Common vbs: believe, consider, expect)
o Cersei considered Jaime to be her equal.
 (Common vbs: make, let, see, hear)
o The King made Tyrion rule the council.
 (Common vbs: hear, find, catch)
o They caught Arya sneaking out.
 (Common vbs: want, need, see)
o The Lannisters need the wall repaired.

 Patterns:
 Subject + Verb + Subject Predicative (S + V + SP)
 Subject + Verb + Obligatory Adverbial (S + V + A)
 Followed by a subject predicative (e.g., noun, adjective) or obligatory adverbial.
o The night is dark and full of terrors. (SP)
o Arya was in the castle. (A)

Some verbs deviate slightly from standard patterns by including:

 Prepositional Phrases: Acting as indirect objects.
o Daenerys gave the throne to Jon.
 Complement Clauses: Acting as direct objects.
o Sansa believed that Jon was alive.
Pattern Structure Example
S+V Arya ran.
S + V + DO Jon killed the White Walker.
S + V + IO + DO Daenerys gave Tyrion the command.
They named Bran the Stark in
S + V + DO + OP or S + V + DO + A
Winterfell.
S + V + SP or S + V + A The night is dark and full of terrors.

Verbs with multiple valency patterns – Certain verbs allow flexibility across
patterns, they shift between intransitive and monotransitive forms. Their preferences differ:

 Intransitive (S + V + (A)): The most common usage, often with optional adverbials. Arya
stood on the wall.
 Monotransitive (S + V + DO): Rare, found in idiomatic expressions. Jon can’t stand lies.
 Monotransitive with Complement Clause (S + V + DO + OP): Extremely rare, primarily in
fiction. The warrior stood a chance against the dragon.

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

 Monotransitive (S + V + DO): Most common pattern. Daenerys changed the plan.

 Intransitive (S + V): Common but slightly less frequent. The weather changed.
 Intransitive with Adverbials (S + V + (A)): Also found. The weather changed drastically.

 Monotransitive (S + V + DO): The most typical form. Arya met the Hound.
 Intransitive (S + V): Less common but used for general situations. They met in King’s
Landing.

Primary verbs:

Be
Links the subject to a predicative or obligatory adverbial.
o "Tyrion is wise." (Subject + Be + Subject Predicative)
o "The meeting is at the Red Keep." (Subject + Be + Adverbial)
has two distinct grammatical functions:
 Progressive Aspect (be + -ing): "Arya is training with her sword."
 Passive Voice (be + -ed): "Ned Stark was betrayed by Littlefinger."
Both Together: "The wall is being rebuilt by Jon."
Have
Shows possession ("Cersei has the Iron Throne."), relationships ("Bran
has a brother."), or abstract qualities ("Sansa has courage.").
 Used causatively: "The Queen had the knights prepare for battle."
 Occurs in idiomatic phrases: "Daenerys had a vision."
 Used with many different meanings: Showing physical possession and telling family
connections, describing eating or drinking, showing where something exists (similar
to existential there construction), linking a person to an abstract quality, and an
inanimate subject to an abstract quality, and showing that someone causes something
to be done (causative have).
Marks perfect aspect:
a) Present Perfect: Arya has learned many skills.
b) Past Perfect: Robb had won before the betrayal.
Do
activity meaning (to perform or execute) – Tyrion does the planning.
 Direct object or an indirect object + direct object: will you do me a favor?
 Commonly combined with a noun phrase to form idiomatic expressions e.g. do the
job. In these expressions, do has little lexical content (focus on the performance of an
activity rather than the activity itself).
Main verb Do as a transitive pro-verb: do substitutes a lexical verb, often
combined with it, this/that, or so:
o I didn't do it" (Here, "do" substitutes for another verb) – I have done so" (Again,
"do" stands in for a previously mentioned action)
Main verb Do as an intransitive pro-verb: In British English, people sometimes
use "do" to avoid completely leaving out words in conversation, which is called avoiding
"ellipsis" (more common to use ellipsis rather than do).

Do-support in negatives and interrogatives: added to support the construction

without adding meaning. Present or past tense is marked on the verb ‘do’, not on the
main verb.
o Does Jon lead the Night’s Watch?"
o "Daenerys doesn’t fear the enemy.
Emphatic Do: used to emphasize the meaning of a phrase, in contrast with what one
might expect. "I DO want to go" (Stressed to show strong intention)

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

 Often used in conversation or fictional dialogue to highlight a point. Also in

commands (or suggestions/invitations with imperative form).
 Contrast sometimes marked by connectives such as but, however, nevertheless,
though, and although.
o She does deserve the crown! – Do be careful, Sansa.
Auxiliary Do as a pro-verb: Used in both positive and negative clauses, where do
stands in for an entire verb phrase when that phrase has been previously mentioned or
is understood from context.
 Substitution Mechanism "do" + an auxiliary: Do you want it? Yes, I do.
 “Stranded operator" – meaning it is left without its main verb. The rest of the
clause is omitted through ellipsis
Auxiliary Do in question tags: related to do-support. Used to create confirming
questions at the end of sentences, when the preceding main verb has no auxiliary: this
delay solves nothing, does it?
The Structure of the Verb Phrase
 : First auxiliary verb in a clause, e.g., "Jon has always led with honor."
 : Used with main verbs, e.g., "Daenerys is ruling."
 : Carry lexical meaning, e.g., "Arya fought bravely."
Finite and Non-Finite Verb Phrases
 : Mark tense, number, or mood. "Tyrion advises the Queen."
(Present tense)
 : Infinitives, participles, or gerunds. "Planning the battle
was difficult."
Copular verbs or linking verbs
They connect the subject of a clause with its complement (additional information), which
describes a state, quality, or identity. The complement can take several forms:
Describe or characterize the subject.
o "Jon is brave;" "The Iron Throne seems cursed."
Indicate the subject’s location or state.
o "The meeting is in the Great Hall;" "The soldiers remained on guard."
Copular verbs fall into two main categories:
Express a state of being or existence.
Indicate a change or result
The Copula Be
It links the subject to a complement that identifies or describes it. Functions:
1. Current State: Links the subject to a subject predicative (noun, adjective, or
prepositional phrase).
o "Arya is a skilled fighter." (noun phrase as subject predicative)
o "The night is dark." (adjective phrase as subject predicative)
o "The castle is in the North." (prepositional phrase as an adverbial complement)
2. Evaluation in Academic vs. Informal Contexts: In conversation, common
predicative adjectives include good, right, sure, nice, funny – "That idea is good." In
academic prose, evaluative adjectives are specific (important, necessary, possible,
difficult), often followed by complement clauses – "It is important that we act swiftly."
3. Change of State: Links the subject to the result of a process:
o "Sansa is becoming a strong leader." (resulting copula with becoming)
Other Copular Verbs
Current Copulas – these verbs indicate a continuing state of existence or sensory
perceptions.
less frequent than be and often appear with specific complements.

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Verb Common Complements Examples

To-complement clause; adjectives especially conveying attitudes,
surprise and possibility in fiction, adjectives of likelihood in "The North seems
Seem
academic prose, with extraposed that-clauses (likely, possible); loyal to Jon."
noun phrases
To- complement clause; adjectives of likelihood in academic prose "It appears that
Appear
and news (true, false) winter has arrived."
Adjectives, often reporting absence of change; prepositional
"Bran remained
phrases: unchanged, constant, intact, motionless, immobile,
Remain quiet during the
low, high, open, closed, controversial, uncertain, unknown,
trial."
obscure

Adjectives: alive, awake, quiet, silent, secret, busy, fit, close, "Daenerys kept the
Keep
warm; subject is animate dragons safe."

Adjectives: awake, dry, sober, alive, clear, loyal, healthy; subject "Sam stayed loyal to
Stay
is often human Jon."

: Used with adjectival complements to report positive or negative

evaluations: do I look nice?

Verb Common Complements Examples

Evaluates physical appearance, adjectives : awful,
"Daenerys looks fierce on
Look different, happy, lovely, pale, puzzled, sad, small,
Drogon."
surprised, terrible, tired, well, young
Reports an assessment of physical or mental state of
"Tyrion felt uneasy about the
Feel being, adjectives: ashamed, bad, better, cold, good,
alliance."
guilty, sick, sure, tired, uncomfortable, uneasy
Evaluates sound perceptions; reactions to
Sound ideas/suggestions. Adjectives: good, nice, silly, "That plan sounds foolish."
stupid, interesting, awful, angry, sad, strange
Evaluates smell perceptions. Adjectives: awful, bad,
Smell funny, musty, odd, rotten, terrible, delicious, fresh, "The battlefield smells terrible."
good, lovely, nice
Evaluates taste perceptions; adjectives: awful,
Taste "This wine tastes wonderful."
horrible, nice, wonderful

Result Copulas – indicate a change from one state to another, describing either the process
of change or its outcome.

