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 Dialogue

Developing Higher-Level Thinking

Skills American
Through History

Writing Assignments

factors have compelled is striking accord as to the desirability

and senior high school history of the goal, especially for such a tradi
Several junior
A frequent charge lev teachers to think seriously and critically tionally pluralistic field as education,
about the kind of skill development being yet only minimal progress has been
eled against history fostered in their classrooms. A frequent made in realizing it. (4)
charge leveled against history teachers is Another factor causing history teach
teachers is that their that their teaching is characterized by fac ers to assess skill development in their
tualism: a belief that history is a body of awareness
teaching is character classroom is the growing that
substantive information that must be mas our society has moved into what is fre
ized by factualism. tered. Such an orientation often results in quently referred to as the "information
an encyclopedic approach to teaching and age." Such an age, characterized by the
learning which stresses lower-level cogni explosion of advanced technology, leaves
tive development, massive memorization, one unable to master all the information
Kline Capps and r?gurgitation of data ( 1). Ironically, as available in a given field. Thus, attention
John Goodlad points out, most social stud must be given to providing skills which
David E. Vocke ies and history teachers believe that their will enable the student to process the ongo
curricular area provides opportunity for ing flow of information. As early as 1982,
the development of thinking skills; and yet, the Education Commission of the States
most of the activities they ask students to identified the following as the "basics" of
engage in involve reading the textbook, tomorrow: evaluation and synthesis skills,

listening to lectures, completing workbooks critical thinking, problem-solving strate

and worksheets, and taking tests. Findings gies, organization and reference skills,
from the same study also suggest that no application abilities, creativity, decision
more than 1 percent of teacher-generated making based on incomplete information,
questions required higher-level responses and communication skills through a vari
from students (2). These activities and ety of modes.

approaches do not generally foster higher Sensitive teachers, aware of the criti
level skills since they merely evaluate the cism of their performance in the classroom
student's recall of information. and the nature of our changing society,
'
Guyton
s review of the literature corro have sought ways to inject higher-level
borates such findings by stating succinctly thinking skills into their courses. How
that "current does not include ever, as out, social studies
practice Beyer points
Kline Capps is an assistant professor of teaching for thinking" (3). Kuhn sum and history teachers have been inundated
education and Director of Student Field marizes best the current status of teaching with definitions of "critical thinking."
Experiences at Bueno Vista College. for thinking: Problem solving, inquiry, decision mak
...
The evidence suggests that educa ing, inductive thinking, and other titles
David E. Vocke is an assistant professor of tion for thinking may be a goal on the have been used as labels to describe higher
social studies at Tow son State University. order of goals like world peace. There levels of thinking. For our purposes, we

6O AH Magazine of History
concur
"
with Beyer's assessment that Risinger further states that "students do not Research also shows that if the ben
'critical' [or higher-level] thinking is the merely express knowledge by writing, they efits that accrue from writing in general are
assessing of the authenticity, accuracy, also discover knowledge. Writing is an to be realized in social studies and history,
and/or worth of knowledge claims and integrative process.. ."(9). Astrophysicist writing must be consciously practiced in
arguments" (5). Such a statement not only James Van Allen uses his own experiences these subjects. As Beyer and Brostoff
clarifies the concept of higher-level think to illustrate well the notion of using writing indicate, writing and content are insepa
ing, but also describes the role of the as a
learning tool: "I'm never as clear on rable in the minds of students. Students
historian as well. The historian does not a matter as when I have just finished writ tend not to transfer basic skill instruction
simply gather facts: she/he analyzes, evalu ing aboutit" (10). on their own; rather, they must learn and

