WIRE ROPE USERS MANUAL COMMITTEE OF WIRE ROPE PRODUCERS American Iron and Steel Institute (Edited version by Terex Cranes)This publication is a joint effort of the COMMITTE OF WIRE ROPE PRODUCERS/ American Iron and Stee! institute and the WIRE ROPE T HNICAL BOARD The Wire Rope Technical Board (WRTB) is an association of engineers representing companies that account for more than 90 percent of wire rope produced in the United States; it has the following objectives: + To promote development of engineering and scientific knowledge relating to wire rope; + To assist in establishing technological standards for military, governmental and industrial use: + To promote development, acceptance and implementation of safety standards: + Tohelp extend the uses of wire rope by disseminating technical and engineering information to equipment manufacturers; and + To conduct and/or underwrite research for the bet Data, specifications, architectural/engineering information and drawings >resented in this publication have been delineated in accordance with recognized professional prin ciple and practices, and are for general information only. Suggested procedures and products should not, therefore, be used without first securing competent savice with respect to their suitability for any given application, The publication of the material contained herein is not intended as a warranty on the part of American Iron and Stee! Insttute-or that of any person named herein-that these data are suitable for any general or particular use, or of freedom irom inffingement of ‘any patent or patents, Any use of these data or suggested practices can only be made with the understanding that American iron and Steel Institute makes no warranty of any kind respecting such use and the user assumes all liability arising therefrom, COMMITTEE OF WIRE ROPE PRODUCERS American Iron and Stee! Institute 1000 1éth Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 Copyright © 1979 by American Iron and Stee! Institute All rights reserved. Printed in the U.S.A. Permission to reproduce or quote any portion of this book as editorial reference is herby granted. When making such reproductions or quota- tions, the courtesy of crediting this publication and American Iron and Steel Institute will be appreciated.CONTENTS INTRODUCTION /5 BASIC COMPONENTS /7 WIRE ROPE INDENTIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION /9 HANDLING WIRE ROPE / 17 Wire Rope Installation / 18 Unreeting & Uneoiting / 19 Seizing Wire Rope / 22 Cutting Wire Rope / 24 End Attachments / 25 Efficiency of End Attachments / 27 Socketing /28 Wire Rope Clips / 28 How to Apply Clips 28, 2 Wedge Sockets / 33, 33R Drums-Grooved / 34 Drums-Plain (Smooth) / 35R OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF WIRE ROPE / 37 Breaking in a New Wire Rope / 45 Wire Rope and Operations Inspection / 453 Wire Rope Identification and Construction Wire rope is identified not only by its component parts, but also by its construction, i.e. by the way the wires have been laid to form strands, and by the way the strands Ihave been laid around the core. In Figure and “e" show sirands as normally lai into the rope (o the right-in as fashion similar o the threading in a ind bolt. Con- versely, the “left lay” rope strands (dravit and “d”) are laid in the opposite direction, draw Again in Figure 3, the first two drawings (“a” and "b") show regular fay ropes, Following these are the types known as lang lay ropes, Note that the wires in regular lay ropes appear to line up with the axis of the rope; in lang lay rope the wires form an angle with the axis of the rope. This difference in appearance is a ations in manu -gular lay ropes are made so that the direction of the wire lay in the strand is opposite to the direction of the strand I the rope; lang lay ropes (“e” and made with both strand lay and rope lay Finally, the type “e” called alternate lay consists of alternat- lay strands result of v7 turing techniques: r e 3. A comparison of typical wire rope lays: a) right regular lay b) left regular lay, Tang lay, &) left lang lay, e) right alternate lay.Wire rope nomenclature also defines: length, size (i.e. diam), type, direction of lay, grade of rope, type of core and whether itis preformed (pif) oF non-preformed. (op/f.) Ifthe direction and type of lay are omitted from the rope description, itis pre- sumed to be right regular lay. In addition, if no mention is made as to preforming, this will be presumed as a requirement for preforming, On the other hand, an order of ek vator rope requires an explicit statement since pff and np ropes are used extensively. ‘An example of a complete description would appear thus’ (600 ft 3/4" 6x25 FW Left lang lay Improved plow IWRC (Rope described above would be made PREFORMED.) Figure Basic constructions around which standard wire ropes ar bul. SARSEME Wm! GeWMERcTON —euagELLERNMESEME — Oyeg SKE TLLER Figure 6, A few combinations of basic design constructions et Si jos ee° Pent, Aangentengestmt att rope bene by reeeneto ts tbe pers ond ‘of strands, as well asthe number and geo- smetcic arrangement of wires inthe strand.Table 1 WIRE ROPE CLASSIFICATIONS Based on the Nominal Number of Wires in Each Strand Classification 6x7 6x19 6x37 6x61 6x127 8x19) 19x7 and 18x7 Description Containing 6 strands that are made up of 3 through 14 wires, of which no more than 9 are outside wires. Containing 6 strands that are made up of 15 through 26 wires, of which no more than 12 are outside wires. Containing 6 strands that are made up of 27 through 49 wires, of which no more than 18 are outside wires, Containing 6 strands that are made up of 50 through 74 wires, of which no more than 24 are outside wi