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Apiculture in Hittite cuneiform texts

Serkan Demirel

To cite this article: Serkan Demirel (2022) Apiculture in Hittite cuneiform texts, The European
Zoological Journal, 89:1, 1215-1222, DOI: 10.1080/24750263.2022.2135782
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The European Zoological Journal, 2022, 1215–1222
[Link]

Apiculture in Hittite cuneiform texts

SERKAN DEMIREL

Faculty of Letters, Department of Archaeology, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey

(Received 18 July 2022; accepted 7 October 2022)

Abstract
The Hittite cuneiform texts dated to the 2nd millennium BCE contain some of the earliest information about the
production of honey as an economic product and its consumption in daily life, as well as the theological perception of
honey bees. Thanks to the information obtained from the texts, the material and spiritual role of apiculture have been tried
to be revealed in this paper. According to laws, honey is a commercial product and is traded at a value. In addition,
apiculture is a profession made with expert knowledge and the right of ownership of the honey bee colony and hive
associated with this profession is legally protected. In the texts giving information about culinary knowledge, honey is
added to bread as a sweetening product and used in the production of various sauces and some beverages. The aromatic
properties of honey are also known. In this context, it is included in the mixtures used for incense in rituals. Also in rituals,
some of its qualities were used in analogical spells. In mythological/religious texts, the honey bee is a creature that brings
abundance and fertility in spring. In this context, it plays an important role in myths of finding the Disappearing Gods, the
symbol of fertility. At the same time, it represents fertility, peace, and reconciliation as a creature associated with the Sun
Goddess of the Earth, another symbol of fertility.

Keywords: Hittite, cuneiform texts, apiculture, honey bee, honey, wax

Introduction documented by both written evidence and archae­

ological data. In both periods, there is more infor­
The “honey hunting” reaches back to the Upper
mation about the characteristic aspects and practices
Paleolithic Period (Dams & Dams 1977; Head
of apiculture (Crane 1999).
2008) and the use of bee products dates back to
There is no clear evidence for apiculture in
the Neolithic ages (Mellaart 2003; Roffet-Salque
Anatolia until the 2nd millennium BCE. Thanks to
et al. 2015). With the Late Bronze Age, information
textual references, more information about its place
on apiculture becomes more evident. In the 3rd in daily life began to be obtained for the first time at
Millennium BCE, many methods of beekeeping the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE. In
practiced today were known in the Ancient Near Kültepe texts, Akkadian dišpum (CAD V3/D 1959;
East and its immediate surroundings. In Sumer von Soden 1965) and Sumerian LÀL (MSL III
and Akkad, honey was used for nutrition, medicine, 1955) are used for “honey”. Although Kültepe
and lost-wax casting of metals (Crane 1999). texts offer only scarce evidence regarding apiculture,
Thanks to the bee iconography dated to the Old bee products have an important place in culinary
Kingdom period in Egypt (c. 2400 BCE), a bee culture (Öz 2014). Also in this period, honey is
species (Apis mellifera) has been identified for the bought and sold as a commercial good and some
first time (Crane 1999). Much more is known cities have become important in apiculture (Orlin
about beekeeping traditions in Egypt, thanks to 1970; Sever 1991; Albayrak 2002; Öz 2014;
both textual and iconographic evidence (Crane & Garelli & Cécile 2015). Apicultural practices in
Graham 1985; Crane 1999). Hive beekeeping in this period are likely to have continued in the
the Greek period and in the Roman world is Hittite period.