ates, and interprets past events in light of In addition to using writing as a vehicle practice theses skills in the context of the
current perspectives. In short, historical for students to learn, the writing process subject matter content. Consequently,
writings are descriptions of the past based also has significant potential for helping writing skills developed in a "content
on available data and the perspective of students to think. Writing is thinking. free" or non-social studies or
non-history
the historian. By challenging students to Olson goes so far as to suggest that the act environment do not transfer automatically
reexamine the narrative of a
particular of composing in the writing process in to social studies or history (17).
historical event, they are invited to engage volves all of the cognitive skills inBloom's
in higher levels of thinking. The study of Taxonomy (11). When writing the indi Writing Assignments Designed
history thus becomes more than the collec vidual must make distinctions between to Enhance Higher-Level
tion of bits of information. relevant and irrelevant information, gener Skill Development
ate and evaluate inferences, make relation There is little doubt that students must
Writing as a Means to Foster ships, arrange data and assertions into a be guided in their initial attempts at writing
Higher-Level Skills pattern and so on (12). Parker reveals the assignments which require them to do more
It is our intent, in the remainder of integral nature of the issue when he states: than search for recall information. In order
this piece, to provide a rationale for em
"Thinking is itself the most powerful of to gain competence in such writing assign
ploying writing activities and to suggest a learning strategies. When students are ments, students must be provided repeated
format that will engage students in the engaged successfully in thinking about opportunities to practice and refine their
study of history in such a way that will material at hand, they will likely master skills (18).
necessitate higher-level thinking skills in both the material and the thinking process It has also been suggested that students
the classroom. used in learning" (13). are likely to challenge and resist initial
Henry Giroux indicates that when so If one accepts the idea that the writing inquiry tasks because they are more famil
cial studies and history teachers are con process involves and fosters the develop iarwith memory-level activities which are
fronted with the suggestion that they rely ment of thinking, it is interesting to note relatively risk free. VanSickle suggests
upon writing as a learning vehicle, their research that suggests that "44 percent of that student resistance can be overcome by
initial reaction is similar to this: "... writ the lesson time in six major subject areas cooperative learning strategies (19). Peer
ing is a separate subject, and I have a hard involved writing activities of some kind; interaction in pre-writing stage activities?

enough time simply teaching inmy field" yet only 3 percent of that time was spent where students examine their knowledge
(6). While such a response is a fair one, it writing tasks of a paragraph or longer" of the topic, the audience, and their knowl
is also misguided. Writing ismore than a (14). Such brief assignments are not edge or writing plans (20)?allows for an
subject; it is a process that can be used to likely to require students to grapple with a exchange of ideas that lessens the risk of
teach students. In reality, as one writes, challenging writing task, reconstruct facing an
assignment that cannot be com
one new
learns. When pen is put to paper,
knowledge, plan communication, or
shape pleted. As Thompson and Frager remind
insights into the subject are conceived, and messages?tasks that Glatthorn contends us, thinking skills do not develop in isola
a written
by the time assignment is com are essential to
writing exercises that de tion; think tanks and political task forces
pleted, one has usually discovered or gen velop thinking (15). are "real world" examples of collaborative
erated something about the subject that Social studies and history educators thinking efforts (21).
she/he did not know or understand when have recognized that higher-order skills Thus, the key role for the teacher in
the project was initiated. As Nelms points should be at the heart of their curriculum designing writing activities which provide
out, to make meaning, good writers gener and instructional strategies. Writing can for engagement in thinking tasks more
ate, assimilate, analyze, and organize in enhance development of these higher-or complex than recall is to arouse "a 'percep
formation and ideas (7). Armento, arguing der skills. A recent National Assessment of tion of something that needs explanation,
from research findings, concludes that this Educational Progress report directly links something unexpected, pecu
puzzling,
"
process of constructing meaning from avail writing effectiveness to development of liar' (22). This would, of course, require
able information results in learning (8). skills in critical thinking (16). well-defined learning objectives and a thor

Fall 1991 7
ough understanding of the content that describe him? Once such descriptions are most accurately depicts the "real" Custer.