Containing 6 strands ‘are made up of 75 through 109 of which no more than 36 are outside wires, Containing 8 strands that are made up of 15 through 26 wires, of which no more than 12 are outside wires. Containing 19 strands, each strand is made up of 7 wires. It is manufactured by covering an inner rope of 7x7 left lang lay construction with 12 strands in right regular la (The rotation-resistant property that characterizes this, highly specialized construction is a result of the counter torques developed by the two layers.) When the steel wire core strand is replaces by a fiber core, the description becomes 18x7. When a center wire is replaces by a strand, itis considered asa single wire, nd the rope classification remains unchanged, ‘There are, of course, many other types of wire rope, but they are useful only ina limited number of applications and, as such, are sold as specialties. Usually design wed according to their ‘wal construction, some of these special construc- tions ate listed in Table 2 and show in Figure 8.WIRE ROPE INSTALLATION CHECKING THE DIAMETER It is most important to check the diameter of the delivered rope before installation, This is to make certain that the rope diameter meets the specified requirements for the given machine or equipment. With an undersize diameter rope, stresses be increased; an oversize diameter rope will wear out prematurely. This happens because of abuse to the rope caused by pinching in the grooves of the sheave and drum, In checking, however, the “true” rope diameter must be measure. And this, is defined as the diameter ofthe circumscribing circle, ie, its largest cross-sectional dimension. To insure accuracy this measurement should be made with a wire rope caliper using the correct method (b) shown in Fig, 11, For measuring ropes with an odd number of outer strands, special techniques must be employed. Design specifications for wire rope are such that the diameter is slightly larger than the nominal size, according to the allowable tolerances shown in Table 3, IZE LIMITS OF WIRE ROPE DIAMETERS* Nominal Rope Diameter Allowable Limits Thru 6" 0 +8% Over ¥4” thru Me” 0 +7% ‘Over Se” thru 34" 0 +6% ‘Over %4”" and larger 0 +5% “These limits have been adopted by the Wire Rope Technical Board (WRTB), and are being considered for inclusion in the forthcoming revised edition of "Federal Standard 2R-W-410." In the case of certain special purpose ropes, such as aircraft cables and elevator ropes, each has specific requirements, Jomo = [ol -—— ora I : 8. correct ey . incorrect Figure 11, How to measure (or caliper) a wire rope correctly. Since the “true” diameter (a) lies within the circumscribed crcl, always measure the larger dimension (b).UNREELING AND UNCOILING Wire rope is shipped in cut lengths, cither in coils or on reels, Great care should be taken ‘when the rope is removed from the shipping package since it can be permenently damaged by improper unreeling or uncoiling. Looping the rope over the head of the rel or pulling the rope off coil while itis lying on the ground, will create loops in the line. Pulling on loop will, atthe very least, produce imbalance in the rope and may result in open or closed kinks (Fig, 12). Once a rope is kinked, the damage is permanent. To correct this condition, the kinks must be cut out, and the shortened pieces use for some other purpose. Figure 12. Improper handling wil help create open (a) of closed (b) kinks. The open kink will open the rope lay; the closed kink will lose [Link] starting loop (e): do not allow the rope {0 form a small loop. If, however. a loop forms and is removed atthe point shown, a kink wil ‘be avoided, The kink (A): here the looped rope has been put under tension, the kink has formed, the rope is permanently damaged and is of litle valueUnwinding wire rope from its ree also requires careful and proper procedure. There are three methods to perform this step correcily: 1) The reel is mounted on a shaft supported by two jacks ora roller payof (Fig. 13), Since the reel is free to rotate, the rope is pulled from the reel by a work- ‘man, holding the rope end and walking avvay from the reel as it unwinds, A braking device should be employed so thatthe rope is kept taut and the reel is restrained from over-running the rope. This is necessary particularly with powered de-reeling equipment, 2) Another method! involves mounting the reel on an unreeling stand (Fig. 14). It is then unwound in the same manner as described above (1). In this case, however, greater care must be exercised to keep the rope under tensien surfi- one cient to prevent the accumulation of slack-a condition that will ease the rope ° to drop below the lower reel head. YAY 2) In anor aceptd meta. te end ofthe rope ed whl he elise is at oS rolled along the ground. With this procedure the will pay off properly; how- [ALLOWABLE wor ot como ever, the end being held will travel in the direction the reel is being ro led, As the difference between the diameter of the ree! head and the diameter of the bound rope increases, the speed of travel will inrease. PREFERRED Figure 15. Winding wire rope from reel todrum, Figure 13. ‘The wie rope reels mounedon a saft supported by jacks. This permistheresl Fie 14. A vera unreling san, {orotate fee andthe rope sn be noid either manvaly or by a powered mechanism.When re-reeling wire rope from a horizontally supported reel to a drum, its preferable for the rope to travel from the top of the reel to the tope of the drum: or, from the bottom of the reel to the bottom of the drum (Fig. 15). Re-reeling in this manner will avoid putting a reverse bend into the tope as it is being installed. Ifa rope is installed so that a reverse bend is induced. it