Verb Function Common adjectives Examples

Change into a new state
Impersonal process of
Clear and apparent, difficult, "Arya became a
Become moving from a state of
evident, important, possible legend."
ignorance or disbelief to
one of knowledge or belief
Ready and worse (subject
predicatives), angry, bigger, better,
Shift to a physical or mental "Tyrion got drunk
Get bored, cold, dressed (up), drunk,
state again."
lost, mad, mixed (up), old, older,
pissed (off), sick, tired, upset, wet

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Verb Function Common adjectives Examples

Change towards an
Crazy, mad and wrong, bad, cold, "The King went mad
Go negative or undesirable
dead, funny, limp, quiet, red, wild with power."
state
Change to a better Alive, awake, clean, loose, short,
Come
condition true, unstuck
Angry, big, bright, cold, dark, hot,
Gradual change; large, old, pale, tall, tired, warm,
"Bran grew stronger
Grow comparison with an earlier weak, bigger, darker, larger, louder,
as he trained."
state older, shorter, smaller, stronger,
warmer, weaker, worse
Costly, decisive, difficult, fatal,
Prove Reports an assessment necessary, popular, possible,
successful, suitable, useful, wrong
Sudden change in "The sky turned red
Turn Red, pale, dark
appearance; color-related during the battle."
End-point of a process with
Turn out simple positive or negative Good, nasty, nice, (all) right, wrong
evaluation
"He ended up
End Up Unintended final state Wrong, right, nice betrayed by his
allies."

Unintended, often negative "They wound up on

Wind Up Bad, broke, wrong
final state opposite sides."

Intensive Complementation
 Copular verbs link the subject to its attribute or identity, creating an intensive
relationship.
o "The Iron Throne is cursed." (Subject + Be + Attribute)
o "Jon became the King in the North." (Subject + Become + Identity)
Key Differences between Current and Resulting Copulas
 Current Copulas describe unchanging states (e.g., seem, stay).
o "Sansa remains calm under pressure."
 Resulting Copulas describe a change or process (e.g., become, turn).
o "Daenerys turned ruthless after betrayal."

Multi-word lexical verbs

Combinations of a verb with one or more particles (adverbs and/or prepositions). These
combinations often create idiomatic meanings that differ from the literal meanings of their parts
(each individual word).
Because they are idiomatic in meaning, it is sometimes possible to replace multi-word verbs by
single-word verbs with a similar meaning: carry out > undertake
Multi-word verbs include:
1. (verb + adverb)
2. (verb + preposition)
3. (verb + adverb + preposition)
In contrast, free combinations consist of a single-word lexical verb followed by an adverb or
preposition with a separate meaning (e.g. come down, go back)

Phrasal verbs
 Combine a verb and an adverbial particle.
 Often have idiomatic meanings: the combination conveys something different from the
literal meanings of its parts: Daenerys turned down the alliance offer (rejected).
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Types of Phrasal Verbs

1) : e.g. come on, go on
 Do not take a direct object.
 Cannot be made passive
o Arya broke down when she saw her father’s sword. (Broke down = started
crying/emotionally collapsed)
2) : e.g. Put on, make up, find out, carry out, take up, take
on, set up, point out
 Require a direct object (either a pronoun or a noun)
 Particle movement:
 If the object is a noun, it can appear before or after the particle.
o Jon Snow looked up the information / looked the information up.
 If the object is a pronoun, it must come before the particle.
o Tyrion figured it out (not figured out it).

Prepositional verbs
 Consist of a verb + preposition, with the preposition functioning as part of the verb 's
meaning (not optional).
 The prepositional phrase acts as the prepositional object (the noun or noun phrase
introduced by the preposition). :
o Sansa looked after Bran during his recovery (cared for).
 Wh-questions with Prepositional verbs are formed using who or what, rather than a wh-
adverb where, when, or how.
Types of Patterns
1) : a preposition connects the verb to a single noun
phrase.
 Structure: NP (subject) + V (verb) + Prep (preposition) + NP (prepositional
object)
o Arya (NP) depends (V) on (Prep) her skills (NP). – Arya relies on her skills.
2) : Some verbs take two objects – a direct object
(noun directly affected by the action) and a prepositional object (noun connected via
the preposition)
 Structure: NP (subject) + V (verb) + NP (direct object) + Prep (preposition) + NP
(prepositional object)
o Cersei (NP) handed (V) the crown (direct object) to (Prep) Jaime (prepositional
object). - Cersei gave the crown to Jaime.
 Also referred to as ditransitive prepositional verbs > they take two objects.
A noun phrase (NP) is a group of words built around a noun that functions as a subject,
object, or complement in a sentence. It may include modifiers, determiners, or adjectives:
 Simple NP: A single noun or pronoun. – Bran, he, courage.
 Complex NP: A noun with modifiers. – The rightful heir to the throne, a challenging
task.
In prepositional verbs:
 The subject is an NP before the verb.
 The prepositional object is the NP introduced by the preposition.
Prepositional Verbs also vary in how much the preposition changes the verb's meaning.
:
 The preposition contributes to connecting the verb to its object but does not significantly
alter the verb's meaning.
o Daenerys arrived at Dragonstone. (Verb: arrive – Preposition: at)
:
 The preposition slightly shifts the verb's meaning, but it remains mostly predictable.
 E.g. ask for, believe in, care for, go for, happen to, listen to, look at, look like, say
to, speak to, stare at, talk to, think about, think of, wait for.
o Jon believes in honor. Arya listens to her instincts.
o Sansa waited for the right moment.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

:
 The preposition entirely changes the meaning of the verb, often creating an idiomatic
expression.
 E.g. run into, get through, arrive at, come across, feel like, get over/get through,
look after/look into/look like, run into, see to, stand for, take after
o Tyrion ran into trouble with Cersei. (unexpectedly encountered)
o Sam got over his fear of heights. (recovered emotionally)
o Brienne looked after Podrick. (cared for)
Passive Use – the prepositional object becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
o The Iron Throne is aimed at powerful families.
o The marketing strategy is aimed at a target audience of 18 to 25 year olds.
Common Prepositional Verbs
Conversation and fiction – activity, communication or mental verbs: Look at, Say to, go for,
wait for, stare at (Activity verbs); talk to, talk about, speak to; mental verb: think of, think about,
listen to (communication verbs).
Academic prose – prepositional verbs mark physical activities and mental states: derive from,
be used as, be applied to (Activity verbs); known as, be regarded as, considered as (mental
verbs); lead to, result in; existence verb: depend on (causative verbs).
o Depend on: Sam depends on Gilly for emotional support.
o Look after: Bran looks after the children in the crypts.
o Think about: Jon often thinks about the North.
o Hear about: The Starks heard about the betrayal.
o Care for: Daenerys cares for her dragons deeply.
Formal English – avoid a preposition at the end of a sentence. Preposition in front of the
relative pronouns whom or which.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs
 Combine a verb, an adverbial particle, and a preposition.
 These verbs often have idiomatic meanings.
o Arya couldn’t put up with Joffrey's arrogance (tolerate).
 E.g., look forward to, also get out of, end up with, hand over to, put up to.
Features
 Transitive: Take objects.
 Cannot place an object between the particles.
o Cersei got away with her schemes. (Succeeded without punishment)
 Exception: the verb has two objects
Most common phrasal-prepositional verbs
 Conversation and fiction – Activity verbs: get out of (imperative or declarative)
o Tyrion tried to get out of the trial by combat.
 In news: get back to, come up with
 Mental verb: look forward to, common in fiction and news, direct or reported speech
o Jon looks forward to reuniting with Arya.

Other multi-word verb constructions

Used in fixed idiomatic expressions:
: Idiomatic units functioning as single verbs:
bear in mind, came as a surprise, take into account
o Daenerys took into account the advice of her council.
: make do (with) and let NP go/be
o Tyrion let Jaime go despite the risks.
: Verbs (take, make, have, and do) combined with
noun phrases to form idiomatic verbal expressions. In many cases, the combination also
includes a following preposition: make fun of, have a look at, do my hair, take care of.
o Arya took care of Needle with great affection.

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Formal vs Informal
 Phrasal verbs are more common in informal English.
 Example: The dragons burned down the village (informal) vs. The dragons
destroyed the village (formal).
Idiomatic Nature
 Multi-word verbs often convey meanings unrelated to their individual parts.
 Example: Jon gave up on diplomacy with Cersei (abandoned the effort).
Common Contexts
 Conversation and Fiction: Phrasal verbs like get on, come on, go on.
 Academic Writing: Prepositional verbs like depend on, result in.
Common multiword verbs:
Intransitive
Phrasal Meaning Example
Verbs
Stop working "Weapons broke down as the battle for Winterfell began."
Understand, "Arya's skills with the sword quickly caught on among the
become popular people of Braavos."
Return "Jon Snow came back to life thanks to Melisandre."
Enter "Catelyn told the messenger to come in."
Advance, "Come on, Bran! You need to master your visions to help the
progress realm."
Quarrel "Sansa and Arya fell out over Littlefinger's manipulations."

Fail "Lannister & Freys alliance fell through after Arya's revenge."

Belong, conform "Sam struggled to fit in at the Citadel with the maesters."
Manage, cope "Arya had to get by on killing the Night King."
Rise "Jon Snow told Sam to get up and fight when they met."
Leave "The Hound told Arya to go away so he could fight."
Continue "Tyrion was asked to go on with his plan against Cersei."
Leave a building "Starks went out of Winterfell and some never came back."
Mature "Sansa had to grow up after all the suffering."
Be careful "Jon warned the Night's Watch to look out for the wights."
Faint "Sansa passed out when his father was murdered ."
Stop talking "Jaime told Bronn to shut up during their dangerous mission."
Take a seat "Daenerys asked her advisors to sit down."
Rise "The lords of the North stood up to declare Jon their king."
Remain "Brienne decided to stay on at Winterfell to protect Sansa."
Depart "The dragons took off into the sky with Daenerys."
Arrive "Arya turned up at the Twins disguised as a servant."
Stop sleeping "Bran woke up after his vision of the past."
Be cautious "Tormund shouted at the men to watch out on the Wall."