Correspondence: Serkan Demirel, Faculty of Letters, Department of Archaeology, Karadeniz Technical University, D-207, Trabzon 61080, Turkey.
Email: serkandemirel@[Link]

© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ([Link] which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
1216 S. Demirel

The Hittite Empire was established in north- In Hittite cuneiform texts, dated from the 17th to
central Anatolia around 1600 BCE, and after the 13th centuries BCE, Hittite milit-, Luwian mal­
c. 1190 BCE, it came to an end. Hittite culture lit- and Sumerian LÀL (CHD L-N 1989; Hoffner
basically consisted of the combination of Hatti, 1974; Haas 2003) is used for “honey”. Although the
Hurrian, Luwian, and other contemporary Hittite word for bee is unknown, the Sumerian
Anatolian societies and it was widely influenced NIM.LÀL is used (Ertem 1965; Haas 2003). In
by Northern Syria and Babylon, where it spread. these texts, Sumerian is dominant in apiculture ter­
Therefore, it has emerged from a multicultural minology. The Sumerian É.NIM.LÀL means
and multilingual structure. The empire has official “honey (production) house/shelter/hive”, DUH.
archives containing a great number of tablets in LÀL means “beeswax” (Rüster & Neu 1989; Erkut
cuneiform writing, especially in the capital 2011) and LÚNIM.LÀL means “beekeeper”
Hattusha (Boğazköy). While the majority of the (Hoffner 1967; Daddi 1982).
information on the tablets, reflects the official
ideology of the state rather than the daily life of
Apiculture in laws
the people, is related to society, culture, religion,
and political geography. Some of them are related The most remarkable information about apiculture
to agriculture and farming. It is possible to obtain in Hittite cuneiform texts is in the collection law of
information about apiculture from different types Hittite (c. 1650–1500 BCE) (CTH 291–292:
of tablets in the Hittite period. Because honey Friedrich 1971; Hoffner 1997). Three articles of
bees and bee products have a place not only in the law are related to apiculture. While two articles
the economic sense but also in folkloric. Based on are related to the defense of property rights (§ 91,
the information in these texts, Tyler (1984) and 92), one determines the market value of honey (§
Erkut (2011) have published two striking short 181). According to § 91 (KBo 6.2. IV 32–33); “If
articles on honey and its use. In addition, anyone steals bees in a swarm, formerly they paid 1 mina
Hoffner (1974) examined honey as a food ingre­ of silver (~450 gr), but now he shall pay 5 shekels (~35
dient in Alimenta Hethaeorum, which he wrote on gr) of silver, and he shall look to his house for it”. In this
foodstuffs in the Hittites and Haas (2003) pub­ article, 1 mina (~450 gr) silver penalty was given to
lished a comprehensive study on honey and bees stealing a swarm/group of bees (kammara-) from the
in Materia Magica et Medica Hethitica. Although hive, while 5 shekels (~35 gr) silver penalty was
this article has been mostly prepared based on the deemed appropriate according to the new case. So
mentioned publications, all relevant texts have the penalty has been commuted. § 92 states the
been analyzed as a whole and some new evalua­ penalty for hive theft: “If anyone steals 2 or 3 bee
tions have been made. hives, formerly the offender would have been exposed to
The type of honey bee mentioned in the Hittite beesting. But now he shall pay 6 shekels of silver. If
cuneiform texts is not clear. Because there is no anyone steals a beehive, if there are no bees in the hive,
distinguishing feature for the species in the texts. In he shall pay 3 shekels of silver” (KBo 6.2 IV 34–36).
addition, there was no bee depiction in Hittite art. In this article, stealing more than one hive was pun­
Similarly, the hive and comb construction techniques ished with a physical punishment by stinging bees in
and types are also uncertain. (The traditional prac­ the past, whereas in the new case, stealing an empty
tices seen in Anatolia can be attributed to the Hittite hive was punished with 3 shekels (~21 gr) of silver. It
period. For a remarkable recent publication, see is understood from these articles that apiculture is
Yılmaz Erkovan & Özgenel 2022.) Archaeological made a profession because the ownership of bees
data on the subject is also very limited and only and hives can belong to one person and the distinc­
provide information on the consumption of honey. tion between hive and the empty hive is made.
The only archaeological data on the use of honey in Therefore, É.NIM.LÀL, which is used for the hive
the Hittite texts is a mixture of nigella (black cumin) in the texts, refers to a man-made hive and bee
and bee products (honey and wax) in a flask-shaped products are produced by domestic rather than
container found at Boyalı Höyük (Salih et al. 2009). wild bees. In addition, LÚNIM.LÀL “beekeeper/
The fact that the materials related to the production beekeeper” (Hoffner 1967; Daddi 1982) mentioned
processes (hives, etc.) are probably organic makes it in the texts other than laws should be used for
difficult to determine the subject from an archaeolo­ people who have a profession in apiculture.
gical point of view. Due to the scarcity of archaeolo­ In § 181 the value of honey was determined: “…
gical data, it is necessary to evaluate the subject of a zipattani honey is 1 shekel of silver” (KBo 6.26 II
honey bees and apiculture in the Hittites through 46). Accordingly, honey in the scale of zipittani/
cuneiform texts. zipattani, translated as a small cup (Friedrich
 Apiculture in Hittite cuneiform texts 1217