may cause the rope to become livelier and, consequently, harder to handle, When unwinding wire rope from a coil, there are two suggested methods for carrying out this procedure in a prope 1) One method involves placing the coil on a vertical unreeling stand, The stand consists of a base with a fixed vertical shaft. On this shaft here is a “swift,” consisting of a plate with inclined pins positioned so that the coil may be place over them, the whole swift and coil then rotate as the rope is pulled off. This, method is particularly effective when the rope is to be wound on a drum, 2) The most common as well as the easiest uncoiling method is merely to hold one end of the rope while rolling the coil along the ground like a hoop (Fig. 16). Figures 17 and 18 show unreeling and uncoiling methods that are most likely to provide kinks. Such improper procedure should be strenuously avoided in order to prevent the occurrence of loops. These loops, when pulled taut, will inevitably result in kinks, No matter how a kink develops, it will damag strands and wires, and the kinked section must be cut out, Proper and careful handling will keep the wire rope free kinks. Figure 16, Pethaps the most common and cisestuncoling method i to hold one end of the rope while the coil rolled along the Figure 17, Ihstratinga wrong method of Figure 18._ Illustrating « wrong method of round, tuneetng wire roe, tneotling wite ropeSEIZING WIRE ROPE While there are numerous ways to cut wire rope, in every case, certain precautions, must be observed. For one thin, proper seizings are always applied on both sides of the place where the cut is to be made. In a wire rope, carelessly or inade- quately seized, ends may become distorted and flattened, and the strands may loose. Subsequently, when the rope is put to work, there may be an uneven distri- bution of leads to the strands; a condition that will significantly shorten the life of the rope. There are two widely accepted methods of applying seizing (Figure 19). The seizing itself should be a soft, or anncaled wire or strand, The seizing wire diam- eter and the length of the seizing should never be less than the diameter of the rope being seized, For preformed ropes, one seizing on each side of the cut is nor- mally sufficient. But for those that are not preformed, a minimum of two seizings is recommended (Fig 20). Seizings should be spaced 6 rope diameters apart. Table 4 list seizing lengths and seizing wire diameters suggested for use with some commonly use wire ropes. Figure 19. METHOD A: Lay one end ofthe seizing wir in the groove between two strands, ‘wrap the other end tghely in a close helix over 1 postion of the groove using a seizing iron (round bar 14" to %" diam. x 18° long) a8 shown above, Both ends ofthe seizing wire ‘shouldbe twisted together tightly, and the fished appearance as shown below. Seizing width should not be ess than the rope diameter. METHOD B: The procedure illustrated at ight isthe second of the wo (A and B) accepled methods for placing seizing on wite rope,Suggested Diameters and Lengths Rope Diameters Seizing Wire Diameters* Seizing Lengths inches mm inches = mm inches = mm Yehe 3.5-8.0 032 0.813 % 60 Me 9514.5 048 1.21 % 130 See (16.0-24.0 063 1.60 % 190 11% -26.0-33.0 0802.03 1% 320 1%-1%e —35.0-43.0 10s 2.66 1% 44.0 1%-2% —45.0-64.0 riod 3.15) 2% 64.0 e344 ——-65.0-89.0 ot) S15) Mm 89.0 ‘The diameter of seizing wire for elevator ropes is generally smaller than indicated in this table. The wire rope manufacturer should be consulted for recommended sies.CUTTING WIRE ROPE Wire rope is cut after being properly seized (Fig. 20). Cutting is a reasonably simple operation provided appropriate tools are used. ‘There are several types of cutters and shears commercially available. There are specifically designed to cut wire rope, Portable hydraulic and mechanical rope cutters are available, In remote areas, however, it may at times be necessary to use less desirable cutting methods. For example, using an axe or hatchet must be recognized as dangerous, NONPREFORMED BerORE euTTING SSeo arten coTTIG PREFORMED ! SS sss Figure 20,_ Seizing, ether on non-preformed or preformed wire rope are applied before cuttingSSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS EEG WIRE ROPE SOCKET-SPELTER OR RESIN ATTAEHMENT WIRE ROPE SOCKET -swaceD MECHANICAL SPLICE LOOP OR THMBLE ATTACHMENT QQ SS SSSsssssssscsssssssass wence sockeT CLIPS-muMBER OF CLIPS VANES WITH ROPE SE Jn omMssSSSSSSSSESSSSESSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS} LOOP OR THIMBLE SPLICE HAND TUCKED Figure 22. End fittings or attachments. are available in many designs, some of which were Aeveloped for particular applications. The six shown are among the most commonly wed,‘TABLE 5 TERMINAL EFFIECIENCIES (APPROXIMATE) Efficiencies are based on nominal strengths Efficiency ‘Method of Attachment Rope with IWRC* Rope with FC** Wire Rope Socket-Spelter or Resin Attachment 100% 100% Swaged Socket 95% (Not established) Mechanical Spliced Sleeve and smaller 95% 924% i. thru 17%” 92% % 90% 2" dia. and larger 90% 874% eee Loop or Thimble Splice—Hand Spliced (Tucked) (Carbon Steel Rope) ur 90% 90% Se” 89% 39% a” 88% 88% Ker 87% 87% 4" 86% 86% a" 84% 34% an 82% 32% %" thru 2%" 80% 30% Loop or Thimble Splice —Hand Spliced (Tucked) (Gtainless Steel Rope) yr 80% He” 79% %” 8% Her 11% ys 716% r 4% mn 2% ne 10% Wedge Sockets*** (Depending on Design) 75% 10.90% 78% 10 90% Clips (Number of clips varies with size of rope) 80% 80% oTWR ‘*+Typical values when applied properly. Refer to ‘manufacturers for exact values and method,ist GRIP Figure 23. Wire rope clips are obtainable intwo basic designs: Usholr and fit ein. “Their efiiency