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Transitive Phrasal
Meaning Example
Verbs
Perform, "Arya acted out her plan to take revenge on Walder
demonstrate Frey."
Suppress
"Sansa bottled up her emotions after Ramsay’s cruelty."
feelings
Introduce "Daenerys brought in Tyrion as her Hand."
Raise, rear "Ned Stark brought Jon up as his own son."
Mention "Tyrion brought up the need for allies."
Perform, "Arya carried out her assassination of Meryn Trant in
undertake Braavos."
Restore, "The Starks did up Winterfell after retaking it from the
decorate Boltons."
Discover "Bran found out the truth about Jon's parentage."
Complete in "Tyrion filled out the treaty proposal for peace with
writing Cersei."
Arrange "The Wildlings fixed up camp before the dead arrived."

Reveal "Sansa gave away Jon's true identity."

Stop "Theon gave up trying to save Yara and ran away."

Delay "The storm held up Daenerys’ fleet."
Maintain "Sam was told to keep up his studies in Citadel."
Exclude "Arya left Sansa out of her plans against the Freys."
Release "Catelyn and her son let out Jaime."
Search for "Sam looked up ancient texts to find a way to defeat the
information White Walkers."
Invent "Tyrion used to make up jokes."
Repay "Arya paid back her debts to the people on her list."
Collect "Drogon picked up Daenerys' body after her death."
Highlight, "Tyrion pointed out Cersei's betrayal during the council
explain meeting."
Demolish, "Daenerys pulled down the gates of King's Landing with
demote Drogon's fire."

Store "Arya put away her Needle after finishing her training."

Postpone "The council put off deciding about the Iron Throne."
Wear "Brienne put on her armor before the battle."
Accommodate "Jon put Tormund up in Winterfell for the winter."
Criticize "Cersei always ran down Tyrion's plans."
Establish, "Varys set up an elaborate spy network across
organize Westeros."
Assume "Daenerys took over Meereen after defeating the
control slavers."

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Transitive Phrasal
Meaning Example
Verbs
Begin,
"Brienne took up her oath to protect Sansa."
engage in
"The council threw away any hope of negotiating with
Discard
Cersei."
"Sansa turned down Tyrion's marriage proposal after
Refuse
Joffrey's death."
Expel "Daenerys turned out the corrupt leaders from Astapor."

Prepositional Verbs Meaning Example

"Jon called for the lords of the North to rally
Summon
against the Night King."
Show concern "Brienne cared for Jaime after his injury."

Encounter, meet "Sam came across a scroll with dragonglass."

"Daenerys coped with the death of her best

Manage, handle
friend."
Be tricked "Cersei didn’t fall for Tyrion’s plea for peace."
Desire "Sansa felt like leaving King’s Landing."
"Tyrion knew Cersei was getting at his role in
Criticize
the trial."
Recover "Sansa had to get over Ramsay’s cruelty."
"Bran got through his training to become the
Finish successfully
Three-Eyed Raven."
Discuss "Jon didn’t go into details about his parents."
Match "Sansa’ style went with her personality."
Cause "Tyrion led to Bran becoming king."
Take care of "Theon looked after Bran during his captivity."
Observe "Tyrion looked at the map to plan the attack."
"Sam looked into ancient texts for clues about
Investigate
defeating the undead."
Resemble "The Night King looked like death itself."
Visit "Arya looked round Winterfell after her return."
Give up "Daenerys couldn’t part with her dragons."
Compensate "The Lannisters always pay for their debts."
Depend on "Jon relied on the North."
Meet by chance "Arya ran into Gendry during her travels."
Organize, manage "Jon saw to the preparations for the battle."
Persevere "Arya stuck to her plan against the Night King."
Be like or look like
"Jon took after Ned Stark in honor and in
another family
courage."
member

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Prepositional Verbs Meaning Example

Discuss "Tyrion talked about his strategy."

Consider "Sansa thought about Little finger’s offer."

Usually used in the passive: be aimed at (intended for), be applied to, be considered as, be
derived from, be known as, be regarded as, be used as, be used in.

Phrasal-Prepositional
Meaning Example
Verbs
Withdraw "Cersei backed out of the alliance."
Interrupt "Arya broke in on Sansa’s meeting."
Reach the same "The army caught up on the enemy’s
level movements."
Investigate "Varys checked up on Jon’s loyalty."
"Daenerys came across as confident in the
Appear to be
battle."
"It all came down to who controlled the
Be essentially
dragons."
Invent "Tyrion came up with a clever plan."
"They cut down on supplies to save
Reduce
resources."
Eliminate "Jon did away with outdated traditions."
Visit unexpectedly "Arya dropped in on Gendry at the forge."
Confront "Sansa faced up to the truth about him."
Avoid punishment "Cersei got away with her lies for years."
Return "Jon got back to Winterfell after the battle."
Focus on "The council got down to planning the war."
"Bran got on with his training as the Three-
Continue
Eyed Raven."
Avoid responsibility "Jaime tried to get out of a difficult decision."
Surrender "The North gave in to Daenerys’ demands."
Try to achieve "Arya went out for revenge on the Freys."
Approach "Tyrion went up to Daenerys with advice."

Avoid "Arya kept away from the Lannister guards."

Stay at the same "The Wildlings struggled to keep up with

pace Jon."
Disrespect "Cersei looked down on the Starks."
"Arya looked forward to her next training
Anticipate
session."
Protect "Jon looked out for his siblings."
Admire "Sansa looked up to her mother."

Steal "The thief made away with the gold."

Transition "The council moved on to plan."

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Phrasal-Prepositional
Meaning Example
Verbs
Tolerate "Tyrion put up with Cersei’s insults."
Flee together "Arya ran away with the Hound."
Escape with "The Night King ran off with the dragon."
Defend "Jon stood up for the Wildlings’ rights."
"Tyrion turned away from his family’s
Reject
cruelty."
Abandon "Jaime walked out on Cersei with Brianne."
Usually used in the passive: be cut off from, be made up of, be set out in.

˚୨୧⋆｡˚ ⋆
1. Two-Part Phrasal Verbs (Verb + Adverb or Preposition) > look up, work out, take off
 Unsplittable Two-Part Verbs (Verb + Preposition)
The preposition cannot be separated from the verb. E.g. come across, get at, stand for:
 The Wildlings came across the Wall. (found by chance)
 The council stood for peace. (represented)
 Splittable Two-Part Verbs (Verb + Adverb Particle)
The adverb can often be separated from the verb. Placement depends on whether the object is
a pronoun (between the verb and the particle) or noun. E.g. carry out, sort out, drop off:
 Arya sorted out her weapons. (organized)
 The maester carried it out. (executed a task)
 Intransitive Phrasal Verbs – no object (Verb + Adverb)
These verbs do not take an object and are often exclamatory: build up, break down, go on:
 The Wall came down. (collapsed). The war broke out. (started suddenly)
2. Three-Part Phrasal Verbs (Verb + Adverb + Preposition) > looking forward to.
 These verbs include both an adverb and a preposition. They are unsplittable, and the object
must come after the preposition. E.g. come up with, get round to, come up against:
o Bran came up with a plan. (devised)
o Sam got round to fixing the scrolls. (found the time to)
Verb + adverb particle + preposition + adverb or verb + particle (no object): Ron out of, run out, catch
up with
3. Changes in Meaning
 Phrasal verbs often develop completely new meanings when combined with different adverbs
or prepositions: give in/up, make out/up/up for, turn down/round/up.
 Object very long > after the adverb/preposition: I couldn’t make out what I had done to annoy
her.
o Daenerys gave up. (stopped trying)
o The king made up for his absence. (compensated)
III. Phrasal Verbs in Informal English
Phrasal verbs are typically less formal than their single-word synonyms and are used frequently in
everyday speech.
o Formal: discover → Informal: find out
o Formal: investigate → Informal: look into
IV. Semantic Clues from Adverbs/Prepositions in Phrasal Verbs
The meaning of some phrasal verbs can be inferred based on the particle:
1. Up: Indicates completion or upward movement, distance.
o Jon picked up the sword. (lifted)
o Daenerys finished up her speech. (completed)
2. Down: Suggests reduction or downward movement. The flames died down. (reduced intensity)
3. Out: Implies removal or completeness. Arya figured out the solution. (solved)
4. Off: Indicates disconnection or departure. The dragons took off. (departed)

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

A) Sentence constituents: basic principles. Types of sentence constituent: Form and function.
Sentence patterns. Common variations on the basic word order. Subject –verb agreement.
B) Independent clauses: positive and negative declarative clauses. Interrogative clauses.
Imperative clauses. Exclamations. Question Tags.

Sentence constituents

Sentences are composed of "units" (words/phrases) arranged in a specific order.

