1.a.

Discuss about the needs of energy conversion and Energy audit

❖ Energy Conservation Needs
1. Environmental Protection: Reduces greenhouse gas emissions and minimizes the depletion of
natural resources.
2. Cost Savings: Helps households, businesses, and industries lower their energy expenses.
3. Energy Security: Decreases reliance on non-renewable energy sources, ensuring a stable and
sustainable energy supply.
4. Sustainability: Supports long-term resource availability for future generations.
❖ Energy Audit Needs
1. Efficiency Improvement: Identifies inefficiencies in energy usage and suggests corrective
measures.
2. Cost Optimization: Provides insights to reduce unnecessary energy expenses.
3. Regulatory Compliance: Ensures adherence to energy efficiency standards and policies.
4. Strategic Planning: Offers data for informed decision-making regarding energy management
and investments.

1.b. Difference Between Energy Conservation and Energy Audit

Aspect Energy Conservation Energy Audit
Definition Reducing energy use through A systematic review of energy use to
efficiency and behavioral changes. identify savings opportunities.
Approach Broad strategy (policy, habits, Technical assessment (measurement,
technology). analysis).
Objective Minimize overall energy Find specific areas for improvement.
consumption.
Implementation Requires awareness, incentives, and Conducted by energy auditors using
technology adoption. tools and data analysis.
Outcome Long-term sustainable energy use. Actionable recommendations for
efficiency.

2.a. What is BEE or Bureau of Energy Efficiency?

BEE stands for the Bureau of Energy Efficiency. It is an Indian government institution that
promotes energy efficiency and energy conservation in a variety of areas. It was established in 2001
under the Energy Conservation Act to promote policies, regulations, and measures to minimize India’s
energy usage and greenhouse gas emissions.

2.b. Role of BEE in Energy Conservation.

1. Developing energy efficiency requirements for appliances and equipment.
2. Implementing labeling schemes to direct consumers toward more energy efficient options.
3. Conducting energy audits and encouraging energy-efficient practices in businesses, buildings,
and organizations.
4. Creating policies and incentives to promote energy efficiency adoption.
5. Raising public awareness and implementing capacity-building programs to foster an energy-
efficient culture.

2.c. What are the needs and advantage of star labelling.

❖ Needs of Star Labelling
1. Concerns about energy efficiency and environmental sustainability.
2. Enables consumers to make informed decisions.
3. Lowers utility expenses by recommending energy efficient goods.
4. Encourages producers to make more energy-efficient products.
5. Reduces overall energy consumption and environmental effect.
❖ Benefits/advantages of star labelling –
1. It is promoting energy efficiency.
2. It save customers money.
3. It reduces green house gas emission.
4. Encourages customers to make environmentally friendly decisions.
5. Encourages producers pr manufacturer to make energy efficient products.

3. Energy Conservation Techniques in Induction Motor.

1. Improving Power Quality: Providing a constant voltage and current supply to the motor
decreases energy losses and increases efficiency.
2. Motor Survey: A complete evaluation of motors to discover inefficiencies, overloading, and
other issues that can be corrected to save energy.
3. Matching Motor with Loading: Using motors that are suitably suited for the workload reduces
energy waste caused by oversized or undersized motors.
4. Minimizing Idle and Redundant Running: Avoiding the unnecessary operation of
motors during idle periods or when not required saves energy.
5. Operating in Star Mode Lower Output Power: When lower output power is sufficient, using
motor winding designs such as star mode saves energy compared to running at full capacity.
6. Rewinding of Motor: Repairing or rewinding motors as needed to maintain peak efficiency and
avoid energy losses.
7. Replacement with an Energy Efficient Motor: Upgrading to newer, more energy-efficient motor
models can result in significant long-term energy savings.
8. Periodic Maintenance: Regular maintenance keeps motors running at peak efficiency, reducing
energy waste due to wear and tear or inefficiencies.

4. Energy Conservation Techniques in Transformer.

1. Load Sharing: Distributing the load across numerous transformers rather than overloading a
single transformer improves their efficiency and reduces wasteful energy loss.
2. Parallel Operation: Connecting transformers in parallel allows them to uniformly distribute
the load, resulting in efficient operation and less energy waste.
3. Isolating Techniques: Using isolation methods, such as isolation transformers,
reduces energy loss due to leakage currents while increasing overall efficiency.
4. Replacement with Energy-Efficient Transformers: Upgrading to newer, more energy-efficient
transformer models can result in significant long-term energy savings, particularly if older
transformers are inefficient.
5. Periodic Maintenance: Regular transformer maintenance, such as cleaning, inspection, and
testing, ensures that they perform at top efficiency, decreasing energy waste and extending
their lifespan.
Discuss about the energy audit procedure Walk through audit i and details audit
❖ Walk-Through or Preliminary Audit
This is a basic audit that involves a simple inspection of the building or facility, reviewing energy bills,
and identifying obvious areas where energy use can be reduced. To quickly identify major areas of
inefficiency and provide a rough estimate of potential energy savings. A brief report with preliminary
recommendations for energy-saving opportunities.
❖ Detailed or Comprehensive Audit
This is the most in-depth type of audit, involving detailed data collection, system performance testing,
and extensive analysis. To conduct a comprehensive evaluation of all energy systems and components,
often using advanced tools and techniques such as thermographic imaging or data logging. A
comprehensive report with detailed energy use analysis, specific recommendations, cost-benefit
analysis, and an implementation plan for energy-saving measures.
5. Construction, working principle ,diagram and advantage of soft starter.
❖ Soft Starter Diagram