isthe same. SOCKETING Improperly attached wire rope terminals lead to serious-possibly unsafe- condi- tions. To perform properly, all wire rope elements must be held securely by the terminal. If this is not accomplished, the strands will “loaf on the job” and there is every likelihood that a strand will become “high”. A high strand condition is illustrated in Figure 42. In the case shown, selective abrasive wear of the loose strand will necessitate carly removal of the rope. Poured Sockets-Spelter or Resin ‘When preparing a wire rope for socketing, it is of extreme importance to follow recommended procedures. (See Appendix D: SOCKETING PROCEDURES.) Procedures other than those stipulated here, may develop the required strength but this cannot be pre-determined without destructive test. Itis far safer-and ulti- ‘mately less costly-to follow well-established practices. ‘There are many ways to go wrong in socketing procedures, Some of the more common pitfalls that should be guarded against include: 1) Turing back the strands-inward or outward-before the “broom’ is inserted into the socket: 2) Turning back the strands and seizing them to the body of the rope: 3) Turing back the strands and tucking them into the body of the rope: 4) Tying the knot in the rope: 5) Driving nails, spikes, bolts, and similar objects into the socket afier the rope is in, so-as to “jam” it tight; this is particularly dangerous-and ruinous. To avoid these and many other dangerous practices, play it safe by following cor- rect procedures WIRE ROPE CLIPS Wire rope clips are widely used for attaching wire rope to haulages, mine cars, hoist, and for joining two ropes. Clips are available in two basic designs: the U-bott and fis grip (Fig. 23). The iency of both types is the same. ‘When using U-bolt clips, extreme care must be exercised to make certain that they are attached correctly, i. the U-bolt must be applied so the “U” section is in contact with the dead end of the rope (Fig. 24). Also, the tightening and retight- ening of the nuts must be accomplished as required. HOW TO APPLY CLIPS U-BOLT CLIPS (Table 6, page 30) Recommended Method of Applying U-Bolt Clips to Get Maximur Holding Power of the Clip 1) Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble, Apply the first clip ‘one base width from the dead end of the wire rope (U-bolt over dead end-live end rest in clip saddle). Tighten nuts evenly to recommended torque. 2) Apply the next clip as near the loop as possible. Turn on nuts firm but do not tighten 3) Space additional clips is required equally between the first two, Turn on nuts take up rope slack-tighten all nuts evenly on all clips to recommended torque.4) NOTICE! Apply the initial load and retighten nuts to the recommended torque, Rope will stretch and shrink in diameter when loads are applied. Inspect periodically and retighten ‘A termination made in accordance with the above instructions, and using the ‘number of clips shown has an approximate 80% efficiency rating. This rating is based upon the catalog breaking strength of wire rope Ifa pulley is using in place of a thimble for turning back the rope, add one additional clip. ‘The number of clips shown is based upon using right regular or lang lay wire rope, 6 x 19 class or 6 x 37 class, fiber core or IWRC, IPS or XIPS. If Seale con- struction or similar large outer wire type construction in the 6 x 19class is to be used for sizes | inch and larger, add one additional clip. The number of clips shown also applies to right regular lay wite rope, 8 x 19 class, fibre core, IPS, sizes | 1/2 inch and smaller; and right regular lay wire rope, 18x 7 class, fibre core, IPS or XIPS, sizes 1 3/4 and smaller. For other classes of wire rope not mentioned above, it may be necessary to add additional clips to the number shown. Ifa greater number of clips are used than shown in the table, the amount of rope turnback should be increased proportionally, ABOVE BASED ON USE OF CLIPS ON NEW ROPE IMPORTANT: Failure 10 make a termination in accordance with aforemen- tioned instructions, or failure 10 periodically check and retighten to the recom- mended torque, will cause a reduction in efficiency rating. Bee eer WRONG way: CLIPS REVERSED Figure 24. The correct way to attach U-bolts i shown atthe 1p: the “U" section isin contact with the rope’ dead en‘TABLE 6* Min. no. Amount of Torque Clip of ropeto. in Weight. Swe A BC DE F G_ #H clips tumback —Ib/ft 10/100 % 2 mR 4 47 4 38 Bl 94 2 3M 4s 5 He «22597565950 4H 3% 78 8 % 31 103 50 75 66 0-56 1191442 4% 15 18 He 3813875 BDL 2 aM 30 30 % 44 «150 75 100 91 75-163 194-2 % 45 42 %e = «501.88 1.00 1.19103 8881228 2 7 65 70 % 50 188 100 119 113 88 191 228 3 ths 65 B He «56225125 «31.22 94= 2.062.503 2 95 100 % 56 238 125 131 134 94 206 250 3 2 95 100 % «63-275 144 «150 1411.06 284 4 18 130 150 hw 75 313 163 175159 1.25 316 4 19 225 240 1 73 350 181 :88 178 125 263 347 5 26 225 250 1% 753.88 2.00 200 191 125 281 359 6 34 225 310 1% $B «425-213-231 219 144 3.13 418-6 37 360 460 ey) en ee 44 360 520 1A 88 494 238 259 253 144 341 444 7 48 360 390 1% 1.00 531 263 275 266 163 363 475 7 51 430 730 1% 113 5.75 275 306 298 181 381 528 7 53 590 980 2 125 644 3.00 338 328 200 444 588 8 n 750 1340 2% 125 713 319 388 394 200 456 638 8 3 7501570 We 125 7.69 344 4.13 444 200 469 6.63 9 84 7501790 2% 125 831 356 438 488 200 5.00 688 10 100 750 2200, 3 150 9.19 388 475 534 238 531 7.63 10 106 1200 3200 ‘From The Crosby GroupFIST GRIP CLIPS (Table 7, on the following page) RECOMMENDED METHOD OF APPLYING FIST GRIP CLIPS 1) Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble. Apply the first clip cone base width from the dead end of the wire rope. Tighten nuts evenly to rec- ommended torque. 