Changing these units can alter the meaning while keeping the order constant.
o Harry defeated Voldemort vs. Voldemort defeated Harry.
Perspectives on Constituents:
 Form: What the units are (noun phrases, verb phrases, etc.).
 Function: The role the units play (subject, object, etc.).
‘Phrase’ – used for different types of constituent (even only one word).
Sentences, clauses and constituents
: capital letter at the beginning and a full stop at the end
: Divided into smaller units called constituents (e.g., noun phrases, verb phrases).
 In "Harry opened the door," the clause has two main constituents:
o Subject: Harry (a noun phrase).
o Predicate: opened the door (a verb phrase with a direct object).
: Not all sentence constituents are part of clauses. These include:
 Linking Constituents: Words like and, but, so link clauses together. Ron stayed, but
Hermione left.
 Commenting Constituents: Words or phrases that provide extra information or
context. Honestly, I don't think we should go.
How Information is Organized in Clauses
1. Familiar (old) information usually appears at the beginning of a clause to orient the
reader/listener.
2. New or important information is placed later, often toward the end, to emphasize it.
3. The subject typically serves as the first part of the clause, guiding the reader/listener.
Hedwig (subject) delivered the letter (new information).
Types of sentences – form and function
FORM: Types of Phrases
– single word such as a name, pronoun or noun: Harry
 Complex – words connected with a main noun, the headword. They can include
subordinate clauses and preposition phrases: The boy who lived.
 Include determiners – articles, quantifiers, numbers, possessive adjectives and
demonstrative adjectives (a, the, his); and modifiers – adjectives, nouns, possessive
forms, adverb-adjective combinations (brave, young)
– can consist of:
 Single: defeated.
 Multiword: has been practicing.
 One or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb, or two main verbs.
– begin with prepositions (in, on) and contain noun phrases.
o In the Chamber of Secrets.
– Include adjectives with modifiers (adverbs): not very old, really quite
famous, very courageous. May begin rather than end with the adjective: suitable for freezing.
– Include adverbs with modifiers (adverbs): rather unwisely, only once.
Function: Roles in a Sentence
– What the sentence is about: Hermione cast the spell. (Before the verb)
 Other kinds: infinitive and –ing forms of verbs, certain kinds of clause:

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

o Infinitive: ‘to lose’ hurts.

o –ing form: ‘drinking’ can kill.
o Non-finite clauses: ‘how to make money’ always sells.
o Noun phrases: ‘whether or not I made a promise’ is irrelevant.
– The recipient of the action, the entity directly affected by the action of the
verb: Harry caught the Snitch. (After the verb phrase, normally noun phrases).
– certain types of verbs that go before direct objects. ‘Something missing’ if
they are not followed by a direct object – incomplete without this additional information. Known
as transitive or mono-transitive verbs. Passive constructions > no direct object
– Describe the subject or object: what it is, how it feels or what it is like.
They may consist of a noun phrase (a nicer person), adjective or adjective phrase (very old),
preposition phrase (under threat), or another clause (it wasn’t ‘what we expected’).
 : Harry is a wizard.
 : The Sorting Hat declared Harry brave.
– connect the subject to the complement
 Being (be, remain), seeming (seem, look), becoming (become, get)
 Often called linking or copular verbs
– Who/what benefits or receives: Hagrid gave Harry a bday cake.
 Usually noun phrases, refer to people, animals or things
 Between the verb phrase and the direct object OR after the direct object, and if they are
long or if we want to focus especially on the information they convey
 To connect two objects: TO – receive smt; FOR – benefit from some kind of service
– Require both indirect and direct objects
 Giving or communicating, doing some kind of service: Ask, bring, give, serve, take, tell
(ditransitive verbs)
– Need direct object and a complement describing the object:
Judgement (consider, find, imagine, think), Liking or wanting (like, prefer, want), Ways of
naming, changing or making things (appoint, baptize, call, declare, elect, make, leave, name),
and Ways of stopping things from changing (hold, keep).
 Object > person, complement > describes the qualities or status of the object
 Complex transitive verbs

Object Complement
Used as the subject of a passive clause Cannot become the subject of a passive clause

Subject and object > different entities Subject and complement > same person

– Provide details about how, when, or where: Ron fought bravely. (Beginning
with a preposition, adverb or noun).
→ AND, BUT and OR: link together parts of constituents
and form a link between clauses.

Sentence Patterns – depending on what constituents they contain:

1. [verb phrase + indirect object + direct object + complement] –
The predicate contains the verb and whatever comes after it (e.g., objects,
complements, or adverbials): Harry runs.
Types of Predicates (based on the verb type and what comes after it):
[Verb type + what has to follow the verb phrase]
1. : She eats an apple.
2. : He seems happy.
3. : She gave him a book.

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

4. : They made her

captain.
5. : (intransitive) He sleeps.
Adverbials can be added to provide extra information (e.g., how, where, or when something
happens). Example: She sings in the shower.
Additional factors and related issues

 Not followed by objects or complements – Intransitive verbs: He runs.

– depending on the sentence, like Work (no-object, object), Feel
(object, complement), Make:
 Object: She made a cake.
 Two-object: She made me a cake.
 Object-complement: She made him happy.
– Some verbs require adverbials for clarity:
o She put the book on the table.

 Subjects – I, he, she, we, they: I live here.

 Objects and complements – Me, him, her, us, them: That must be her.
 Flexible pronouns: You and it can act as subjects, objects, or complements.

1. : Commands where the subject is implied (you).

o Hold the door! (means You hold the door!): for giving orders, making
suggestions, giving advice or inviting.
2. : Words like it and there used sentences grammatically correct but
do not add meaning.
o – Used for weather or time (It’s raining).
o – Indicates existence (There are three students in detention.).
Unstressed and followed by a form of BE (is, was, have been, etc) to say that
something exists. Also to describe places (there’s a TV next to the window).

1. Constituents: Sentences have parts (e.g., subject, verb, object). The order matters.
o She gave him a book. (indirect object before direct object).
2. Separated verb phrases: Sometimes words come between parts of a verb phrase.
o She will definitely go.
Word order can refer to the order of words within a constituent / constituents within a
clause / two or more clauses.
Typical difficulties for learners
1. :
Incorrect: She reads at the library quietly. → She quietly reads at the library.
2. : Incorrect: Hogwarts very big. → Hogwarts is very big.
3. : leaving them out, or using IT in place of THERE or a form of HAVE
instead or THERE IS/ARE
Incorrect: Is a problem in the Great Hall. → There is a problem in the Great Hall.
4. : Incorrect: What is doing Harry? → What is Harry doing?
5. Incorrect: She explained me how to
operate the machine. → She explained to me how to operate the machine.
Common Variations on the Basic Word Order
Question forms – different word orders than statements.
o BE as the main verb → Reverse subject and verb. Is Hagrid at Hogwarts?
o Auxiliary or modal verbs → Reverse subject and first auxiliary/modal verb.
Can Harry use the Cloak of Invisibility?

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

o Main verbs in present or past → Use "do," "does," or "did" (dummy auxiliary).
Did Hermione read the book?
o Subject questions → The question word is the subject, no word order change.
To get information about the subject of a sentence. Who cast the spell?
Typical difficulties for learners
Missing changes to word order: What your Patronus is? → What is your Patronus?
Adding unnecessary auxiliaries: Who did teach Transfiguration? → Who taught
Transfiguration?

Subject-verb agreement
Rules Explanation Example
A singular subject needs a singular verb.
Harry practices Quidditch
The verb agrees with its subject in
daily.
number.

Words between the subject and verb do not

One of the spells is difficult.
affect agreement (e.g. a number).

One (of), a type (of), each one, each (of),

Everyone wants to visit
neither (of), either (of) and indefinite
Hogsmeade. / Each of these
pronouns like everyone, someone,
apples is juicy. / One of my
anyone, nobody, somebody, anybody,
friends is coming. / Either of
everybody, one, no one, take singular
the answers is correct.
verbs.
Can be singular or plural based on the All of the potions are ready. /
subject's meaning. All of the pizza was gone.
The subject has two nouns joined by AND
Harry and Ron are studying.
→ plural.
Neither Harry nor Ron is
The subject has a singular and a plural noun
studying.
joined by OR, NOT, NEITHER, NOR,
They boy or his friends run
EITHER...OR, NOT ONLY ... BUT ALSO →
every day. / His friends or
the verb agrees with the closest part of the
they boy runs every day.
subject.
There is a letter from
The real subject comes after the verb.
Hogwarts.
Singular when viewed as a unit; plural when The team is playing well
considering individual members. Orchestra, today. / The orchestra were
(to name a
army, class, club, group, public, species, asked to give their musical
whole group)
committee, team, United States, family. backgrounds.
Expressions of time, money, units of Ten dollars is a fair price. /
measurement, and weight are Singular There were thirty minutes to
when viewed as one unit. countdown.
While plural in form, are actually singular in
meaning: acrobatics, gymnastics, The news about Voldemort
aesthetics, social studies, statistics, is worrying.
thesis, economics, news, mathematics.
’ They must agree with the subject: doesn’t Hermione doesn’t skip
’ with singular; don’t with plural. lessons.
Words like people, police, cattle, and items
like scissors, tweezers, trousers, shears, The police are investigating.
shorts, jeans, pyjamas, tights, glasses / My trousers are dirty.
take plural verbs. Singular with a “pair of”
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Rules Explanation Example

Few of my relatives live in
Pronouns like few, many, several, both, all
Bariloche. / A number of my
take plural verbs. A number of, a group of
friends are coming.
Modifying or appositive phrases do not affect Aunt Fio, accompanied by
agreement. my cousin, is traveling.
Academic fields like mathematics, physics Mathematics is an easy
are singular; however, some, like acoustics, subject for Fabrizio. / The
may be plural when not used academically. acoustics are amazing.

Independent clauses – Group of words that contains a subject and a verb,

expressing a complete thought. These clauses can function alone or coordinate with other
clauses. It can also perform various speech acts.
A speech-act refers to what a person accomplishes through language, such as giving
information, making a request, or expressing emotions. Speech acts correspond to four main
types of independent clauses.
Types of independent clause
 – single clause. "Harry waved his wand."
 – two or more clauses joined by coordinating
conjunctions (and, but, or). "Harry waved his wand, and Hermione cast a spell."
 – Includes at least one dependent clause. "Harry
waved his wand because the Dementor attacked."
Finite Nature of Independent Clauses – Finite verbs specify tense (is, looked) or
modality (can, would). "Hermione is reading; Ron can help."