❖ Construction of Soft Starter

Soft starters mainly consist of two parts.
• Power unit
• Control unit.
The power unit consists of a heat dissipater and thyristors, which are controlled by a logic circuit card
that makes the control unit.
Generally, a microprocessor-based control is used. Sometimes, a circuit breaker is used in place of
fuses to guarantee perfect protection of the thyristor during the fault period. further, a thermal
protection relay is provided on the supply side.
However, this protection is provided within the soft starter, so it is not required to install externally.
This starter is also used in the star-delta form. During the starting period, contactor A is closed and B is
open, hence the power is given to the motor via a soft starter which starts the motor softly.
After some time B is closed and the soft starter is cut off from the supply and power is directly given to
the motor.

❖ Soft Starter Working

The thyristors are coupled to this soft starting circuit’s three-phase power supply lines. These
thyristors modify their conduction angle to regulate the voltage supplied to the motor. When the motor
first starts, a low voltage is applied and then gradually increased. This gradual increase in voltage lowers
mechanical stress and restricts inrush current. The bypass contactor engages when the motor reaches
its maximum speed, shorting out the thyristors to reduce power losses and connecting the motor
straight to the power source.
The control circuit, which includes sensors, continuously checks the motor’s voltage and
current and adjusts in real-time to ensure a smooth start. The control circuit adjusts the firing angles of
the thyristors to give controlled and linear acceleration. This technique ensures that the motor
accelerates gently, which reduces mechanical wear and extends the life of both the motor and the
driven equipment. During normal operation, the soft starter stays in standby mode, ready to handle
subsequent startup cycles, improving overall system performance and dependability.
❖ Advantages
1. It is not costly.
2. Operation is very smooth.
3. Reduce load on the power supply system.
4. It is optimizes the starting process of the electrical machine.
5. It is also prevent mechanical shocks and damages.
Disadvantages
1. Easily generate heat.
2. This heat will impact the operation of this system.

6. Construction, working principle diagram and advantage of variable frequency

drive.
❖ Variable Frequency Drive Diagram

• Rectifier: It convert alternating current (AC) input electricity to direct current (DC).
• DC Bus: Stores and smoothes the converted DC power.
• Inverter: The inverter converts DC electricity back into AC with variable frequency and voltage
to control the motor’s speed.
• Control Unit: The control unit receives signals from external sources, such as control panels,
sensors, or automation systems, to determine the required motor speed and torque.
❖ Variable Frequency Drive Working Principle
• Input Power: The primary supply provides AC power to the VFD.
• Rectification: The rectifier converts AC power into DC power.
• DC Bus: The DC Bus stores and filters the DC electricity.
• Inversion: The inverter converts DC electricity back to AC power at customizable frequencies
and voltages.
• Output to Motor: Now this system delivers regulated AC power to the motor, regulating its speed
and torque.
❖ Advantages of VFDs
1. It is reduces energy consumption.
2. It is improve control over motor.
3. Operation is much smoother.
4. Require less maintenance.
5. It reduces wear and tear on the motor.
Application of VFDs
1. Used to control speed fans, pumps etc.
2. Used to control speed of conveyors, mixers, extruders, and other equipment.
7. Construction, working principle, diagram, and advantage of automatic power
factor controller.
❖ Automatic PF Controller Block Diagram

