MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE
“AFRICAN MYTH – On the Concept of Creation in African Ontology” by Ikechukwu Anthony
Kanu & Ejikemeuwa J. O. Ndubisi:
Summary:
1. Central Thesis:
African ontology views creation as a natural attribute of God, who is universally
acknowledged as the Supreme Creator. This paper examines African creation myths to explore
the dimensions of divine creation and its ontological significance in African thought.
2. Key Themes and Concepts:
● Creation as Divine Attribute:
○ God is inherently a creator.
○ African names, hymns, and proverbs reflect God’s role as creator.
● Types of Creation in African Myths:
○ Ex nihilo (Out of nothing): Common across many African myths.
○ Creation by Delegation: Supreme God delegates to deities (e.g., Obatalá in
Yoruba myth).
○ Orderly Creation: Creation follows a divine, purposeful sequence.
○ Continuous Creation: Creation did not end; God continues to sustain the
universe (divine providence).
● Mythological Examples:
○ Yoruba (Ife) Myth: Olodumare sends Obatalá with tools to create earth and
humans.
○ Efe (Congo): God molds the first human from clay; sin leads to the introduction
of death.
○ Nyamwezi (Tanzania): Creation through resurrection; jealousy causes death.
○ Wassa (Ghana): World created as God’s companion; spirits tasked with
maintaining it.
○ Basare (Ghana): Creation unfolds in stages, culminating in the creation of
humans.
● God’s Supremacy:
○ Names and hymns from various ethnic groups depict God as omniscient,
omnipotent, eternal, and self-existent.
○ God is seen as the first cause of all that exists.
● Names Reflecting Creation:
○ Names for God (e.g., Borebore – Akan, Eleda – Yoruba, Chineke – Igbo) and
humans (e.g., Chikere – Igbo: “God created”) express belief in divine creation.
3. Philosophical & Theological Context:
● Contrasts African views with Western philosophical traditions (e.g., Aristotle, Descartes,
Spinoza, Hegel).
● Stresses the phenomenological method for interpreting African creation myths.
● Argues African perspectives align with theistic worldviews, countering Western secular
or pantheistic interpretations.
4. Conclusion:
Despite diverse narratives, African creation myths converge on the belief in a single, supreme
God as the origin of all things, with creation understood as ordered, purposeful, and
ongoing. The African worldview affirms a relational hierarchy between God, deities, humans,
and the cosmos, rooted in divine providence and responsibility.
NORSE MYTH
Ginnungagap there are two opposite world collides called Niflheim (made from ICE)
and Muspellheim (made from FIRE)
First Creatures are two giants: JOTUNN (YMIR) & AUDHUMLA (a giant cow whose milk
Ymir use as food)
While Ymir was sleeping, a sweat dropped from his armpit, creating the first man and
woman, “JOTNAR.” When his leg touched the other, creating a son with six legs representing
the beginning of a giant race.
The cow Audhumla is licking the mountain of rock salt as it melts, revealing Buri and
his son Bor. Bor looks for a wife and marries Bestla, one of the giant’s daughters. Eventually,
they have an offspring named Odin, Vili, and Ve.
After beng killed by Odin and his siblings, Ymir’s body used to fashion the world: his
skull - sky, flesh - earth, blood - ocean, hair - forest, teeth - mountains, etc. The maggots
that came from Ymir’s remain became dwarfs.
YGGDRASIL meaning Odin’s Horse/Gallows is world tree that connects the nine
worlds and was considered as the tree of life:
● Asgard - realm of the Aesir; gods Hoenir and Mimir
● Alfheim - realm of the Bright Elves
● Jotunheim - realm of the Giants
● Midgard - realm of the humans; the only place that is habitable for humans.
● Muspellheim / Muspell - a fire giant or the forces of chaos or their realm.
● Nidavellir/Svartalfheim - realm of the dwarves
● Niflheim - realm of ice and mist, possibly with lower realm of Niflhel
● Helheim - home of Hel, Loki’s daughter; Jormangundr (dragon)
● Vanaheim - realm of the Vanir, with gods Njord and Freyr (a race of gods
responsible for wealth, fertility, and commerce); their goddess named Gullveig
has been in a fight with the Aesir to ask for equality and monetary satisfaction.
ODIN sacrificed his one eye in exchange for wisdom. He desired to drink from the Well of Mimir
(mimirbrunnur), which held the waters of wisdom.
VALHALLA - a warrior’s paradise and the hall of slain warriors.
“THE COMING OF THE GODS”
At first, ancient Greeks believed that there is nothing in the universe. Many years
passed, and Mother Earth (Gaea) and Father Heaven (Uranus) appeared. Gaea and Uranus
have children. The first three were a monster called "Hecatoncheires," and the next three
children are also a monster called "Cyclopes." The remaining 12 children were called Titans;
they are godlike creatures. Uranus feared his monster child; that’s why he imprisoned them in
Tartarus. Gaea is not in favour of the decision of Uranus. Cronus helps his mother to see her
siblings, but then Cronus also fears his monster siblings.