Speech-Act Functions
Clause Type Structure Speech Act Function
Statement: Provides information,
Subject + Verb. expecting no specific response.
E.g., “Hogwarts is magical."
(Wh-word) + Auxiliary + Subject +
Question: Seeks information or
Verb?
confirmation. Linguistic response.
Includes: Yes/No Questions,
E.g., "Did Snape really kill Dumbledore?"
Wh-Questions, Alternative Questions
Base verb form without subject. No Directive: Commands or requests action
modals or tense markers. Can include from the addressee.
"please" to soften tone. E.g., "Drink the potion, Harry."
Exclamation: Expresses strong
Wh-word (what/how) + Subject +
emotions. No specific response.
Verb.
E.g., "What a brave wizard Harry is!"
Negative Clauses: Use "not" with auxiliaries to form negative questions.
o "Didn’t Harry warn us about Voldemort?"
Flexibility of Structure and Function: Structures do not always align with their primary functions.
o Declarative for a directive: "I need the Elder Wand." (Request)
o Interrogative as a command: "Can you open the Chamber of Secrets?"
Declarative clauses
 Used for making statements in Subject + Verb structure.
o The Golden Snitch is hard to catch.
 They convey information and serve other speech-act functions in conversation and
fictional dialog
 Declarative questions: the speaker tests out the truth of the statement by inviting
confirmation: You found the Horcrux, didn’t you?
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Interrogative clauses
Wh-questions
 Wh-word + Verb + Subject – To elicit missing or specific information
o Where is Hagrid? What spell did Harry use?
 In conversation, a wh-question lacks a full clause structure. What?
 General request for repetition: echo question. Wh-word is left in its regular position in
the clause, instead of being fronted: ‘she’s what?’ To express surprise or disbelief.
Yes / No question
 Verb + Subject – To ask whether a preposition is true or false
 Expect affirmative or negative responses, and other possible answers indicating
degrees of certainly or uncertainly (definitely, perhaps, I don’t know, etc)
o Did you see the phoenix?
 Frequently contain ellipsis: You alright?
 Purposes of exclamation (Isn’t that lovely?), forceful (Will you behave?!) and polite
command (Can we turn that off?)
 Backchannels: showing interest and keeping the conversation going.
Alternative questions
 Offer options with "or." – Do you want Butterbeer or Pumpkin Juice?
Exclamative clauses – both clausal and non-clausal. To express strong feelings.
Forms:
 "How" + (adjective/adverb +) subject + verb + an exclamation mark
o How clever you are! – How you have grown!
 "What" a/an + (adjective +) singular countable noun + an exclamation mark
o Oh, what a good girl you are. – What a lovely song!
 "What" + adjective before an uncountable or plural noun + an exclamation mark
o What lovely flowers! – What fools! – What beautiful weather!
Imperative clauses
 Lack a subject, use the base form of the verb, absence of modals or tense markers.
o "Defeat Voldemort!"
 It gives a command or makes a request, urging the listener to act. Can be softened with
please, or intensified with tags like will you?
o "Please give me the wand." “Pick your plates up from down there will you?”
o "Just place the book on the shelf."
 LET + US (‘s): suggestion involving both the speaker and the addressee.

Question tags
 Add confirmation or seek agreement of the statement the speaker has just uttered.
o "Dobby is free, isn’t he?"
 Formation: Repeat the auxiliary verb with reversed polarity.
o Positive statement → Negative tag: "Hermione studies, doesn’t she?"
o Negative statement → Positive tag: "You haven’t seen the Map, have you?"
 No operator > dummy operator DO is used:
o It seems a shame to break it up, doesn’t it, when it’s so good.

 Rising → Signals a question: “Snape is your teacher, isn’t he?” (seeking confirmation)
 Falling → Seeks agreement: "Harry is a brave wizard, isn’t he." (expects agreement)

 Positive verb, negative tag – generally expect a YES answer

 Negative verb, positive tag – generally a NO answer
 Positive verb, positive tag - showing surprise
Notes: SO and NEITHER answers – to add similar information without repeating the main verb.
Only an auxiliary (be, have, can etc) after SO and NEITHER. SO to add information following a
positive statement, NEITHER to add information following a negative statement

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Use and non-use of DUMMY DO in questions

HAVE, HAVE TO and modals DARE, NEED, OUGHT TO, and USED TO (rare)
a) : have you any comments on this Mick?
Do-construction as the only option in AmEnglish, have got > alternative BrEnglish.
b) : have they to pay for her to be there? (BrEnglish).
c) : how dare you squeal like that > more exclamative than interrogative.
d) : ought I to take it? Rare in questions.
Sentence structures
o – A single independent clause (complete unit of meaning with
Subject + Verb) → "Ron laughed."
o – An independent clause + dependent clause(s) → "Ron laughed
when the spell worked."
o – Statements, Questions, Commands, Exclamations
Question Words
 He → who. Him → whom: To whom did the prize go? It went to him!
Subject-questions: Who? What? Which? whose? –
 Same word order as the statement: subject + verb + object + subject-answer
o Statement: someone paid the waiter.
o Subject-question: who paid the waiter? John (did).
Subject + verb + object + object-answer
o Statement: john paid the waiter.
o Who(m)-question: who(m) did John pay? The waiter.
 Answers to subject-questions often echo the auxiliary verb used in the question. No
auxiliary verb > DO, does or did in the answer
 What, which, whose and how much/how many can combine with other subject-words

Q. Word Use Example

– everyday style "Who caught the Snitch?"
Asks for a whole sentence, . "What spell did you cast?"
Combines the nouns. “What book/s?”
On its own or in a variety of combinations. “What’s … like? What color …?”
Asks about in the present, past or future. "When did Harry defeat
Answers → adverbs of time or prepositional phrases Voldemort?"
Asks about .
"Where is Hogwarts?"
Where … from? → People, things.
“Where are you from?”
Answers → whole sentences, phrases or single words
.
Which + noun → People or things "Which house is the best?"
Which of → two or more items "Which day was it?”
Which day, month, year, Which way? → Asks for more "Which way did they go?”
exact information than where?
. The possessor is always a person.
"Whose wand is this?"
Thing or substance → omit the noun after Whose
“Whose (car) is this?”
Person → use a noun after whose
“Whose son is he?”
Answer → somebody’s name + ‘s or a possessive noun
“Whose is this umbrella?”
(mine). Phrase questions with Whose
. Answer → Because; to-infinitive
"Why is he so dangerous?"
Why? → What … for? Why don’t /doesn’t …? To make
"Why wait for him?”
suggestions. Why? Why not? + bare infinitive
. How + adjective or adverb in place of what + How long is it? How far?
noun (what length?). Social uses: Instructions, health, How do you do? How are you?
personal reactions, offers and suggestions How about a drink?

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Q. Word Use Example

Object – formal written Eng.
Questions with verbs followed by prepositions TO or FOR.
To whom is that boy running?
Direct object: Whom did you meet there?
Indirect object: For whom did I draw this picture?
How much bread? How much is
How much? + uncountable to ask about quantity, cost
it? How many Horcruxes are
How many? + Plural noun to ask about number
there? How much is a wand?

˚୨୧⋆｡˚ ⋆
Verbs and Sentence Components
1. Complete Sentences – complete unit of meaning with a subject and a verb. The subject can sometimes
be implied ("Open the door." = You open the door). "Ron ate the chocolate frog."
2. Transitive Verbs – Need an object (e.g. beat, contain, enjoy, hit, need). "Harry caught the Snitch."
3. Intransitive Verbs – Don’t take an object (e.g. ache, arrive, come, faint, go, sit down, sleep, snow):
"Dobby fainted."
Verbs used transitively or intransitively e.g. begin, drop, hurt, open, ring, win.
4. Linking Verbs – Take a complement, not an object. "Harry is a wizard." (complement = "a wizard")
o Word after BE > it ‘completes’ the sentence by talking about the subject. It may be an adjective,
noun, adjective + noun, pronoun, adverb of place or time, prepositional phrase
Direct and Indirect Objects
1. Structure: Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (e.g. show me that pic)
o "Hagrid gave Harry the letter."
o Verbs with (bring, give, lend, pay, post, sell, send, show, tell, write): "Hagrid gave the letter to
Harry."
o Verbs with (buy, choose, cook, cut, do, fetch, find, get, make, order): "Hermione bought a
wand for Ron." Please order a meal FOR me
o Two objects after verbs like and : Give me that book
o and after the verb. With e.g. GIVE and Buy: Give it to me
2. Verb + object + ‘to’ + noun or pronoun (e.g. explain it to me)
o Give the book to me. OR – the situation to me. - Give me the book (NOT Explain me
the situation) > Cannot use an indirect object (me) immediately after explain – verb + object +
‘to’
o Explain, confess, admit, announce, declare, demonstrate, describe, entrust, introduce, mention,
propose, prove, repeat, report, say, suggest
Advanced Question Forms
1 Tag Questions: Confirm or invite agreement. Statement + tag (right? Isn’t that so?). "Dobby is free, isn’t
he?"
o Form short questions with auxiliaries (be, have, can, may) and do, does, did.
o Rising intonation → real question. Falling intonation → seeking agreement.
2 Negative Questions by adding NOT to the auxiliary or modal verb: "Didn’t Dobby warn you?"
o (-) Yes / no questions to ask for confirmation, express surprise or annoyance
o (-) Wh-questions to ask for information, make suggestions or criticize past actions
3 Echo Questions: Express surprise or clarification. "You found the Invisibility Cloak where?"
o Rising intonation → seeking more information. Falling intonation → seeking confirmation or
expressing anger, surprise, disbelief: I’ve got the sack! You HAVEN’T.
4 Embedded Questions: Questions inside a statement. "Can you tell me where Hogwarts is?"
5 Reply questions: To show that we are interested in or surprised by what someone is saying
o Positive question after a positive statement; negative question after a negative statement: “I’ll
finish it for you.” – “Will you? Thanks!”
Negative Forms and Alternatives
1. Negative Adverbs - Never (more emphatic than NOT), hardly, hardly ever, seldom, rarely
o "Harry never broke the rules (well, almost)."
o Double negatives are incorrect (NOT: Nobody didn’t come.).
2. Canceling Statements: Use not to cancel: "See you Monday—no, not Monday, Tuesday."