• Microcontroller: A microcontroller or processor is a central unit that monitors the power factor
and controls capacitor switching.
• Capacitor Banks: A collection of capacitors used to provide reactive power correction.
• Switching Devices: These are often contactors or solid-state switches that connect or
detach capacitor banks from the system.
• Sensors: Current and voltage sensors for measuring power factors and other electrical factors.
• Display Unit: The Display Unit displays information on the power factor, the status of capacitor
banks, and other important data.
• Protection Devices: These include fuses, circuit breakers, and other components that ensure
safe operation.
❖ Automatic PF Controller Working Principle
It is continuously monitors the electrical system’s power factor using current and voltage sensors.
The microcontroller then analyzes the measured power factor to calculate the required reactive power
correction. Based on this analysis, the microcontroller sends signals to the switching devices, which
link or disconnect the capacitor banks. This process of switching capacitors in and out modifies
the reactive power in the system, resulting in an improved power factor. The technology continuously
analyzes the power factor and makes real-time modifications to keep it at its optimal level.
❖ Advantages of APFC
1. This system reduces energy losses to the systems.
2. Because of this device we will get lower electrical bill.
3. Reduces load on electrical parts, which could extend their lifespan.
4. It improves energy efficiency.
5. It helps to meet regulatory standards for power quality.
6. Power factor correction is performed automatically and in real time.
7. It does not need operator intervention required.
❖ Disadvantages of APFC
1. These units are very expensive.
2. Installation is critical
3. Requires regular maintenance for proper operation.
4. For installation, this device require significant space.
5. After some time, the capacitor bank and other electrical components needs to change.
6. Improper settings or failures can result in overcorrection, which causes voltage instability.
7. For optimal performance, accurate initial calibration and adjustment are required.

8. Amorphous Core Transformer.

• Amorphous core transformer is a type of energy efficient transformer which is used to reduce the
losses in
• transformer and conserve energy.
• It is an equipment to reduce transmission and distribution losses.
• With improvement of silicon steel loss of transformer is reduced to 50% of that of transformer used
early.
• It is possible to achieve even higher efficiency using new better magnetic materials.
• This core can easily magnetized and demagnetized.
• Core loss by this metal can be reduced to 70 to 80 % than traditional transformer.
• This results into low electricity production and less CO2 emission at generating plants using coal.
• Energy loss due to heat or vibration from core is reduced.
• Amorphous transformer uses metallic glass alloy for the core.
• It is costlier than conventional iron core transformers.
• At present they are available upto 1600 KVA Rating.
❖ Advantage:
1. Iron losses i.e. eddy current and hysteresis losses are very low
2. Temperature rise in working condition is very low.
3. Magnetizing current is very small
4. Energy saving by about 70 %
5. Its reliability is higher
6. Requires less maintenance
7. overload capacity is much more.
8. Excellent short circuit capacity
9. Reduction in fossil fuel consumption and 𝐶𝑂2 emission.

9.Short note on epoxy resin cast transformer /Dry type transformer.

❖ Construction:
Epoxy resin cast transformers are a type of dry-type transformer where the windings and core are
encapsulated in epoxy resin under vacuum. This creates a robust, monolithic block that provides
excellent insulation and protection against environmental factors like moisture, dust, and corrosive
atmospheres. The windings are typically made of copper or aluminum, and the core is constructed from
high-grade silicon steel laminations to minimize losses. Fiberglass reinforcement is often incorporated
into the epoxy resin for enhanced mechanical strength and crack resistance.
❖ Working Principle:
Similar to other transformers, epoxy resin cast transformers operate based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. When an alternating current flows through the primary 1 winding, it
generates a changing magnetic field in the core. This changing magnetic field induces 2 an alternating
voltage in the secondary winding. The ratio of the voltages in the primary and secondary windings is
determined by the ratio of the number of turns in each winding. The epoxy resin encapsulation ensures
efficient and reliable transfer of electrical energy while providing superior insulation.
❖ Advantage Of dry type transformer /epoxy resin transformer:
• Low maintenance.
• Long life.
• Natural air cooling no required oil.
• Low cost installation.
• No more space required.
• Low fire hazardous and self fire extinguish.
• Low losses in comparison of oil transformer.
• Eco friendly.
• It can be installed inside of premises.

10. Short note on KVAR Controller.

❖ Block Diagram of KVAR Controller

❖ The function of Each Block /Construction

• Transformer: Reduces the high voltage from the power lines to a level acceptable for use by the
KVAR controller and other components. Offers electrical isolation and voltage transformation.
This enables the safe monitoring and control of the power system.
• Current Transformer: Measures the current that flows through electricity cables. Reduces
excessive current to a lower, safer level for metering and protection circuits. The CT transmits a
proportionate current signal to the PF Controller for analysis.
• Potential Transformer: Measures the voltage across electricity lines. Steps down the high
voltage to a level appropriate for metering and control circuits. The PT sends a proportional
voltage signal to the PF controller.
• PF Controller: Analyzes current and voltage information to estimate the system’s power factor.
The PF Controller estimates the reactive power (KVAR) required to restore the power factor to the
specified level. This calculation determines how the Capacitor Bank is switched.
• Capacitor Bank: Offers reactive power adjustment. The PF Controller may switch numerous
capacitors into and out of the circuit. By increasing capacitance, the Capacitor Bank
compensates for the system’s inductive reactive power, boosting the power factor.
This method guarantees that the power factor remains within the specified range, lowering losses and
increasing the efficiency of the electrical power system.
❖ Types of KVAR Controller
• Fixed Capacitor Banks: A simple and cost-effective solution for rather stable load conditions.
• Automatic Power Factor Controllers (APFC): More advanced, capable of dynamically adapting
to changing load conditions by switching capacitor banks on and off as needed.
❖ KVAR Controller Working Principle
• Measurement: Continuously monitors the power factor by measuring both real and apparent
power.
• Analysis: Analyzes the present power factor to calculate the necessary fix.
• Correction: Engages or disengages capacitors (or inductors) to alter the system’s reactive
power, hence enhancing the power factor.
• Feedback Loop: Constantly changes based on real-time measurements to ensure the best
power factor.
❖ Applications of KVAR Controller
• Used in factories and manufacturing plants with heavy inductive loads including motors,
welders, and HVAC systems.
• Used in huge buildings with complex lighting and HVAC systems.
• Used to manage the electricity quality in the distribution network.