would serve as the focus of the lesson. categorized, student interest could be fur The key to such a discussion is that student
Once the writing assignment is posed, stu ther piqued by introducing conflicting observations can be supported by the infor
dents would be required to clarify mean portraits of the historical figure. In the case mation provided. Sharing these responses
ing, justify their ideas, clarify inconsistent of Custer, it is suggested that two film allows students to examine the viewpoints
perspectives, and summarize progress to portrayals that present conflicting charac of others and how they interpret the pro
ward solving the problem (23). terizations might stimulate students to pon vided information.
In searching the literature for writing der on how such divergent representations Up to this point, the sequence of stages
assignments designed for history classes of the same man could exist (25). in the lesson- have required students to
which promote higher-level thinking in After viewing each film excerpt, stu examine both their own perceptions and
students, in accordance with the previ dents could work in small discussion groups the perceptions of others concerning the
ously stated conditions, we are impressed to categorize and describe the portrayals in historical figure. They now have some
with a model presented by Thompson and each clip. This step provides for the peer thing towrite about. Instead of writing the
mundane report "about Custer," the stu

dent should reflect on the topic in a more

critical way. Writing opinions could be
When writing the individual must make distinc
proposed that focus on any combination of
the following questions:
tions between relevant and irrelevant informa Which of the two films most accu

tion, generate and evaluate inferences, make rately depict General George Custer?
Why are the descriptions of General
relationships, and arrange data and assertions Custer so different?
How can people write such conflict
into a pattern. ing accounts of the same events and

people?
Frager (24). The model is useful for sev interaction mentioned earlier. Students How has your original conception of
eral reasons: it is easily adapted to a num can exchange information and observa General Custer been altered, if at all,
ber of topics in the history curriculum; it tions and make comparisons of the descrip by this information?
engages students in the types of thinking tions of Custer based on their prior knowl What does this lesson tell us about
skills described earlier; and it can effec edge. This opportunity for interchange the study of history?
tively stimulate students to write. The expands the individual student's perspec Follow-up writing assignments, which
strength of the model is that it takes a tive. Questions could be formulated which require further investigation, could be off
historical figure
or event and creates an would extend the search to validate one of shoots of the introductory activities. For
environment where a sense of doubt is the depictions of Custer. example, library research could investi

created which spurs students to act as The above activities are designed to gate additional primary accounts of the
historians. provoke interest in the topic. The next Battle of the Little Big Horn; biographies
For example, a typical American his stage seeks to expand student knowledge of Custer could be compared to textbook
tory textbook usually provides a few para by introducing additional information. In descriptions of the General; and students
graphs of narrative about General George the case of the Custer lesson, Thompson could rewrite, from their own perspective,
Custer and the Battle of the Little Big and Frager utilize primary sources that the section of the textbook that covers the
Horn. Students generally know something again illustrate conflicting views of the topic under study and justify their account
about the man and the event, but the infor General. Excerpts from the diaries of Eliza as historically accurate.

mation is typically superficial. Thompson beth Custer (several have been published),
and Frager suggest that in order to stimu the general's wife, paint a different picture Conclusions
late students to think about this controver than does the testimony from former offic Writing structured around
assignments
sial figure and his place in history (and to ers under Custer's command or Sioux war the format suggested in this paper can
ultimately understand the historical con riors present at the Little Big Horn (26). provide students with the opportunity to
troversy that surrounds him), the teacher Introducing the students to conflicting engage in higher levels of thinking. Such
should first capitalize on students' prior perspectives, through secondary and pri assignments require going beyond themere
knowledge. To start the lesson, the class mary sources, creates more questions about recall of information?although historical
would be surveyed to elicit current percep the "right" picture of Custer. In small information is necessary?because students

tions about Custer: What do they know groups or whole class discussions, students are challenged to grapple with existing
about him? What words or phases might can share their responses about which view data and interpret a historical event through