2) Apply the next clip as near the loop as possible. Turn on nuts firmly but do not tighten. 3) Space additional clips if required equally between the first two, Turn on nuts~ take up rope slack-tighten all nuts evenly on all clips to recommended torque. 4) NOTICE! Apply the initial load and retighten nuts to the recommended torque. Rope will stretch and shrink in diameter when loads are applied, Inspect periodically and retighten, ‘A termination made in accordance with the above instructions, and using the ‘number of clips shown has an approximate 80% efficiency rating. This rating is based upon the catalog breaking strength of wire rope. I a pulley is used in place of a thimble for turning back the rope, add one additional clip. The number of clips shown is based upon using right regular or lang lay wine rope, 6 x 19 class or 6 x 37 class, fibre core or IWRC, IPS or EIPS. If Seale con struction or similarly large outer wire type construction in the 6 x 19 class is to be used for sizes | inch and larger, add one additional clip. ‘The number of clips shown also applies to right regular lay wire rope, 8x 19 class, fibre core, IPS, sizes 11/2 inch and smaller; and right regular lay wire rope, 18x 7 class, fibre core, IPS or EIPS, sizes | 1/2 and smaller. For other classes of wire rope not mentioned above, it may be necessary 10 ‘add additional clips to the number shown, Ifa greater number of clips are used than shown in the table, the amount of rope tumback should be increased proportionately. AVORED BASED ON USE. OF FIST GRIP CLIPS ON NEW WIRE ROPE. IMPORTANT: Failure to make a termination in accordance with aforemen. tioned instructions, or failure to periodically check and retighten to the recom ‘mended torque, will cause a reduction in efficiency rating.TABLE 7* no, Amount of Torque lip L of ropeto. in Weight Sz A BoC DE F G Hi Approx. M N_ clips tumback It/ft 1b/100 Wo 25 125 34 94 38 50 128 22 163 69 147 2 4 300 a He 31 134 44 106 38 63 147 19 198 69 156 2 5 30 26 % 38 159 50 106 44 75 181 25 238 75 188 2 544537 He 50 188 56 1.25 50 100 219 28 275 88 219 2 4 SO % 50 188 56 1.25 50 100 219 28 275 88 219 3 n 6 6 Me 63 228 69 1.50 63 125 269 28 350 1.06 263 3 2% 130 110 % 63 228 69 150 (63 125 269 28 350 1.06 2.63 3 3% 130110 % 75 2.69 88 181 75 150 294 31 3.75 125 306 3 1 25140 % 88 297 97 213 75 1.75 331 38 4.13 1.25 344 4 26 ms (220 1 1.00 3.06 1.19 225 .75 200 3.72 41 463 1.25 353 5 37s 270 1% 113 344 128 238 (88 225 419 44 525 144 391 5 41 360 300 1% 125 356 134 250 88 250 425 50 525 144 403 6 55360410 13 1.50 4.13 156 3.00 1.00 3.00 556 56 7.00 163 465 6 2 sto 680 1% 150 413 156 3.00 1.00 3.00 556 56 7.00 163 466 6 65 = 5t0 680 ‘*From The Crosby GroupFigure 25. ‘The wedge sockeris a very popular end attachment; itis eaity installed ‘and quickly dismantled. But it must be applied correctly (A). WEDGE SOCKE One of the more popular end attachments for wire rope is the wedge socket. For field, or on the job attachment, itis easily installed and quickly dismantled. ‘The procedure is simple: 1) Inspect the wedge and socket; all rough edges or burrs, that might damage the rope, should be removed. 2) If the end of the rope is welded, the welded end should be cut eff. This will allow the distortions of the rope strands, caused by the sharp bend around the ‘wedge, to adjust themselves at the end of the line. If the weld is not cut off, the distortions will be forced up the working line. This may result in the development of high strands and wavy rope 3) Place the socket in an upright position and bring the rope around in a large. easy to handle, loop. Care must be taken to make certain hat the live-loaded- side of the rope is in line with the ears (Fig. 25). 4) The dead end of the rope should extend from the socket for a distance approx- imately nine times the rope diameter, The wedge is now place in the socket, and a wire rope clip is placed around the dead end by clamping a short, extra piece of rope to the tail, (Do not clamp to the live part.) ‘The U-bolt should jinst the tal; the saddle of the clip should bear against the sort extra piece. 5) Secure the ears of the socket to a sturdy support and carefully take a strain on the live side of the rope. Pull the wedge and rope into position with tension sufficiently right to hold them in place. 6) After final pin connections ar mad, increase the loads gradually until the ‘wedge is properly seated, Avoid sudden shock loads. The foregoing is the recommended procedure. If variations are made to suit special conditions, they should be carefully evaluated beforehand.Paragraph 4, page 33, cites one method used to clamp the rope dead end, Two other acceptable methods are shown below. Method 3 can be used if the length of the thread on the U bolt legs will allow the saddle to firmly clamp ene diameter of rope. ‘The purpose of clamping the dead end close to the socket is to prevent the rope and wedge from disengaging from the socket.Drums are the means by which power is transmitted to the rope and thence to the object to be moved For the wire rope to pick up this power efficiently and to transmit it properly to the working end, installation must be carefully controlled. If the drum is grooved, the winding conditions should be closely supervised to assure adherence to the following recommended procedures; 1) The end of the rope must be secured to the drum by such means as will give the end attachment at least as much st ‘manufacturer. 2) Adequate tension must be maintained on the rope while itis being wound so that the winding proceeds under continuous tension, 3) The rope must follow the groove. 