11. Short note on Active Harmonic Filter

Diagram

❖ Active harmonic filter Construction

1. Power Electronics: Includes components like IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) for
high-speed switching.
2. Control Unit: Equipped with a CPU to detect harmonic distortions and manage real-time
corrections.
3. Sensors: Measure current and voltage to identify harmonic frequencies.
4. Filter Circuit: Generates counteractive harmonic currents to cancel distortions.
5. Enclosure: Protects the filter components from environmental and mechanical damage.
❖ Active Harmonic Filter Working
1. Detection: The AHF continuously monitors the electrical system to detect harmonics.
2. Analysis: It analyzes the harmonic content and determines the magnitude and phase of the
harmonic currents.
3. Generation: The AHF generates compensating currents that are equal in magnitude but
opposite in phase to the detected harmonics.
4. Injection: These compensating currents are injected back into the electrical system to cancel
out the harmonics.
❖ Advantages
• Improved Power Quality: Eliminates harmonic distortions, ensuring stable and efficient
operation of electrical systems.
• Enhanced Equipment Lifespan: Reduces stress on electrical components caused by
harmonics.
• Energy Efficiency: Improves power factor and reduces energy losses.
• Real-Time Correction: Adapts to changing loads and harmonics dynamically.
• Compact Design: Space-saving and easy to integrate into existing systems.
❖ Applications of Active Harmonic Filter
• Industrial plants with heavy use of variable frequency drives and other non-linear loads.
• Commercial buildings with significant electronic equipment.
 • Data centers and telecommunications facilities.
• Renewable energy installations where power electronics are prevalent.