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

A) Nouns: Classification of nouns: One-word nouns. Compound nouns. Countable and uncountable
nouns. Partitives. Number. Gender. The genitive.
B) Determiners: Articles; the definite article, the indefinite article, the zero article.
C) Pronouns: General information about pronouns, possessives and determiners. Personal pronouns.
“One.” “It.” Possessive adjectives / Possessive pronouns. Reflexive pronouns. Demonstrative adjectives
and pronouns. Indefinite pronouns.
D) Quantity: Particular quantifiers and their uses. Distributives.

A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, quality, or action. It serves as the subject,
object, complement, or part of a noun phrase. They represent:
 People, things and places
 Activities, ideas and feelings
 Quality like courage, honesty
 Proper nouns: Start with a capital letter (people, places, dates, events languages,
religions and books, plays or films)
Often appear after determiners (e.g., a, the, this) and answer Who? or What? and can be:
o Subjects: Our agent in Cairo sent a telex o Indirect Objects: Frank sent his boss a telex.
this morning. o Objects of Prepositions: I read about it in the
o Direct Objects: Frank sent a telex from paper.
Cairo this morning. o Complements: Jane Forbes is our guest.

Type of Nouns Definition Examples

A single word. Love, trouble, karma
Two or more words joined together,
Teardrop, heartbreak girl
written as one, separate, or hyphenated.
Things we can count. Two guitars, five tickets, a concert.
Things we cannot count. Music, happiness, bread.
Words that quantify uncountable nouns. A piece of music, a bottle of water.
Noun Endings and Noun-Verb Contrasts – Some have characteristic endings (e.g., -er,
-ity). Certain words function as both nouns and verbs, distinguished by stress or pronunciation:
 Stress shift: 'discount (noun) vs. dis'count (verb)
 Pronunciation shift: house (noun: /haʊs/) vs. house (verb: /haʊz/)
Compound Nouns –These nouns consist of two or more words:
1. : raincoat, seaside, cupboard
2. : greenhouse, heavyweight
3. : walking stick, frying pan
4. : horse-riding, sunbathing
5. : make-up, breakdown
6. : car key, kitchen sink
7. : bookcase, meeting point
8. : gold watch, plastic raincoat
9. : horror film, seat belt
10. : morning coffee, Sunday lunch
Hyphenation Rules: No strict rules exist, but hyphens often appear in self- compounds (self-
control), verb + particle combinations (make-up), and longer multi-word compounds (mother-in-
law).
Singular and plural forms – rules for making plural forms:
 – : Fan → fans.
 – to nouns ending in –s,-ss, -sh, -ch, -o, -x and –z: Class → classes.
 : Story → stories; country → countries.
 : Life → lives.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

 Different form (vowel change): men, women, people, feet, teeth.

 -en endings: child → children, ox → oxen
 Same form: aircraft, series, fish, sheep.

 alumnus → alumni, criterion → criteria

 Some allow both forms (cactus → cacti/cactuses).

 End in –s: but are singular e.g. athletics, gymnastics, politics, maths, physics, news.
 Two parts → plural e.g. jeans, pants, pyjamas, shorts, tights, trousers, scissors,
glasses (also pair(s) of: a pair of trousers).

 /s/ after /p, t, k, f, θ/: taps, cups, cliffs

 /z/ after vowels, /b, d, g, m, n, l, r/: bags, pens, doors
 /ɪz/ after /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ/: buses, bridges, dishes
– groups of people, e.g. company, family, government, team.
1. Singular (group as one thing) or plural use (talking about the people in the group):
o The government is/are making changes.
2. Fixed plural verbs: cattle, police, people, clergy.
3. Plural-only nouns: scissors, trousers, clothes.
Countable and uncountable
– Things we can count.
 Have singular and plural form (a book, two books).
 A/an, the or this/that before a singular noun.
 Some, the, these/those, before a plural noun.
– things we cannot count.
 Only use a singular verb – do not take plural forms (milk, information).
 Do not use a/an before an uncountable. Can use some or this/that.
Nouns that can be both
 Substance vs. object: a glass (object) vs. glass (material)
 Specific vs. general meaning: a light (lamp) vs. light (concept)
 Abstract vs. countable use: experience (life knowledge) vs. an experience (event)
 -ing forms: a painting (artwork) vs. painting (activity)
Partitives: Words like piece of, bit of, loaf of, kilo of help specify amounts of uncountable
nouns.

Category Countable Examples Uncountable Examples

Two coffees, three Coffee, bread, butter, meat, oil, pasta, salt,
pizzas rice
Three papers, four Paper, Wood, air, oxygen, plastic, metal,
woods cotton
Education, work, advice, beauty, love,
Two loves, three dreams
knowledge, fun, happiness
Geography, art, music, English, Spanish
Exercises, two works Shopping, cycling, swimming
Furniture, luggage, money

Ways of counting uncountable nouns

: a bar of soap, a bit of information/fun, an item of news, a loaf of bread, a piece of
furniture/luggage/paper, a sheet of paper, a slice of bread/cake/meat.
: a bottle of water, a can/tin of soup, a carton of milk, a cup of coffee, a glass of
orange juice, a jar of jam, a packet of sugar, a tub of butter/margarine, a tube of toothpaste.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

: half a kilo of meat, a litre of petrol, two metres of silk.

Partitive – Counting Uncountable Nouns Uncountable Noun
A piece of Advice (or TIPS), music
A bottle of Water, soda
A sheet of Paper
A slice of Cake, pizza

Gender
 Natural gender: boy/girl, actor/actress, king/queen
 Gender-neutral: Many formerly masculine terms now apply to all (doctor, manager).
 -ess endings (fading in use): waiter/waitress, poet/poetess.
 Animals: cow/bull, hen/cock. Default pronoun: it unless gender is specified.
The Genitive (Possessive Form)
Formation:
1. for singular nouns: Coldplay's lyrics, John’s book, the cat’s tail
2. for plural nouns ending in -s: the teachers’ lounge, the girls’ uniforms
3. ending in s: James’s car, Keats’ poetry
4. for inanimate objects: The lyrics of the song. Also : a friend of
mine (instead of my friend).
Possessive vs. "of" construction: A man’s voice (more natural than the voice of a man) VS.
the leg of the table (preferred over the table’s leg).
Dropped noun: I’m going to the doctor’s (office/shop/house).

Words placed before nouns (or adjective + noun combinations) to specify meaning. They clarify
what or how much we are referring to. Every singular countable noun usually requires a
determiner.

Articles: Indefinite (a/an), Definite (the), Zero Article

Unlike many other languages, English does not use gender-based articles. The main
challenges in choosing the correct article depend on:
 Whether a noun is countable or uncountable
 Whether we are making general statements
 Whether the listener can identify the noun
An article is a specific type of determiner that only defines whether a noun is specific or
general.
Indefinite Articles: a / an – Introduces a noun without specifying which one
o Before consonant sounds → A cruel summer is here.
o If words starting with "u" or "eu" sound like /j/ → A universe of stories.

o Before vowel sounds → An endless night is all I see.

o Silent "h" at the start of a word → An hour of waiting feels eternal, an honor.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Indefinite Articles are used only before singular countable nouns. The basic uses are:
1. : A cat is a domestic animal.
2. : He’s a doctor.
3. I’d like an apple (any one apple).
4. : A third, a kilo, a pound, a hundred dollars.*
5. : What a surprise! / What an interesting book!
6. : A knife and fork, a cup and saucer.
*Use a/an for rates, time, or quantities: A concert ticket costs $100.
o One with fractions and large numbers: half a kilometer, one and a half, a thousand
o Each for frequency (how often) and measurements: once a day, twice a month (BUT
every hour), six euros a kilo, 100 kilometres an hour.
Definite Article: the – Specifies a known or previously mentioned noun
Can be used before singular, plural, and uncountable nouns: The hat (singular), the hats
(plural), the water (uncountable). Basic uses are:
 – Used when referring to something specific or already known.
o The sun sets on us. The book on the table is mine. The house is big.
 : The sun, the moon, the sky, the government.
 – Referring to particular groups of people, e.g. the elderly, the
rich, the poor, the sick, the homeless, the disabled, the unemployed.
o The poor always dream of more.
 – Refers to the entire group, e.g. the British,
the Irish. Cannot use other nationality words in this way: Brazilians.
o The French have a flair for music.
 – The more, the better. The sooner, the better.
 – the Middle Ages, the Renaissance.
 – The best student, the worst decision.
Also used with named oceans, seas, rivers, mountain ranges (The Pacific Ocean, the Alps)
and museums, cinemas, theatres, hotels (the Louvre). Countries with plural names, Republic,
Kingdom (The Republic of Ireland), organizations (the World Bank), places in a town and types
of shop (the bank, the station). Locations and parts of a building (in the middle, the exit). Time
expressions (in the morning, at the moment) and musical instruments (BrE – play the guitar).
Pronunciation of "The"
o Before consonant sounds: /ðə/ → The book
o Before vowel sounds: /ði/ → The apple
o Stressed pronunciation: /ði:/ to emphasize uniqueness → The Queen

Zero Article – When not to use articles:

Zero Article with Countable and Uncountable Nouns
 → Cats like milk.
 (Abstract and Material Concepts) → Love is important. / Sugar is
sweet / Korean sounds poetic in Bts’ songs.
 (People’s names, cities, states, regions, countries, continents) → John,
London, Africa, Mount Everest. Jungkook sings beautifully.
Named locations, roads, streets, squares and parks, airports and stations, shops and
companies, Schools and universities, Mountains, hills and lakes → I’ll see you in Central Park.
Zero Article in Specific Cases
 → We had breakfast at 8. (NOT The breakfast).
 → She’s in school. (When
referring to their purpose). She’s at the school for a meeting. (When referring to a specific place)
 → She plays football. / He studies history.
 “ ”→ By car, by bus, by phone.
 : at home, at work, in bed, at school → I’m in room 613 (Noun +
number).
Zero Article with Pairs & Fixed Expressions
o Husband and wife, father and son, young and old.
o Arm in arm, hand in hand, make fun of, keep in mind.