4) There should be at least three dead tums remaining on the drum when the rope is unwound during normal operation Two dead turns are a mandatory require- ‘ment in many codes and standards. If the wire rope is carelessly wound and, as a result, jumps the grooves, it will be crushed and cut where it crosses from one groove to the other. Another, almost unavoidable problem is created at the drum flange; as the rope climbs to a second layer there is further crushing and the wires receive excessive abrasion Riser and filler strips may help remedy this condition ngth as is specified by the equipmentDRUMS-PLAIN (SMOOTH) Installation of a wire rope on a plain (smooth) face drum requires a great deal of care. The starting position should be at the drum end so that each turn of the rope will wind tightly against the preceding turn (Fig.26). Here too, close supervision should be maintained all during installation, This will help make certain that: 1) the rope is properly attached to the drum, 2) appropriate tension on the rope is maintained as it is wound on the drum, 3) each tur is guided as close to the preceding turn as possible, so that there are no gaps between tums, 4) and that there are at least two dead turns on the drum when the rope is fully unwound during normal operating cycles, vermeuraees | heruat ouprresest art an SEL ATLRE Sicha SUBTONEAET SARL mrenr tof manana ovgpwino ver 10 Rio ay gerne moet 0 LEFT gist Lay Seto Teele Lee AEE. Figure 26, By holding the right or left hand with index finger extended, palm up or palm down, the proper procedure for installing left and riht-lay rope on & smooth drum can be easly determined,The term flexibility is frequently thought of as being synonymous with resis. tance to bending fatigue. This is not true. Flexibility refers to the capability of ‘flexing ot bending. While a high degree of fatigue resistance may sometimes accompany the flexibitity characteristic, it does not necessarily follow that this is so, A fiber core rope, for example, is more flexible than an IWRC rope. Yet, when the IWRC rope is bent around undersize sheaves at relatively high loads, it will usually perform better than the more flexible fiver core rope. The reason for lies in the ability of IWRC rope to retain its roundness nd freedom of internal movement. Under the same conditions, a fiber ore rope will flatten and inhibit free internal adjustment, thereby leading to early failure. Asnote earlier, a design choice is almost invariably the result of compromise. Ultimately, what is sought is an efficient, economical solution, hence whatever the compromise, it must help achieve this goal, BREAKING IN A NEW WIRE ROPE A new wire rope requires carefully installation and close adherence to following, all the appropriate procedures previously noted. After the rope has been installed and the ends secured in the correct manner, the mechanism should be started care- fully and then permitted to run through a cycle of operation at a very slow speed. During this trial operation, a very close watch should be kept on all working parts- sheaves, drums, rollers-to make certain that the rope runs freely, and without any possible obstructions as it makes its way through the system. If ne problems, appear in running the rope, the next step should include several run-throughs of the normal operational cycle under light load and at reduced speed. This proce- dure allows the component parts of the new rope to make a gradual adjustment to the actual operating conditions WIRE ROPE AND OPERATIONS INSPECTION To assume a high level of safety while keeping the annual cost of wire rope at a reasonably low level, itis essential to maintain a well-planned program of peri- odie inspection, Frequently, there are statutory and/or regulatory agencies whose requirements must be adhered to, but whether or not these exist ina given locale, the wire rope user can be guided by the suggested procedures that follow. Abrasion, bending and crushing represent the ABC's of wire rope abuse, and itis the primary goal of good inspection practice to discover such conditions early enough so that corrections can be made or ropes replaced safely ard with mini ‘mum effort. When any degradation indicates a loss of original rope strength, a decision must made quickly as to allowing the rope to remain in service. But such a decision can only be made by an experienced inspector. And his determination will be based on: 1) Details of the equipment’s operation: Will the rope break? 2) Frequency of inspection: Will it be safe until the next scheduled inspectio 3) Maintenance history: How rapid is the degradation? 4) Consequences of failure: Wil it present hazards to humans? 5) Historical records of similar equipment ‘To make certain that sufficient information is obtained, following are guide- lines that should be adhered to:If the fleet angle (Fig, 34) is large, it may be necessary to accept a smaller are of contact at the throat; 130° for example instead of 150°, This is done to avoid serubbing the rope on the flange of the sheave. As previously noted, the groove size is evaluated on the basis of how the gage leaf fits the groove, Daylight under the gage is not tolerable when using the worn groove gage. Ifa full over-size gage is used, some daylight may be acceptable, but really must be judged by relating the measurement to the actual size of the rope. For new rope, extra caution should be observed a to its fit in the groove. Characteristically, ropes become smaller in diameter immediately after being placed in service. As a result, they would operated satisfactorily in a “worn” ‘groove; one that was gage OK by the “wom” groove gage. Nonethel cases, a rope may not “pull down,” and it this happens, abnormal wear may occur, It is important to remember that