1971), is 1 shekel (~7 g). It is also stated in the same Suggestions for šeppitaš-: a kind of cereal plant
article that honey is at the same price as lard and (Friedrich 1952; Ertem 1974), a grain, a type of
butter on the same scale (KBo 6.26 II 44–46). wheat or barley (Ünal 2016). NINDA.LÀL kuišša
Therefore, honey is sold as a commercial product. KAXUD-aš “tooth-shaped/toothed honey bread”
The fact that it is sold in small measuring cups may (KUB 38.25 I 20). Although honey (LÀL/milit-) is
indicate that it is a daily food and easily accessible. not mentioned in its name, NINDA.(KUR4RA.)KU
When compared with the valuable animals men­ and NINDAmitgaimiš “sweet bread” may also refer to
tioned in the laws, the honey bee is a less valuable bread with honey (Hoffner 1974).
economic animal than cattle, horses, sheep, goats, It is included in some beverages, notably wine and
mules, donkeys, pigs, and shepherd dogs (Karošec beer. The names of these are: LÀL GEŠTIN “honey
1939). wine” (KUB 12.5 I 17, KBo 24.54 Rev. 18). KAŠ.
LÀL “honey beer” (VBoT 58 Rev. IV 22, 32, 44.
KUB 36.44 + 53.20 Rev. IV 7, 16, 18, 24, ABoT 5
Honey as a food and sweetener
+ KBo 17.9 + 20+ KBo 20.5+ KBo 25.12 II 9, KBo
In the Hittite Period, honey was added to foods and 20.33+ KBo 17.46 + 21+ KBo 25.19 Obv. 8. For
especially bread as a flavoring agent in daily life more information see: Steiner 1966; Haas 2003;
(Hoffner 1974; Karauğuz 2006). In Hittite cunei­ Hoffner 1974; Erkut 2011. The second word can
form texts, the bread with honey are as follows; also be translated as “sweetened/sweet beer”; Ünal
NINDA.LÀL “honey bread” (KUB 20.11 II 5, 2007). The word LÀL šaqu “honey to drink” (BIN
KUB 32.128 I 5, KBo 10.34 I 12, KBo 10.36 II 6, 29 21–22) in Kültepe texts may mean that honey
15, KBo 11.52 V 10, KBo 15.37 III 51, KUB 27.16 is liquefied by adding some ingredients or used in
IV 4). mallitiwalla- “a kind of bread with honey/honey the production of wine/molasses-like foods (Öz
bread” (KUB 42.91 II 2; CHD L-N 1989; Ünal 2014). A mixture of nigella (black cumin) and bee
2007a). NINDA.LÀL ŠA ZĺZ “wheat/grain honey products (honey and wax) in a flask-shaped con­
bread” (KUB 45.58 IV 8 1. KUB 53.11 Rev. III tainer found at Boyalı Höyük (Salih et al. 2009)
14. KBo 10.34 Obv. I 12–13). NINDA.LÀL … may be the archaeological data of this type of bev­
euwanaš “euwanaš honey bread” (KBo 10.34 Obv. erage from the Hittite period.
I 12–13). Suggestions for euwanaš-: a variety of bar­ According to the information in the texts, honey