12. What are the Causes of Technical Losses & Reduction Measures.
i) Controlling I²R Losses
Causes:
• Resistance in conductors and cables causes power loss as heat (I²R loss).
• Long transmission distances.
• Undersized conductors.
Measures:
• Use conductors with larger cross-sectional area to reduce resistance.
• Reduce length of feeders through network reconfiguration.
• Use high-conductivity materials (like copper or aluminum).
• Ensure proper jointing and connections.
ii) Optimizing Distribution Voltage
Causes:
• Operating at voltages lower or higher than optimal increases losses.
• Overvoltage causes increased magnetizing current; undervoltage causes high current draw.
Measures:
• Maintain voltage levels close to optimal values using:
o Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVRs)
o On-Load Tap Changers (OLTCs)
• Install voltage control devices strategically across the network.
iii) Balancing Phase Currents
Causes:
• Uneven load distribution across three phases.
• Leads to neutral current, overheating, and increased losses.
Measures:
• Periodically monitor and redistribute loads to balance all phases.
• Use phase balancing transformers or automatic load balancing systems.
• Apply proper planning during network expansion.
iv) Compensating Reactive Power Flow
Causes:
• Inductive loads (motors, transformers) draw reactive power, increasing current and losses.
• Poor power factor increases I²R losses.
Measures:
• Install capacitor banks or Static VAR Compensators (SVC).
• Use synchronous condensers in large networks.
• Promote power factor correction equipment in industries.
v) Demand Side Management (DSM)
Causes:
• High peak demand increases losses due to overloading.
• Inefficient appliances draw more power.
Measures:
• Encourage use of energy-efficient devices (LEDs, star-rated equipment).
• Implement Time-of-Use (ToU) tariffs to reduce peak demand.
• Promote load shifting and energy conservation awareness.
• Enable smart meters and automation for better control.
13.a. Discuss about the Energy Conservation in Lighting System.
Below we listed some energy conservation techniques in lighting system
i) Replacing Lamp Sources
This entails replacing standard incandescent or fluorescent bulbs with more energy-efficient
options such as LED (Light Emitting Diode) or CFL (Compact Fluorescent bulbs).
Benefits
• Energy Efficiency: LEDs consume significantly less power compared to incandescent
and fluorescent lamps.
• Longer Lifespan: LEDs have a much longer operational life, reducing the need for frequent
replacements.
• Reduced Heat Emission: LEDs produce less heat, which can lower cooling costs.
ii) Using Energy Efficient Luminaries
Luminaries are full lighting units, consisting of the lamp, housing, and other components. Using
energy-efficient luminaries guarantees that the complete device is designed to produce the most light
while using the least amount of electricity.
Benefits
• Optimized Light Distribution: Better design can lead to improved light distribution and
reduced wastage.
• Advanced Materials: Use of reflective and refractive materials to enhance light output.
• Reduced Power Consumption: Integrating high-efficiency ballasts and drivers that consume
less electricity.
iii) Using Light Controlled Gears
These are devices and systems that automate lighting based on occupancy, daylight availability,
or predetermined schedules.
Types
• Motion Sensors: Turn lights on/off based on the presence of people.
• Daylight Harvesting Sensors: Adjust lighting levels according to the amount of natural light
available.
• Timers and Programmable Controllers: Schedule lights to turn on/off at specific times.
Benefits
• Energy Savings: Lights are used only when necessary.
• Extended Lamp Life: Reduces the number of operating hours, extending the lifespan of lamps
and fixtures.
iv) Installation of Separate Transformer / Servo Stabilizer for Lighting
Installing a specialized transformer or servo stabilizer in the lighting system helps to maintain a
steady voltage level, which improves lighting equipment efficiency and longevity.
Benefits
• Voltage Regulation: Ensures that lights operate at optimal voltage, reducing energy wastage.
• Protection from Surges: Protects lighting equipment from voltage spikes and fluctuations,
minimizing damage and downtime.
• Improved Efficiency: Proper voltage regulation can lead to more efficient operation of lights
and reduce energy consumption.
v) Periodic Survey and Adequate Maintenance Programs
Lighting systems should be inspected and maintained on a regular basis to ensure that they are
running efficiently.
Activities:
• Cleaning Fixtures: Dirt and dust can reduce the light output of fixtures.
• Replacing Burnt-out Lamps: Ensures all fixtures are functioning properly.
• Checking and Replacing Ballasts/Drivers: Ensures they are working efficiently.
Benefits
• Consistent Performance: Maintains optimal performance of the lighting system.
 • Prevents Energy Wastage: Early detection of faults prevents unnecessary energy
consumption.
• Prolongs Equipment Life: Regular maintenance can extend the life of the lighting components.

13.b. What are the energy vicious lighting scheme.

1. LEDs: Long-lasting and highly energy-saving.
2. CFLs: Use significantly less energy than traditional bulbs.
3. Lighting Controls: Timers, dimmers, and sensors to optimize usage.
4. Daylight Integration: Utilizing natural light to minimize artificial lighting.

14.a. What are the techniques of energy saving in ear conditioning system?
1. Set Optimal Temperature: Keep the thermostat at a comfortable yet energy-efficient level,
such as 24–26°C.
2. Use Ceiling Fans: Complement your AC with ceiling fans to improve airflow and reduce cooling
demand.
3. Regular Maintenance: Clean filters and ensure the unit is serviced regularly for optimal
performance.
4. Seal Rooms Properly: Prevent cool air from escaping by sealing windows and doors.
5. Energy-Efficient Models: Choose ACs with higher BEE star ratings for better efficiency.
6. Shade Outdoor Units: Protect the outdoor unit from direct sunlight to reduce its workload.
7. Smart Controls: Use motion sensors or timers to optimize usage.

14.b. Furnace Energy Saving Techniques

▪ Proper Insulation: Use high-quality refractory materials to reduce heat loss.
▪ Waste Heat Recovery: Install heat exchangers or regenerators to recover heat from flue gases.
▪ Air-Fuel Ratio Control: Optimize combustion efficiency using sensors and control systems.
▪ Reduce Heat Losses: Minimize openings and ensure tight sealing of doors.
▪ Regular Maintenance: Clean burners and check for leaks to maintain performance.

14.c. Oven Energy Saving Techniques

▪ Efficient Insulation: Use ceramic fiber insulation to minimize heat escape.
▪ Temperature Control: Use PID controllers and thermocouples for precise temperature
regulation.
▪ Batch Loading Optimization: Maximize oven loading efficiency to reduce idle heating.
▪ Prevent Heat Leakage: Maintain door seals and minimize door opening during operation.
▪ Use of Infrared or Microwave Heating (where applicable): Reduces heating time and improves
energy efficiency.