a tight groove not only pinches and damages the rope but that the inching prevents the necessary adjustment of the wires ann. strands, On the other hand, a groove that is to0 large will not provide sufficient support; in this case, the rope will flatten and thereby restrict the fie sliding action of the wires and strands. The size of the groove is not only critical item to be examined closely. The condition of the groove is also an important factor of concer. Is it smooth or imprinted? IF the groove is imprinted then it must be re-machined or, if itis imprinted too deeply, it means that sheave, roller or drum must be replaced. If replacement is indicated, a larger sheave or drum should be installed if possible, ora harder material should be specified for the replacement. Groove examination should also concern itself with how the groove is wear- ing. If itis wom off-center, thereby forcing the rope to undercut orto rub against the flange, it then becomes necessary to correct the alignment of the reeving sys~ tem, and to specify a harder materia, ‘When checking the grooves, the bearings of the sheaves and rollers should also be examined. They should tum easily. If not, each bearing must be properly lubricated, “Wobble” in the sheave-from broken or worn bearings-is not accept able, Bad bearings will set up vibrations in the wire rope that can cause rapid deterioration unless the condition is remedied. Bad bearings also increase the force on the rope that is needed to move a given load, since friction forces will e greatly increase. Sheaves with broken flanges may allow the rope to jump from the sheave and become fouled in the machinery. When this happens, the rope is cut, curled, and the crowns of the wires in the strands are burred, There is ample evidence to sup- port the rule that sheaves with broken flanges must be replaced immediately. A sheave or drum with a flat spot can induce a “whip” into the line. This whip, or wave, travels until is stopped by the end terminal, at which point the rope may bend severely. This condition helps to accelerate the fatigue breakage of wires. Sometimes the reeving is such that the whip or wave is arrested by a sheave, or the drum itself. In these circumstances, the whipping will cause wire breaks along the crowns of the strands. Obviously sheaves or drums that excite vibrations of this sort, must be repaired or replaced.GUIDELINE TO INSPECTIONS AND REPORTS FOR EQUIPMEN WIRE ROPE AND WIRE ROPE SLINGS 1) Maintain all inspection records and reports for the length of time deemed appropriate. 2) Prior to each daily use, the following procedure should be followed. 1. Check all equipment functions. '. Lower load blocks and check hooks for deformation or cracks. c. During lowering procedure and the following raising cycle, observe the rope and the reeving. Particular notice should be paid to kirking twisting or other deformities. Drumwinding conditions should also be noted. d. Check wire rope and slings for visual signs of anything that can cause them to be unsafe to use, ic., broken wires, excessive wear, kinking or twisting, and marked corrosion, Particular attention should be give to any new dam- age during operation, 3) Monthly inspections are recommended with a signed report by an authorized competent inspector. The Monthly Reports should include inspection of the following: . All fanctional operating mechanisms for excessive wear of components, brake system parts and lubrication b. Limit switches. c. Crane hooks for excess throat opening or twisting along with a visual for cracks. d. Wire rope and reeving for conditions causing possible removal. ©. Wire rope slings for excessive wear, broken wings, kinking, twisting and mechanical abuse. f, All-end connections such as hooks, shackles, tumbuckles, plate clamps, sockets, etc. for excessive wear, and distortion 4) An Annual Inspection with signed report must be made for the following: a. Crane hook for cracks. b. Hoist drum for wear or crack . Structural members for cracks, corrosion and distortion. 4. For loose structural connections such as bolts, rivets, and weldments, WIRE ROPE INSPECTION ‘The following is fairly comprehensive listing of critical inspection factors. Itis, not, however, presented as a substitute for an experienced inspector. It is rather a user's guide to the accepted standards by which ropes must be judged. 1) Abrasion Rope abrades when it moves through an abrading medium or over drums and sheaves. Most standards require that rope is to be removed if the outer wire wear exceeds 1/3 of the original outer wire diameter, ‘This is not easy to deter- ‘ine and discovery relies upon the experience gained by the inspector in me: suring wire diameters of discarded ropes.2) Rope Stretch All ropes will stretch when loads are initially applied. For an extended discus- sion of stretch, see pp. 73 and following: AAs rope deteriorates from wear, fatigue, etc. (excluding accidental dam- age), continued application of a load of constant magnitude will produce vary- ing amounts of rope stretch. A “stretch” curve plotted for stretch vs. time (Fig. 35) displays three discrete phases: Phase 1. Initial stretch, during the early (beginning) period of rope service, used by the rope adjustments to operating conditions (constructional stretch), Phase 2. Following break-in, there is long period-the greatest part ofthe rope’s service life-during which a slight increase in stretch takes place over an extended time, This results from normal wear, fatigue, ete. On the plotted curve-stretch vs, time-this portion would almost be horizontal straight line inclined slightly upward from its initial level, Phase 3. Thereafter, the stretch begins to increase at