ley (Laroche 1951; Hoffner 1967; Ünal 2016), was used during the preparation of some dishes.
a fruit (Friedrich 1952), a plant of the genus barley Pure olive oil and honey were used as a kind of
or wheat (Ertem 1974). NINDA.LÀL … parhuenaš- sauce, especially to increase the flavor of fried meat
“parhuena honey bread” (KBo 10.34 Obv. I 12–13). (KBo 2.3 I 51–55). In the Maštigga ritual, honey
Suggestions for parhuenaš-: a sweet fruit (Friedrich and olive oil are put into the fried meat; “they butcher
1952; Hoffner 1967), a plant of the type of wheat or the sheep, then cut it into pieces, cook it and burn it (fry
barley (Ertem 1974). NINDA.LÀL ŠA GÚ.TUR it), pour honey and pure olive oil on it” (KBo 39.8 II
“pea/lentil honey bread” (KBo 10.34 Obv. I 12–13). 39–42, Reyhan 2008). In the continuation of the
NINDA.LÀL … ŠA GÚ.[Link] “bean/broad same text, there is another piece of information
bean . honey bread” (KBo 10.34 Obv. I 12–14). about the use of honey; “then she (old woman) takes
NINDA.LÀL GÚ.[Link] mallantaš “ground seven hupuwai (DUGhupuwai-) vessels, fills them with
bean/broad beans honey bread” (KBo 16.78 I 8). wine, virgin olive oil, honey (also) adds figs, raisins,
NINDA.LÀL … šamaizna “šamaizna honey bread” sinew, salt (and) tallow (also)” (KBo 39.8 III 29–32,
(KBo 10.34 Obv. I 12–14). NINDA.LÀL … Reyhan 2008). In a ritual text about the cult of
GIŠ
haššikkaš “haššikka honey bread” (KBo 10.34 Nerik, coarsely ground flour/semolina/bulgur
Obv. I 12–14). Suggestions for haššikkaš: a fruit (memal- Ünal 2016) is mixed with honey in
(Friedrich 1952), a kind of fig (Hoffner 1967), a kakapi (DUGqaqapi) bowl (KUB 38.25 I 18). In
opium poppy (Ertem 1974). NINDA.LÀL … addition, LÀ[Link] “fresh honey” (KUB 9.16 I 20,
šapšamaš “šapšama honey bread” (KBo 10.34 Obv. KUB 10.48 I 4) mentioned in the texts gives an idea
I 12.14). Suggestions for šapšamaš: sesame that the freshness of honey is known.
(Güterbock 1968; Hoffner 1995; CHD Š-1 2002),
an oil plant, sesame(?) (Ünal 2016). NINDA.LÀL
Use of honey as a fragrance
Š[Link]Š.Ì “sesame/flax seed honey bread” (KUB
55.51 IV 16, KUB 44.49 Rev. 6 1, KUB 45.58 IV In rituals and perhaps in daily life, the aromatic
8 1) NINDA.LÀL NU.Ú[Link] UDUN-an “pome­ smell of honey when burned was used. According
granate honey bread” (KUB 45.58 IV 8). NINDA. to a ritual text, a cypress tree, Ì.NUN (essential oil:
LÀL šeppitaš- “šeppit honey bread” KUB 45.58 IV 9. Ünal 1996, ghee/butter: Hoffner 1994) and honey
1218 S. Demirel