8O AH Magazine of History
 a
variety of perspectives. In short, they 15. A.A. Glatthorn, "Thinking and Writ 23. VanSickle, "Research Implications."
have information to evaluate and write ing," Essays on the Intellect, ed. F.R. 24. Thompson and Frager, "Teaching Criti
about; students become immersed in the Link (Alexandria, Va: ASCD): 67-88. cal Thinking."
study of history. 16. A.N. Applebee, J. A. Langer, and I. 25."They Died With Their Boots On" is a
Mullis, The Writing Report Card: Writ film suggested by Thompson and
Endnotes ing Acheivement inAmerican Schools Frager. We found "Custer: The Ameri
1. F.K. Capps, "The Discipline of History (Princeton: National Assessment of can Surge Westward" available in lo
as Portrayed in Social Education, Educational Progress, 1986). cal libraries. A contrasting portrait of
1937-1982," Ph.D. diss., University 17.Beyer and Brostoff, "Writing toLearn." Custer can be found in the motion
of Missouri-Columbia, 1984. 18. K. O'Reilly, "Teaching Critical Think picture "Little Big Man."
2. J.I. Goodlad, A Place Called School ing in High School U.S. History," 26. One collection of Elizabeth Custer's
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Social Education 49 (1985): 281-284. memoirs is Boots and Saddles or life
1984). 19. R.L. VanSickle, "Research implica inDakota With General Custer. Lon
3. E.M. Guyton, "Critical Thinking and tions of a theoretical analysis of John don: Sampson Low, Marson, Searle,
Political Participation: Development Dewey's How We Think, Theory and and Rivington, 1885. Accounts from
and Assessment of a Casual Model," Research" in Social Education 13 an officer who served with Custer
Theory and Research in Social Educa (1985): 1-20. can be found in Utley, Robert M., ed.
tion 16 (1988): 23-49. 20. Glatthorn, "Thinking and Writing." Life in Custer s Cavalry: Diary and
4. D. Kuhn, "Education for Thinking," 21. L.C. Thompson and A.M. Frager, Letters of Albert and Jennie Barnitz.
Teachers College Record, 87 (1986): "Teaching Critical Thinking: Guide 1867-1868. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
495-512. lines for Teacher-Designated Content University Press, 1977. Interviews
5. B. Beyer, "Critical Thinking: What is Area Lessons," Journal of Reading 28 with Sioux warriors can be found in
it?" Social Education 49 (1985): 270 (1984): 122-127. Sandoz, Mari. Horse. New
Crazy
276. 22. VanSickle, "Research Implications," 7. York: House, 1942.
Hastings
6. H.A. Giroux, "Teaching Content and

Thinking Through Writing," Social

Education 43, (1979): 190-193.
7. B.F. Nelms, "Response and Responsi
PLANNING AMOVE?
bility: Reading, Writing and Social
Studies," The ElementarySchool Jrour
??/87,(1987): 571-589. Please keep us-informed
by contacting us inwriting
8. B. Armenio, "Research on
Teaching
Social Studies," Handbook of Re six weeks prior to your
search on ed. M.C. Wittrock move.
Teaching, Send your old
(New York: Macmillan, 1986), 942 mailing label along with
951. your new address to:
9. CF. Risinger, "Improving Writing Skills
Through Social Studies," ERIC Di
Magazine of History
112 N. Bryan Street
gest 40 (July 1987).
10. J.A. Van Allen, "Why Scientists Must Bloomington IN47408
Know How toWrite," University of
Iowa Spectator 12, (1979): 7.
11. C.B. Olson, "The Thinking/Writing New Address:
Connection," Developing Minds, ed.

by A.L. Costa (Alexandria, Va.:

ASCD). Name
12. B.K. Beyer and A. Brostoff, "Writing
to Learn in Social Studies," Social
Education 43, (1979): 176-77. Address
13. W. C. Parker, "Thinking to Learn
Concepts," Social Studies 19, (1988):
70-73.
City, State, ZIP
14.Olson, "Thinking/Writing Connection."

Fall 1991 g