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Institutions: Purpose or Building

o Purpose (no article), e.g. at art school, college, university, to prison, in hospital:
o I studied music at school.
o Building (use the), e.g. the art school, the hospital, the prison:
o He visited the hospital after the show.
Media
o Use the with newspapers, e.g. the Daily News, the Sun, the New York Times:
o She was featured in The New York Times.
o Zero article with magazines, e.g. vogue, Newsweek, Time, Hello:
o Vogue praised Hoseok’s style.
o The cinema, the theatre, the radio. BUT television or tv when talking about
programmes. – Use A or the when talking about the machine.
Special Cases and Exceptions
o Noun + of: the University of London, the Isle of Man, the love of my life.
o Times of the day with the (e.g. in the morning) BUT Times, days, months with no
article: at three o’clock.
General or particular meaning? New information or known information?
Use a/an or zero article Use the
Particular Meaning – talk about something
General Meaning – talk about things in general
particular
A song can change lives. The song we heard yesterday was amazing.
Music brings people together. The music from 1989 is unforgettable.
New Information – Mentioning something for Known Information – Referring to something
the first time. previously mentioned. The listener knows.
A guitar was lying in the corner. The guitar belonged to Luke Hemmings.

Words used in place of a noun or a noun phrase to avoid repetition. Pronouns refer to a
person, place, or thing already mentioned in conversation or writing. They are crucial in
sentence construction, ensuring fluency and avoiding redundancy.
Pronouns differ from determiners, which always accompany a noun. For example:
o Determiner: I want some milk. ("some" functions as a determiner)
o Pronoun: I want some. ("some" replaces "milk" and functions as a pronoun)
Possessives and determiners indicate ownership or association.
Types of Pronouns
Personal Pronouns – categorized based on person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular,
plural), and case (subject, object).
Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns
Person
(used as the subject of a sentence) (used as direct or indirect objects)
1st Singular I me
2nd Singular you you
3rd Singular he, she, it him, her, it
1st Plural we us
2nd Plural you you
3rd Plural they them
Notes on Personal Pronouns:
 English does not distinguish between formal and informal you.
 The third-person singular pronouns he, she, it become they in the plural.
 Pronouns agree in number (singular/plural) and, in some cases, in gender.
o John is late. He had a long journey. (Subject pronoun)
o I saw Mary. I gave her a book. (Object pronoun)
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Reflexive Pronouns – refer back to the subject and are used when the subject and
object are the same (e.g., "She hurt herself").
Singular Plural
myself ourselves
yourself yourselves
himself, herself, itself themselves

 Enjoy themselves, help yourself, behave himself, blame myself.

 Complain, feel, remember, rest, relax, get up, stand up → no reflexive pronoun
 BUT use a reflexive with wash, shave and dress if the situation is unusual: after my
operation I couldn’t dress myself for three weeks.
→ The subject and object are different.

 You → people in general; one → very formal.

 They → people in government or in charge of organizations; to talk about someone
when we do not know who he or she is.
– Reflexive Pronouns used to emphasize the subject (e.g., "I’ll do it myself").
o Be myself/himself → it means alone/on your own or without help.
o I myself saw the accident. / The Queen herself attended the event.

Possessive Pronouns and Adjectives – p. pronouns indicate ownership and

replace a noun (or noun phrase), while p. adjectives modify a noun.
Possessive Adjectives Possessive Pronouns
my mine
your yours
his his
her hers
its -
our ours
their theirs
Examples: This is my book. → This book is mine. That is their house. → That house is theirs.
Notes:
 Possessive pronouns are stressed in speech and cannot precede a noun.
 Do not use articles or ’s with possessive pronouns.
 A/an + noun + of + noun + ‘s / possessive pronoun → when someone has more than
one of something.
 A/an + noun + my/your/our own → emphasize that something belongs to someone.

Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns – Used to point to specific things.

Singular Plural
this these
that those
Demonstrative pronouns replace a noun: This is nice. / I don’t like this.
Demonstrative adjectives modify a noun: This book is interesting. / I don’t like this book.
 : near in space/time (Present/future).
 : far in space/time (Past).
 This is/these are → to introduce people.
Indefinite Pronouns – Refer to unspecified people or things.
People Things
someone, anyone, no one, everyone something, anything, nothing, everything
To talk about something we do not know who/what they are, or it is not important.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Usage Rules:
 (someone, something) are used in affirmative statements and
polite offers: There’s someone at the door.
 (anyone, anything) appear in negatives, questions, and doubtful
statements: Is there anything to eat?
 (no one, nothing) occur in affirmative statements but imply a
negative meaning: No one knows the answer.
 Singular verb agreement (e.g., "Everyone is happy").
 "Else" after indefinite pronouns adds variation (e.g., someone else).
 Indefinite pronouns + adjectives or to + verb (e.g., something new, something to eat).
Relative Pronouns – Introduce relative clauses:
Who, whom → refer to people. E.g., The boy who won the race is my friend.
That, which → refer to things. E.g., This is the book that I was reading.
Whose → show possession.
Interrogative Pronouns – Used for asking questions:
Who → subject (Who called you?) What → refers to things (What is that?)
Whom → object (Whom did you see?) Which → for choices (Which do you prefer?)

"One" as a Pronoun – Used to replace countable nouns:

o I need a new phone. I’ll buy one tomorrow. (Singular)
o These apples are rotten. I need some fresh ones. (Plural)
 Replaces a singular noun to avoid repetition (e.g., "a red one"). It means ‘one of many.’
 Adjective before ONE → a/an.
 When referring to people: One must always be prepared.

 Another (one) → one more: I need another cup. A different thing of the same type.
 The other(s) / the other (one) → specific alternative: The other book is better.
Other → additional ones: Are there other ways?
 Another (one) / the other one(s) → less formal than the others.

The Pronoun "It" – Refers to a thing, animal, or concept. No real meaning.

 Empty/dummy Subject for time and dates, weather, temperature, distance, identifying
people and descriptions: It is raining. / It’s 10 miles to London. / It's Ro here. / It's boring.
 Preparatory Subject (introducing a longer subject phrase): It is important to study. / It
seems that he is late.
 Cleft Sentences (for emphasis): It was John who called.
 Preparatory Object: I find it difficult to believe.

o There + be: something exists/happens, often to talk about it for the first time.
o There + is: with a list that starts with a singular noun
o There → new information; it → more about the information (extension)
– To describe how we feel about a situation
(e.g., "It’s nice to have a friend").

Possessive Forms of Nouns

 Singular noun: add 's (e.g., "John’s book").
 Plural noun ending in -s: add ' (e.g., "Teachers’ lounge").
 Irregular plural: add 's (e.g., "Children’s toys").
 Names ending in –s: add ‘ or ‘s (e.g., Lucas’)
‘ ‘ – Noun + ‘s (or ‘ only) for people, animals, a period of time (e.g., a week’s
holiday) Two persons → ‘s to the second person.
Noun + ‘s without another noun when the meaning is clear, for people’s homes or business
and services (e.g., "Are you coming? The meeting is at Vanya’s").
– Of + noun for things and places (cities, countries, organizations): a map of the
city. Do not use Of + noun for people and noun + ‘s for things.
– One person or thing that belongs to another: table leg, bedroom ceiling,
book cover, college principal.
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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Words or phrases like few, little, plenty (of) that express the amount or number of things. They
can modify nouns, answering How many? for countable nouns and How much? for uncountable
nouns. Some quantifiers can be used with both types of nouns. Examples:
 Countable nouns: How many eggs? – A few eggs.
 Uncountable nouns: How much milk? – A little milk.
 Both types: Plenty of eggs / Plenty of milk.
Quantifiers can function as determiners (e.g., a few books) or pronouns (e.g., a few of them).
Some can also function as adverbs (e.g., I don’t like coffee very much).
Quantifier + Noun Combinations
With Countable Nouns: not many books, a number of, several, few, the fewest, both (plural
countable nouns); each book, another, every, half, the only one (singular countable nouns).
With Uncountable Nouns: not much sugar, a bit of, a great deal of, little, the least
With Both Countable and Uncountable Nouns: some, any, all, enough, a lot of, plenty of, no,
most, more.