were smoked in a pot with a charcoal fire (KBo 6.34+ KUB 48.76 Obv. I 47 Obv. II 3. Haas 2003).
11.14 I 17–19). In another ritual text, the mixture Another example; “(The priest take) beer, wine, honey
of honey and olive oil in a pot was probably burned (and) diluted wine and he libates. The priest keeps the goat
with a piece of wood used as a wick (KUB 32.8 III ready. And the person standing in front blesses him (the
20–23, see: Ünal 1996). In another text, a fragrance goat). The priest hits the neck of the goat with a stick. He
is obtained by burning honey and oil (KBo 17.1 II 8, kills it and throws it into the flames” (KUB 9.28 II 10
see Otten & Souček 1969). There is also a similar Obv. Goetze 1970; CHD L-N 1989).
use of oil, honey, figs, and raisins as in the last text In the Ammihatna Ritual, which was applied for
(KUB 17.12 III 6–15). the treatment of spiritually polluted and physically ill
people honey, olive oil, figs, raisins, and olives were
placed in the hupuwai- pot, which was placed on the
Honey and beeswax in medicinal use and
sacrificial table to appease the angry gods (KBo 5.2
rituals
Obv. II 35–38. Murat 2003). In another Hittite
There a few examples of the use of honey for medic­ rituals porridge, oil, honey, fragrant fine oils (Ì.
inal purposes in the texts. It is not clear from the DÙ[Link]), wine mixed with oil, bread and sacrifi­
existing examples what kind of treatment honey is cial materials were put on the roads leading to the
used for. The existence of Hittite medicine is still temples to attract the attention of the gods who left
debated (For opposing views, see Güterbock 1962; their temple because of anger (KUB 15.31 II 34,
Ünal 1980). The reason for this discussion is that KUB 15.34 I 23–25). In the ritual for the purifica­
rituals have an important place in practices that can tion of a house, oil, honey, wine, walhi- drink and
be considered medical. This is also true for honey. In marnuwan- drink, a shekel of silver, and a hand
the relevant texts, honey is used as a part of a ritual towel are placed in the pits dug for cleaning pur­
rather than its healing properties: “When Lamashtu poses (KBo 10.45 III 22–27 Reyhan 2016).
has hold of a person, then s/he (the physician) does as As a common feature in medical or ritual texts,
follows: [s/he takes] the šummanza of a white pig, the honey and beeswax are used to heal enchanted,
defecation of a woman, … […] and combines it (the spiritually contaminated, physically sick people and
mixture) together with cypress oil, if in a house (and) gods. As a common feature in medical or ritual
the owner of the house […] I take honey and rinse the texts, bees and honey seem to be used to heal
mouth of each of the maids in the house” (KBo 21.20 enchanted, spiritually polluted, physically sick peo­
Obv. 16–20, Collins 2006; Burde 1974; Also see, ple and gods. Here, the positive things represented
KBo 12.124 III 19–21, KUB 44.64 II 18). by the bee and the sweetness in the nature of honey
Honey and beeswax have been used for cleansing in must have been used symbolically.
some ritual practices and myths. This usage can some­
times mean physical cleaning (šuppiyah-), and some­
Bee and honey in mythological/religious texts
times it refers to a ritualistic purification (parkunu-). In
a ritual to rid a newborn baby of the curse, the old As a sacred animal, the bee has an important role in
woman takes ale bread, puts it on the baby’s tongue, Hittite mythology and religion. Bees and bee pro­
and lubricates her limbs with melted butter. Then she ducts have many symbolic meanings, especially in
completely wipes his tongue with honey. After asking the myths of the Hattians, whose inhabited in
the gods to restore the baby’s health, the old woman Anatolian of the 3rd millennium BCE. In these
spit into her mouth twice (KBo 3.8 II 31–34 Oettinger myths, the bee is mainly associated with two cults.
2004; also see; KBo 19.142 iii 30–31 Puhvel 1991). The first is the mother goddess Hannahanna and the
A similar wipe-off with honey can be seen in the myths other is the Sun Goddess of the Earth (for transcrip­
of the Disappearance God; “when you find him, sting tion and translations of the texts, see: Haas 1981;
him on his hands and feet and make him stand up. Then Hoffner 1998; Karauğuz 2001; Archi 2007).
take wax and wipe him off” (KUB 33.5 II 5–7. Puhvel In the myths of the Disappearing God, the bee has an
1984). In some spells performed to provide spiritual important role in finding the gods whose disappearance
cleansing, honey or beeswax was used together with disrupts the order of nature. Because it is shown in
other substances. In analogical spells, emphasis was a superior position to the eagle and other big and
placed on the physical properties of beeswax; “(the small gods who seeking god. The most famous version
officer) places beeswax and sheep fat in their (soldier’s) of which is related to Telipinu, the god of agriculture
hands. And as he casts them into the fire, he says, ‘As this and the son of the Storm God. In the myth, the goddess
wax melts and oil cooks, whoever breaks his oath and Hannahanna sends a bee to find Telipinu;
deceives the King of the Land of Hatti, let him melt like “Hannahanna sent a bee; You go search for [my son]
wax and cook like oil’. (Soldiers) replies, ‘So be it’” (KBo Telipinu. When you find [him] sting his hands and feet
 Apiculture in Hittite cuneiform texts 1219