14.d. Boiler Energy Saving Techniques

▪ Blowdown Control: Optimize boiler blowdown to prevent energy and water waste.
▪ Economizer Installation: Recover heat from flue gases to preheat feed water.
▪ Condensate Recovery: Reuse hot condensate to save energy and water.
▪ Insulation of Steam Lines and Boiler: Prevents radiant heat loss and increases efficiency.
▪ Efficient Burner Operation: Use modulating burners for better fuel control.
▪ Proper Boiler Sizing: Avoid oversizing, which leads to inefficient cycling.
15.a. Discussed the difference between cogeneration and tariff.
Feature Cogeneration (CHP) Tariff
Nature Energy generation technology and system Pricing mechanism for energy supply
design
Primary Efficient energy use, simultaneous output of Revenue generation, cost recovery,
Goal two forms demand management
Output Electricity and heat (or other thermal energy) Price list for energy consumption
Scale Variable, from small to large plants Applicable to all consumers
Impact Reduces energy waste, lowers emissions, Determines the cost of energy for
potential cost savings consumers

15.b.Discuss about the topping cycle and bottoming cycle of cogeneration.

❖ Topping Cycle in Cogeneration
In a topping cycle, electricity is generated first, and the waste heat created throughout the process is
used for heating or other thermal uses. This is the most prevalent type of cogeneration, which typically
includes the following steps:
• Step1 – Fuel Combustion: Fuel (natural gas, diesel, biomass, or coal) is burned to generate
high-temperature, high-pressure steam or hot gas.
• Step 2 – Electricity Generation: Steam or hot gasses are utilized to power a turbine, which is
coupled to an electric generator.
• Step 3 – Heat Recovery: After passing through the turbine, the low-pressure steam or hot gases
are used in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) or for industrial activities, space heating, or
water heating.
❖ Topping Cycle Diagram

❖ Advantages of Topping Cycle

1. Efficiency around 60% to 80%.
2. Reduces energy and operational cost.
3. Lower greenhouse gas emission and reduces pollutants like NOx and SOx.
4. Ensures a stable energy supply system.
5. Improved heat recovery technology.
❖ Bottoming Cycle in Cogeneration
A bottoming cycle’s primary goal is to provide thermal energy for industrial processes, and the waste
heat from these activities is then used to generate electricity. This sort of cogeneration is less prevalent
and typically found in energy-intensive sectors that create a lot of waste heat. The steps are as follows:
• Step 1 – Industrial Process: High-temperature thermal energy is employed directly in an
industrial process (for example, cement making, glass production, or metal smelting).
• Step 2 – Heat Recovery: Waste heat from the industrial process is absorbed, rather than being
wasted to the environment.
• Step 3 – Electricity Generation: The captured waste heat is utilized to generate steam, which
powers a turbine attached to an energy generator.
❖ Bottoming Cycle Diagram

❖ Advantages of Bottoming Cycle

1. Converts excess thermal energy into electricity.
2. It provides a reliable source of electricity.
3. It improves the overall efficiency in the industrial system.
4. Reduces green house gas emission.
5. Ideal for high temperature operations.

16.a. Discuss about the steam turbine co generation system.

❖ Block Diagram of Steam Turbine Cogeneration System
❖ Below we listed each and every section of the Steam Turbine Cogeneration System –
• Fuel Supply: The system starts with the fuel source (natural gas, coal, or biomass).
• Combustion Chamber: The fuel is burned in the combustion chamber, generating heat.
• Steam Boiler: The steam boiler uses heat from the combustion chamber to turn water into
high-pressure steam.
• Steam Turbine: The high-pressure steam from the boiler powers the steam turbine, which
converts the steam’s thermal energy into mechanical energy.
• Electric Generator: The mechanical energy from the turbine powers the electric generator,
which produces electricity.
• Power Output: The electricity generated is either fed into the electric grid or used locally.
• Condenser: The turbine’s exhaust steam passes through a condenser, which cools and
condenses it into water.
• Pump: The condensed water (condensate) is then pumped back into the boiler and reused,
completing the cycle.
• Heat Recovery System: In addition to condensing steam, the system recovers valuable
thermal energy from exhaust steam. This energy can be utilized to heat buildings, generate hot
water, or provide process heat.
❖ Steam Turbine Cogeneration Working
• Fuel Combustion: Fuel (natural gas, coal, biomass, etc.) is burned in a boiler to generate high-
pressure steam.
• Steam Turbine: The high-pressure steam is fed into a steam turbine. As the steam moves
through the turbine, it rotates the turbine blades, transforming thermal energy into mechanical
energy.
• Electric Generator: The turbine is coupled to an electric generator, which transforms
mechanical energy to electricity.
• Heat Recovery: After going through the turbine, the low-pressure steam retains significant
thermal energy. This steam is either condensed to make hot water or utilized directly to heat
something.
❖ Types of Steam Turbine
1. Back Pressure Turbines: These turbines produce high-pressure steam that can be used for
heating or industrial processes. They are commonly used when a large volume of steam is
required for process heat.
2. Condensing Turbines: These turbines produce low-pressure steam that is condensed into
water. This type is commonly employed when the primary purpose is to create electricity, with
less emphasis on heat recovery.
❖ Advantages of STCS
1. Cogeneration systems can achieve 70-90% efficiency, compared to 30-50% for standard power
plants that exclusively produce electricity.
2. Cogeneration minimizes fuel costs by producing both electricity and heat, making it a more
cost-effective energy source.
3. Higher efficiency requires less fuel, resulting in lower greenhouse gas and other pollutant
emissions.
4. Cogeneration systems can operate independently of the grid, providing a consistent source of
electricity and heat.
❖ Applications of STCS
1. Factories, refineries, and chemical facilities frequently demand both energy and process heat,
making cogeneration an excellent alternative.
2. Cogeneration can be used in urban settings to provide energy and heat to residential and
commercial buildings.
3. These institutions frequently have a steady demand for both energy and heat, making
cogeneration an effective option.
4. Cogeneration can provide energy for lights and heat for climate control.
16.b. Discuss about cash turbine poll generation system.