Cronus and Rhea ruled for countless ages. When they already had a child, Cronus
swallowed each baby because of the fear that his children might dethrone him. Five children
were swallowed, and Titan Rhea became annoyed. When her sixth child (Zeus) was born, she
tricked Cronus and secretly whisked Zeus away to the island of Crete.
When Zeus grew up, Rhea told him about the condition of his siblings, and they started
to plan how to rescue them. When he already rescues his swallowed siblings, Zeus asks the
other Titans for help to beat Cronus. The war began. Gaea also had the opportunity to rescue
her children. The monsters help Zeus with his agenda. They lay exhausted and beaten at the
mercy of Zeus.
Zeus and her siblings became the lords of all. They divided the universe, and Zeus
became the king of gods and goddesses and supreme ruler. Poseidon was assigned to rule the
ocean. Hades controls the underworld, and all the wealth hides under the earth. Hestia became
the goddess of hearth and home, and Demeter became the goddess of all living things. Hera,
the youngest, was chosen to be the queen of Zeus. All of these gods and goddesses lived on
Mt. Olympus. They eat and drink a food that was made by Zeus to keep them forever young and
beautiful. At last, they called themselves Olympians.
THE CREATION OF MAN
Prometheus and Epimetheus were given the task of creating a man. Prometheus made
a man using clay mud, then Athena breathed life into the clay. Epimetheus was assigned to give
qualities of other creatures. Epimetheus gives all good qualities to other creatures, and nothing
is left for man. Prometheus made a man and gave him fire. Prometheus loved man more than
the Olympians, who had banished most of his family to Tartarus. Prometheus decided to trick
Zeus. Zeus got angry because of the trick, and then he took fire away from the man.
Prometheus lit a torch from the sun and brought it back again to the man. To punish man, Zeus
gave a jar to Pandora, and it was forbidden to open it. Prometheus warned Epimetheus not to
accept gifts from Zeus, but Pandora's beauty was too great,, and he allowed her to stay.
Pandora is curious about what's inside the jar, and then she took a glimpse, and the jar flew out
of the entire manor. The bottom of the jar held one good thing, and it is 'hope.'
TROUBLE COMES TO EARTH
Zeus said that man must be punished for daring to accept the gift of fire from
Prometheus, and then they made a woman. The Olympians named the created special woman
Pandora, which means "all-gifted." The messenger Hermes takes her to the earth as a
present for Epimetheus with a golden box that is forbidden to open. Even if Prometheus warned
Epimetheus not to accept gifts from Zeus, Epimetheus was completely captivated with the
beauty of Pandora. Pandora is slowly loving the earth as she loves Mt. Olympus, but she's still
wondering why the golden box is forbidden to open. Pandora was tempted to open the box
more than she did. As she opened the box, many unusual things came out. Epimetheus cried
when he saw what Pandora had done. Those imps are greed, pain, jealousy, disease, hate,
bitterness, cruelty, and spite that will roam upon the world. But there is one thing in the box
that is hope. Since then, it has remained with humanity. Hope is always there to whisper her
sweet words that all is not lost and that calm will return to our hearts, no matter how severely we
are tormented with trouble.
WHY THE SEASONS CHANGE
Persephone is the daughter of Demeter, the goddess of harvest. Persephone loves
springtime. Hades fell in love with Persephone and decided to make her his queen, but he knew
that she would never willingly go with him. One day, she picks unusual blossoms near the
riverbank. When she reached out her hand, she heard a deep rumble. Hades grabbed the lovely
maiden before she could scream for help and descended into his underworld kingdom while the
gap in the earth closed after them. Demeter couldn't find her daughter even if she searched day
and night. She can't even attend to all her duties because she's still looking for her daughter.
Zeus will help Demeter to rescue Persephone. Hermes saw Persephone in the underworld, the
palace of Hades. Hades tricked Persephone, who was crying all day and night from despair, to
eat a few seeds of the pomegranate fruit. This was the food of the Underworld, and every time
someone ate even a few seeds of this, then, after a while, he would miss life in the Underworld.
When the gathering in front of Zeus took place and Persephone was asked where she would
like to live, she answered she wanted to live with her husband. When Demeter heard that, she
got infuriated and accused Hades of somehow tricking her daughter. A great fight followed, and
Demeter threatened that she would never again make the earth fertile and everyone on Earth
would die. To put an end to this quarrel, Zeus decided that Persephone would spend half the
months with her husband in Hades and half the months with her mother on Olympus. This
alternative pleased neither of the two opponents; nevertheless, they had no other option but to
accept it.
THE COMING OF PAN
The nymph was the mother of Pan, and because of the physical appearance of Pan,
who is hairy, chubby, and has horns like a goat, she hated her son and ran away into the forest.