and make him stand up … Then conduct him back here to of the Earth protects and saves man. And you Sun
me. The Storm God said to Hannahanna: “Now the great Goddess of Earth, look at the Bee you have sent! In
and the lesser gods were searching for him, but didn’t find the end, there will be reconciliation” (KBo 11.10 No. II
him. So this bee is going to find him? Its wings are small. It 20–24). The fact that the Sun Goddess of the Earth
too is small. And furthermore, it is all by itself(?)” (KUB and the fertility she represents are associated with
32.5 II 4–14). In the continuation of the myth, the bee the bees seems to be compatible with the myths of
seeks and finds the god; “The bee searched the high the Disappearing God.
mountains, it searched [the deep valleys, it searched the Kamrušepa helps the bee in a another fragment of
blue] Deep. The honey was exhausted in its interior, the Hattic-Hittite myth called text of the voyage of
[the …] was exhausted. But [it found] him in a meadow the immortal human soul: “[…] the cattle are sleeping.
in the town of Lihzina, in a forest. It stung [him] on his The sheep is [sleeping]. The sky is sleeping. [The earth is
hands and feet so that he got up” (KUB 33.10 II 1–5). In sleeping]. […] the human spirit. Where did he come
a fragment of the myths of disappearing and returning from? (If) it is on the mountain, let the bee fulfill it and
deities, the eagle’s inability to find the god and the call put it in its place. If it is in the mountain, let the bee
to the bee is as follows; “[O … (?) bee], you hold the bring it and put it in its place. If however, it is in the
honey inside. [Thus] you [seek] the high mountains. [Eagle plain, let the bee (again) bring it and put it in its place.
(?) travels all over the place (says): “I searched everywhere. That which is from the plowed field, let the bees bring it
I [didn’t] find (him) in the forests. Is he going to the vine­ and put it in its place. Let the bees go on a journey of
yards […] Hattuša? […] will it stretch over it? Will it lie in three (or) four days and bring my […] here” (KUB
the thicket? Will it descend [into the dark earth]?” (KUB 43.60 Obv. 1–15). It is difficult to understand
33.13 II 21–28). In the same myth, the positive qualities exactly what is said in this text. However, the lost
of honey are mentioned in the analogical spell to quell soul of a mortal is expected to be found by a bee.
the anger of the god Telipinu; “[Just as] honey is sweet, The sacred tree motif, which is common in ancient
as ghee is mild, so let the soul of Telipinu become sweet Near Eastern legends, may be associated with a bee in
in the same way, and let it become mild in the same a Hittite text; “An eagle is perched on the branches of
way” (KUB 17.10 II 25–27). In the myth of Telipinu, (tree) above, wrapped around the body of a snake (?)
this remarkable role played by the bee is a common below, a bee hangs/turns in the middle of (tree)” (KUB
feature in all myths of the Disappearing God. 43.62 III 5–7. Collins 2002). “NIM.LÀL” “bee”
In the myths of the Inara, Hannahanna sends (KUB 48.7 III 1) and “annaš NIM.LÀL” “mother
a bee to the İnara, tutelary deity and goddess of bee” (88/d right) in a text about the [Link] festival
wild nature. The introductory part of the text is (Singer 1983, 1984) may be related to the mytholo­
broken; “Hannahanna sent a bee to the Tutelary gical aspect of the Hattian [Link] festival.
Deity, (saying); ‘Take a goat’s horn and make
a sound’. The Tutelary Deity made a sound. And every­
Conclusion
one went somewhere. The God of War heard and was
afraid” (KUB 33.52 II 4–9). In another myth about Honey was the oldest and longest used sweetening
the goddess Inara, the bee brings a hunting bag; material and the honey bee who produced this food
“The bee went and brought the hunting bag. While it aroused human curiosity. Infecting religion and cul­
was coming, Hannahanna made three wattaru- basin ture, this small insect has been a venerated creature
(?). Over one an ippiiaš- tree. is standing; under in folk tales/myths and traditions/beliefs. The com­
the second a wooden hupparaš- the vessel is lying; and mon themes among these are that bees, as gifted
on the third, fire is burning” (KUB 33.59 III 5–9). In animals, reflect social values, and bees and bee pro­
both these texts, the bee plays the role of ducts represent what is sacred and valuable
a messenger among the gods. (Ransome 1937). This is valid for Anatolia in the
Bees are also associated with the terrestrial cult. In Hittite period and it lasted until 1500s when scien­
a ritual text associated with the Sun Goddess of the tific observations were made (Crane 2004).
Earth, goddess of the underworld, the bee was pre­ Beekeeping should have been done as a part of
sented as a gift; “Sun Goddess of Earth! You keep the agriculture in the Hittite Period of the 2nd millen­
human alive/heal it(?) and you, the Sun Goddess of the nium BCE. The Hittite cuneiform texts from this
Earth, now the bee honey you sent, the King (and) period show that beekeeping has an older history.
Queen offers as a gift(?)” (KBo 11.10 Obv. II 20– The laws on beekeeping, the use of bee products in
24. Haas 2003; Popko 2003). In the continuation of culinary culture, and the role played by honey bees
this text, it is prayed that the goddess will give the and honey in religion/mythology carry traces of the
king and queen a long and fruitful life and the bee is past. However, unfortunately, the methods of api­
shown as a peace-bringing figure; “The Sun Goddess culture are not mentioned in the texts. For example,
1220 S. Demirel