❖ Working Principle:
The system operates by burning fuel (usually natural gas or diesel) in the gas turbine's combustion
chamber. The hot, high-pressure exhaust gases then drive the turbine to generate electricity via an
attached generator. Instead of releasing this hot exhaust directly into the atmosphere (as in a simple
cycle gas turbine), a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) or other heat exchangers capture the
waste heat. This recovered heat is then used for various applications such as industrial processes,
district heating/cooling, or steam generation for further power production in a combined cycle
configuration.
❖ Key Components:
• Gas Turbine: The prime mover, converting fuel energy into mechanical shaft power.
• Generator: Converts the mechanical power from the turbine into electrical energy.
• Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) / Heat Exchanger: Recovers the high-temperature
exhaust heat from the gas turbine.
• Steam Turbine (in combined cycle): Utilizes the steam generated in the HRSG for additional
power generation.
• Balance of Plant: Includes fuel supply systems, air intake and exhaust systems, control
systems, and electrical switchgear.
❖ Advantages:
• High efficiency (can exceed 80% when both heat and power are used).
• Lower fuel costs (compared to separate heat and power generation).
• Reduced CO₂ emissions.
• On-site generation improves energy security and reduces transmission losses.

16.c. Advantages of Cogeneration

(i) Co-generation system meets both electrical power and heat energy requirements.
(ii) It reduces cost of plant.
(iii) It provides additional competitiveness for industrial and commercial users.
(iv) Heat in the discharged steam from boilers can be used at affordable rate to domestic users.
(v) Pollutants such as CO₂, ash etc. are reduced due to reduced fuel consumption.
(vi) High efficiency can be achieved in co-generation unit, as waste heat in flue gases, exhaust steam is
utilized properly.
(vii) A much more efficient use of primary energy is achieved with a separate generation of electricity
and heat energy.
(viii) Natural resources can be best used for energy production.
(ix) It eliminate SO₂ emission and reduces CO₂ emission in case where natural gas is used as fuel.
(x) It requires less cooling water as the heat energy in waste is properly utilized, hence it reduces
thermal pollution.
17.a. What are maximum demon tariff and load factor tariff.
1. Maximum Demand Tariff: The Maximum Demand tariff is based on the highest level of power
demand (measured in kilowatts or kVA) recorded over a certain time period. Consumers are
charged according to their peak usage. This sort of tariff is frequently imposed on industrial and
commercial users to encourage them to control and reduce their peak usage.
2. Load Factor Tariff: The Load Factor tariff accounts for the consistency of electricity usage
throughout time. Load factor is computed as the ratio of average to maximum load for a given
time period. A higher load factor suggests more consistent usage, which benefits the electrical
provider. Consumers having a high load factor may be offered a discounted rate as an incentive.

17.b. Difference between time off day tariff and peak off day tariff.
Feature Time of Day Tariff Peak/Off-Peak Day Tariff
Basis Time within a day Type of day (peak vs normal)
Price changes Daily, every few hours Only on designated peak days
Notification Fixed schedule May need prior notice
Focus Shift usage to low-demand times daily Reduce usage on high-demand days