a quicker rate, This ‘means that the rope is reaching the point of rapid deterioration; as result of pro- longed subjection to abrasive wear, fatigue, etc. This second uptum of the ‘ curve is a warning indicating that the rope should soon be remov« ten ns of or seo T, + ro a Tats OF ROPE LIFE Figure 35. This curve is ploted to show the relationship of wire rope stretch tothe various stages of arope's life.3) Reduction in rope diameter ‘Any marked reduction in rope diameter indicates degradation, Such reduction may be attributed to: excessive external abrasion internal or external corrosion loosening or tightening of rope lay inner wire breakage rope stretch ironing or milking of strands In the past, whether or not a rope was allowed to remain in service depended to a great extent on the rope’s diameter at the time of inspection. Currently this practice has undergone significant modification, Previously, a decrease in the rope’s diameter was compared with pub- lished standards of minimum diameters. ‘The amount of change in diameter is, of course, useful in assessing a rope’s condition. But, comparing this figure with a fixed set of values is for the most part useless. These long-accepted. ‘minima are not, in themselves, of any serious significance wince they do not take into account such factors as: 1) variations in compressibility between IWRC and Fiber Core: 2) differences in the amount of reduction in diameter from abrasive wear, or from core compression, or combination of both; and 3) the actual original diameter of the rope rather than its nominal value. Asa matter of fact, all ropes will show a significant reduction in diame- ter when a load is applied. Therefore, a rope manufactured close to tis nomi- nal size may, when it is subjected to loading, undergo a greater reduction in diameter than that stipulated in the minimum diameter table, Yet, understand these circumstances, the rope would be declared unsafe although it may, in actuality, be safe, ‘As an example of the possible error at the other extreme, we can take the case of a rope manufactured near the upper limits of allowable size. Ifthe diameter has reached a reduction to nominal or slightly below that, the tables Would show this rope to be safe. But it should, perhaps, be removed. Today, evaluations of the rope diameter are first predicated on a com- parison of the original diameter-when new and subjected to a known load- with the current reading under like circumstances. Periodically, throughout the life of the rope, the actual diameter should be recorded when the rope is ‘under equivalent loading and in the same operating section, This procedure, if followed carefully, reveals a common rope characteristic: after an initial reduction, the diameter soon stabilizes. Later, there will be a continuous, albeit small, decrease in diameter throughout its life. Core deterioration, when it occurs, is revealed by a more rapid reduction in diameter and when observed it is time for removal. Deciding whether or not a rope is safe is not always a simple matter, A number of different but interrelated conditions must be evaluated. It would bedangerously unwise for an inspector to declare a rope safe for continued ser- vice simply because its diameter had not reached the minimum arbitrarily established in a table if, at the same time, other observations lead to an oppo- site conclusion Because criteria for removal are varied, and because diameter, in itself, is ‘vague criterion, the table of minimum diameters has been deliberately omit- ted from this manual 4) Corrosion Corrosion, while diff s a more serious cause of degradation than abrasion, Usually, it signifies a lack of lubrication. Corrosion will often ‘occur internally before there is any visible external evidence on the rope sur face. Pitting of wires is a cause for immediate rope removal. Not only docs it attack the metal wires, but it also prevents the rope’s component parts from ‘moving smoothly as itis flexed. Usually, a slight discoloration because of tusting merely indicates a need for lubrication. Severe rusting, on the other hand, leads to premature fatigue failures in the wires necessitating the rope’s immediate rope removal from service. When a rope shows more than one wire failure adjacent to a terminal fitting, it should be removed immediately. To retard corrosive deterioration, the rope should be kept well lubricated, In situations where extreme corro it may be necessary to use galvanized wire rope. 5) Kinks Kinks are permanent distortions cause by loops drawn too tightly. Ropes with kinks must be removed from service ©) “Bird Caging Bird caging results from torsional imbalance that comes about because of mistreatments such as sudden stops, the rope being pulled through tight sheaves, or wound on too small a drum, ‘This is cause for rope replacement unless the affected portion can be removed. 1) Localized Conditions Particular attention must be paid to wear at the equalizing sheaves. During normal operations this wear is not visible, Excessive vibration, or whip can cause abrasion and/or fatigue. Drum cross-over and flange point areas must be carefully evaluated. Ail end fittings, including splices, should ¢ examined for wor or broken wires, loose or damaged strands, cracked fitings, worn or distorted thimbles and tucks of strands. 8) Heated Damage itera fire, or the presence of elevated temperatures, there may be metal di coloration, oF an apparent loss of internal lubrication; fiber core ropes are par- ticularly vulnerable. Under these circumstances the rope should be replaced. 9) Protruding Core If, for any cause, the rope core protrudes from an opening between the strands the rope is unfit for service,