there is no information about the beehive types that and a seeker of fertility. This should be related to
were used, the construction of the hive, the types of the appearance of bees in the spring, rather than
honey, or the honey harvest. These information defi­ knowing the positive contribution of bees to polli­
ciencies can be explained by the fact that the texts nation. In myths of the Disappearing Gods, as
come from official archives. a common theme, neither the gods nor the eagles
The most striking information is contained in the cannot find the god, the symbol of fertility, but
laws. Because they show the importance of honey only the bee manages to find the god. It may be
and apiculture in daily life. According to these appropriate to evaluate the symbolism here as fol­
texts, honey is a commercial product and its trad­ lows; Heralding the end of the infertility of the
ing is done at a value mentioned in legal texts winter season and starting to wander around the
(§181). It can be said that the value of honey varies countryside from the beginning of spring, the bees
according to supply and demand, and therefore this will seek out the lost god responsible for fertility
value is often not valid (perhaps it has never been and nature will be revived. Apart from the myths of
taken into account). However, the important point the Disappearing God, the association of the bee
here is that the value of honey has been shown in- with the Sun Goddess of the Earth, the symbol of
laws because it has an economic value. In this fertility, is both meaningful and compatible with
context, it can be said that apiculture is her role as a herald of fertility seen in the previous
a profession done with expert knowledge. People examples. In addition, in the same text group, the
could have a honey bee colony or hives. Because bee symbolizes peace/reconciliation in a positive
sometimes a honey bee colony (§ 91) and the hive sense and a soft touch from an analogical point of
(§91) could be stolen. Hittite legal texts are rela­ view.
tively few, and the existence of these regulations,
however, suggests that such problems are fre­
Disclosure statement
quently encountered. It should also be noted that
it may be more accurate to consider apiculture in No potential conflict of interest was reported by the
the Hittite Era as an activity that provides a side author(s).
income for the population engaged in animal hus­
bandry, just as it is in today’s Anatolia.
According to the texts that give direct or indirect ORCID
information about culinary knowledge in the Hittite Serkan Demirel [Link]
Age, honey is included in daily foods such as bread.
Honey is added to at least thirteen types of bread as
a sweetening product. Honey has also been used in the References
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