Particular Quantifiers and Their Uses

: Indefinite quantity rather than a precise amount.
 "Some" in positive sentences, requests, offers, suggestions (Would you like some?).
 "Any" in questions and negatives (Do you have any?). It does not matter which one.
: Refer to portions. Particular people or things.
 Some, any + noun → unspecified number /amount, not important (without a noun →
clear). Some apples = an unspecified number of apples.
 "All of," "most of," etc., for specific groups.
 No, none of → not any. In negative statements, with a positive verb. No apples / No
milk = complete absence. None of + plural noun + singular verb is more formal.

Distributives like all, both, each, every, either, neither refer to whole amounts (all the
books) or separate items (each book).
 : two items together. Both are correct.
 (+ or): one or the other. Either day is fine.
 (+ nor): not one or the other, none of two. Neither option works.
 refers to every individual separately. Individual focus: Each student gets a book.
 refers to each individual. General, collective focus: Every house has a roof.
Each or every + not in negative sentences → use neither (of) or none of
 an entire group, a collection, something complete. All students must attend.
before singular nouns.

Quantifiers: Much, Many, A Lot of, (A) Little, (A) Few

to talk about a large amount (do not know the exact number)
 Much for uncountable nouns, and many for countable nouns. Found in negative
sentences and questions; formal in positive sentences but avoided (use "a lot of").
o I haven’t got much time. / Is there much milk? / I have a lot of time.
 A lot of, lots of for informality. Found in questions, positive and negative sentences
:
 Too much, too many for a negative meaning, often ‘more than we want’
 Not enough: the opposite. It means ‘less/fewer than we want’.
:
 A little (small amount) or a few (small number) for small quantities.
 Little (negative, not much) or few (negative, hardly any) for insufficient quantities: not
enough. Quite formal on their own. Everyday English → very little/very few or not
much/not many: There is little hope. / He has very few friends.
 for countable nouns: Fewer students passed the exam.
 for uncountable nouns: Less sugar is needed.
(remaining), (surplus):
o I haven’t got any sweets left. / We prepared too much food, so we had a lot over.

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

A) Prepositions and prepositional phrases. Simple and complex prepositions. Internal structure
of Prepositional Phrases. Postposed prepositions. Prepositions and adverbial particles.
Syntactic functions of prepositional phrases. Prepositional meaning.

Prepositions
Words that show a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in the sentence.
: Indicate relationships of place, time, direction, movement, means, purpose, etc.

General form and use; prepositions of place

Form:
 One word: at, for, by, with, against, towards. "Shrek lives in the swamp."
 Two words: apart from, because of, due to, out of, away from, next to.
 Three words: on top of, in front of, by means of, in spite of.
o "Fiona falls in love in spite of Shrek’s appearance."
: Preposition + Object (noun/pronoun).
o "Shrek fights the dragon with a sword."
: Adjectives, articles, or adverbs can modify the object; verb -ing form (gerund)
o "Shrek returns to the enchanted swamp."
 Use some prepositions on their own, as adverbs
 At the end of questions and relative clauses

 Preposition: Always introduces an object (noun or pronoun).

o "Donkey walks through the forest."
 Adverbial Particle: Stands alone, modifying a verb.
o "Shrek looked around."
Use:
They show relationships (of place, time, etc) between the parts of a sentence:
 – "The dragon sleeps under the bridge."
 – "Shrek climbs onto the castle wall."
 – "The wedding happens at midnight."
 – "Donkey speaks with enthusiasm."
 – "Shrek fought the dragon with a sword."
 - "Fiona sings for the birds.”

Prepositions of place – describe where one person or thing is in relation to

another.

Preposition Meaning Example

Exact, specific position or
"The dragon is at the castle entrance."
location
Enclosed space "Shrek lives in the swamp."
Surface "The map is on the table."
Lower position, touching or not "The treasure is hidden under the rock."
Lower position (not necessarily "The kingdom lies below the
touching) mountains."
Higher position, close or touching "The dragon flies over the castle walls."
Higher position, not necessarily
"The stars shine above Shrek's swamp."
touching
"Shrek sat on top of the bridge, thinking
Higher position, touching
about Fiona."

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Preposition Meaning Example

Close position "Donkey sleeps next to Shrek's hut."

Close but not adjacent - not very "Far Far Away is near the swamp but
far away not too close."
"Donkey stands in front of the castle
Position ahead
gates, shouting for Shrek."
"Fiona and Shrek sat opposite each
Facing something directly
other at the dining table."
In the space separating two "Donkey walks between Shrek and
things Fiona on their journey."
Surrounded by more than two "Shrek feels at home among his swamp
things creatures."
 At or in with buildings, but meaning is different

Prepositions of movement – Indicate direction or movement toward/away

Preposition Meaning Example
Movement to the inside of something – "Donkey runs into the castle to escape
Get into/out of a car or taxi the dragon."
"Shrek jumps out of the wagon to save
Opposite of into
Fiona."
Movement toward a surface – Get
on(to)/off a bus, plane, train, ship, "Fiona steps onto the carriage."
bike
"Donkey falls off the bridge after a
Opposite of onto
misstep."
Following the length of something (a "Shrek and Donkey walk along the
path, a river, a road) river on their way to Far Far Away."
Moving up to and beyond something
"Shrek sneaks past the guards at the
(then we pass it – shops and
castle gate."
buildings)
From one side to the other, within an
"Shrek leads the group through the
enclosed area (countries, open space,
forest."
enclosed tunnels)
"Donkey swims across the moat to
From one side to the other
reach the castle."
Movement from above without "The dragon flies over the kingdom,
touching the surface we are crossing searching for Fiona."
"Donkey throws a rock at the dragon to
Show direction distract her." / "Donkey gestures to the
guards for help."
 Verbs throw, shout, point with TO and AT: difference in meaning
o Throw those keys to me, will you? (I want them)
o She was so angry, she threw the keys at me (to try and hit me)

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Prepositions of time – Indicate when something happens.

Preposition Meaning Example
Specific time/event – special occasions, "The wedding happens at
mealtimes; AT night/the weekend sunset in Far Far Away."
Period of time – parts of the day, weeks,
"The journey to rescue Fiona
months and seasons, decades, years
took place in the summer."
and centuries
Specific day/date – parts of days of the "Fiona's spell was broken on
week (Thursday afternoon) her wedding day."
"Shrek promised to return by
Not later than
dawn."
Before a period of time has passed (a "The potion must be delivered
set time frame ends) within 24 hours."
… Period of time ending at a certain point – “I usually study from 9am
Till instead of until in everyday English until/to 1pm.”
Duration of time "The journey lasted for weeks."
"Shrek felt nervous during the
At some point within a period
wedding."
Possible to leave out the preposition It lasts (for) ten weeks.

Prepositions with other meanings

Method of action - how we do something; how we "Shrek travels by carriage but

communicate or travel: By car, by plane, by bus Donkey walks on foot."
Tool or instrument used. In the company of. "Shrek fought with a sword."

Shows intent or reason. "Fiona sings for the birds, making them explode!"
Postposed Prepositions: Occur at the end of questions or relative clauses.
o "What are you looking for?"

Person’s job, role or function "Shrek works as Fiona's rescuer."

Comparison (similar to) "Donkey acts like a knight but is far from it."

In addition to "Shrek dislikes crowds; besides, he prefers solitude."

Excluding – but not "Everyone cheered for Shrek except Prince Charming."
Similar to except / "Apart from Fiona, no one understood Shrek's kind
besides nature."

Shows origin/materials used (changed) "The mirror was made from enchanted
in a product glass."
Indicates materials not altered – the
"The crown is made of gold."
original materials keep its form

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 Grammar I (Ro’s version)

Common prepositional phrases

Phrase Meaning Example
"Shrek meets Fiona by chance in the
Not planned
tower."
Do something wrong, but "Donkey entered the dragon's lair by
not on purpose mistake."
After a long time, finally "At last, Shrek reached to rescue Fiona."
Not less than "At least hundreds chased Shrek."
The last thing "At the end, Shrek found his true love."
"Leaving Fiona behind was out of
Not possible
question for Shrek."
The first thing "At the beginning, Shrek is lonely."
"Shrek needs to return Fiona to Lord
Not later than
Farquaad at the latest by sunset."
"Donkey is at work annoying Shrek with
Refers to place
his singing."
Always, starting from now "Shrek and Fiona promised to love each
(positive) other for ever."
Always, with a sense of "Lord Farquaad was banished for good
finality (negative) after his defeat."
Available to buy "Magic potions were for sale."
Before "Shrek never planned in advance."
Responsible for "Fiona was in charge of their wedding."
Romantic feelings "Shrek is deeply in love with Fiona."
Visible/hidden from "Donkey embarrassed Shrek in public
others by singing loudly."
Finally, after time and "In the end, Shrek and Fiona lived
effort happily ever after."
Early enough for "Shrek arrived in time to stop Fiona’s
something wedding to Lord Farquaad."
"Puss in Boots went to the kingdom on
For work purposes
business to find new adventures."
"The castle was on fire after the dragon's
Burning
rampage."
"Fiona and Shrek went on holiday to the
Away for pleasure
Far Far Away beaches."
Intentionally "Donkey annoyed Shrek on purpose."
At the correct time "Arty arrived on time to save Shrek."
Old-fashioned "Clothes were mostly out of date."
"The enchanted bridge was temporarily
Not working
out of order after the dragon broke it."

Avoid using "to" with "home," "here," or "there":

o "Shrek returned home after his adventure."
o "Donkey is not here right now."
o "The villagers ran there to warn the others."

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