18. What are the energy conversion methods that improving load factor and power
factor.
❖ Strategies to improve load factor
1. By distributing load evently.
2. By scheduling high usage task
3. By using automation techniques.
4. By real time monitoring and load shifting.
5. By storing energy during low demand period and use it on peak demand.
6. Equipment should be maintained on a regular basis to ensure that it operates efficiently and
does not consume excessive electricity.
7. Replace old, inefficient equipment with newer, more energy-efficient options.
8. Thermal storage is used in heating and cooling systems to store energy during off-peak hours.
9. Instead of doing high-energy things all at once, spread them out over time. For example, in
industrial settings, schedule machinery operations at staggered intervals.
10. Shift non-essential loads to off-peak hours. For example, running HVAC systems or charging
battery banks during non-peak hours.
❖ Some Techniques to Improving Power Factor
1. Install capacitors in parallel with inductive loads (such as motors) to reduce the inductive
impact and enhance power factor.
2. Use synchronous condensers to compensate for reactive power.
3. Use equipment with a high power factor, such as high-efficiency motors.
4. By ensuring that motors run at their ideal speeds, VFDs can be installed on motors to increase
power factor.
5. In a three-phase system, make sure that the loads are distributed evenly throughout the three
phases. A low power factor may result from unbalanced loads.
6. Avoid overloading equipment, which can lead to a decline in power factor.
7. Regularly inspect and maintain electrical systems to ensure they are operating at peak power
factor.
8. To continuously monitor power factor and spot problems in real time, use power quality
meters.
19.a. What is ABC analysis?
ABC analysis is an inventory management technique that categorizes items into three groups (A, B, C)
based on their value and impact. "A" items are high-value, requiring tight control; "B" are medium-value,
needing moderate attention; and "C" are low-value, requiring minimal control. This prioritization helps
businesses focus resources on the most important inventory for better efficiency and cost
management.

19.b. Needs of ABC analysis

• Control inventory more efficiently
• Prioritize resources on the most critical items (A-class)
• Reduce carrying costs
• Avoid overstocking or stockouts of key items
• Improve purchasing and stocking decisions
• Optimize storage space and warehouse layout

19.c. Applications of ABC Analysis

• Inventory Management:
o A Items: Tight control, frequent monitoring, safety stock.
o B Items: Moderate control, periodic reviews.
o C Items: Minimal control, bulk ordering.
• Supply Chain & Procurement:
o Focus on high-value suppliers for "A" category items.
• Retail & E-commerce:
o Stock high-demand (A) products prominently.
• Warehouse Management:
o Store "A" items in easily accessible locations.
• Financial Management:
o Allocate budgets efficiently based on item importance.
• Healthcare & Pharmaceuticals:
o Prioritize high-cost medicines (A) over low-cost supplies (C).

20. What are the instruments used for energy audit and their use.
1. Power Meters & Data Loggers
• Use: Monitor the electricity usage of individual appliances or circuits over time.
• Examples: Clamp meters, kWh meters, portable data loggers.
2. IR Thermometer
• Use: Measure surface temperatures and discover heat losses.
• Examples: Handheld IR thermometers, thermal imaging cameras.
3. Ultrasonic Leak Detector
• Use: For detecting gas leaks.
• Examples: Ultrasonic leak detectors.
4. Light Meters
• Use: It for measuring illumination level in a light systems.
• Examples: Lux meters, light level data loggers.
5. Humidity and Temperature Logger
• Use: Monitor the ambient temperature and humidity over time.
• Examples: Hygro-thermographs.
6. Flow Meters
• Use: It is measure the flow rate of a liquid.
• Examples: Ultrasonic Flow Meter.
21. Draw the energy flow diagram (sunkid diagram) and its importance.

Importance of Sankey Diagrams

1. Clarity: Simplifies complex energy systems, making them easier to understand.
2. Efficiency Analysis: Highlights areas of energy loss, helping identify opportunities for
improvement.
3. Policy Formulation: Assists governments and organizations in designing sustainable energy
strategies.
4. Educational Tool: Helps students and professionals grasp energy concepts effectively.
5. Process Optimization: Guides industries in enhancing energy efficiency and reducing costs.

22. Discuss about the energy audit procedure Walk through audit i and details audit
❖ Energy Audit Procedure
1. The Planning of energy audit is decided by conducting meeting with working personnel in the
industry.
2. The complete information about the process in industry is collected.
3. Preliminary audit is carried out with the help of available data.
4. Some experimentation, measurements, data collection and detailed survey and meetings are
carried out.
5. Cost benefit analysis considering payback period is done.
6. Accordingly broad report is prepared for implementation of the strategy.
7. The action plans are prepared for individual section, approved by the authority.
8. During implementation the feedbacks are taken to judge the effectiveness of the strategy.
❖ Walk-Through or Preliminary Audit
This is a basic audit that involves a simple inspection of the building or facility, reviewing energy bills,
and identifying obvious areas where energy use can be reduced. To quickly identify major areas of
inefficiency and provide a rough estimate of potential energy savings. A brief report with preliminary
recommendations for energy-saving opportunities.
❖ Detailed or Comprehensive Audit
This is the most in-depth type of audit, involving detailed data collection, system performance
testing, and extensive analysis. To conduct a comprehensive evaluation of all energy systems and
components, often using advanced tools and techniques such as thermographic imaging or data
logging. A comprehensive report with detailed energy use analysis, specific recommendations, cost-
benefit analysis, and an implementation plan for energy-saving measures.