The baby was left alone, and his father, Hermes, went down from Mt. Olympus to see his new
son. As he saw his son, he said that Pan is the most interesting person he has ever seen and
not an ordinary child at all. Pan was loved and accepted in Mt. Olympus. Unfortunately, when he
grew up, his physical appearance got worse, and he became a problem in Olympus. He was
sent back down to earth where he was born. Pan was already on the earth; he wandered as he
pleased to many places. He fell in love with Syrinx, but he won't have the opportunity to talk
with her. One day, Pan was tricked at the very moment of his victory. Pan was heartbroken. He
made a musical instrument called "syrinx," and by breathing into the pipes, he could produce
any tone he wished. Inhabitants of the field love Pan. His musical invention was enjoyed by
many inhabitants.
THE HORSE AND THE TREE
When Zeus had a severe headache, he stormed out and tried various remedies.
Hephaestus was the son of Zeus and was regarded as one of the most talented Olympians. He
was also honoured by the immortals and mankind. He was a god of fire whose workshops were
deep in the earth. When people saw plumes of smoke rising from volcanoes, they would think of
him. When Zeus thundered, no one dared. This resulted in the birth of Pallas Athena, who was
a radiant and beautiful goddess. Zeus was so proud of his daughter that he made her the
goddess of wisdom and learning. Since she was born in armour, he named her the goddess
of defensive welfare. She was a great favourite among the Olympians and the mortals. The
people of Attica were pleased to have her as their name. As they approached the Acropolis,
Poseidon hit the ground with his spear, and he brought a magnificent horse with him. The
people were in awe. Then, with her spear, Athena struck the ground with her olive tree. The
gods were able to see that the tree would make Greece prosperous.
APHRODITE
A shining object was floating towards the nymphs. It is a delicately tinted shell and was
blown by Zephyrus. From the shell, a maiden of dazzling beauty appeared. She is known as the
queen of beauty, and whoever sees her will love her. The nymphs named her Aphrodite, which
means born of the foam. When Zeus saw Aphrodite, he decided to bring her to Mt. Olympus
because of the amazing beauty of Aphrodite, and he declared Aphrodite as the goddess of
beauty and love. Aphrodite learns to love Mt. Olympus, but she never forgets the earth, where
she was born. Aphrodite fell in love with Adonis and she preferred to be on earth with him.
Adonis is a great hunter and Aphrodite advised him not to target dangerous animals. But Adonis
didn't listen to Aphrodite and something bad happened to him. Aphrodite was too late; she didn't
save Adonis. As a remembrance of the death of Adonis, "his blood will bloom each spring."
THE BIG AND LITTLE BEARS
Zeus had many human girls and one of his favourites was Callisto. He visited her from
time to time, causing jealousy in his wife, Hera. Hera decided to take revenge on this woman.
One day, as Zeus and Callisto were walking through the forest, Zeus reported that Hera was
approaching, but it was not too late to hide Callisto. Therefore, he turned her into a giant bear.
Hera approached them and saw Zeus walking alone in the woods. She didn't think he was alone
there. She insisted both of them return to Mt. Olympus together. Zeus didn't want to leave
because he knew he needed to go to the mountains after returning Callisto to his human form.
Zeus returned to the mountains with his wife and left Callisto as a bear, but on the same day,
Callisto's son Arcas also went out hunting in the forest. He looked at the large bear in front of
him and shot her in the heart. His stroke was normal and the bear was fatally injured. The bear
began to die in front of his surprise, but he began to turn into a mother with an arrow in his chest
and began to cry loudly about what he had done to his mother. Arcas understood that Zeus
played a game that turned his mother into a bear. He became even angrier and began to cry
loudly. Zeus heard his story and learnt that Hera was also able to hear him, and he returned to
Earth to persuade Arcas not to reveal the secret. Zeus turned Callisto into a bear, making her
the largest constellation in the northern sky, known as the Big Dipper, and also the small
constellation known as the Arcas Little Bear and the Little Dipper. Arcus turned to see his
entire mother floating in the sky.
Trojan War – Summary
1. Cause of the War:
● The Judgement of Paris: The war began when Paris, prince of Troy, was asked to
judge which goddess—Hera, Athena, or Aphrodite—was the fairest. He chose
Aphrodite, who promised him the love of the most beautiful woman in the world: Helen,
wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta.
● Abduction of Helen: Paris took Helen to Troy, causing outrage in Greece.
2. Greek Response:
● Agamemnon, brother of Menelaus and king of Mycenae, assembled a massive Greek
army to retrieve Helen.
● Key Greek heroes: Achilles, Odysseus, Ajax, Diomedes, Nestor, and others.
● The Greeks sailed to Troy, beginning a 10-year siege.
3. Key Events During the War:
● The Iliad focuses on a short period near the end of the war, especially the rage of
Achilles, who withdraws from battle after a dispute with Agamemnon.
● Death of Patroclus (Achilles’ close companion) prompts Achilles to rejoin the fight and
kill Hector, Troy’s greatest warrior and prince.
● Divine Involvement: Gods like Zeus, Athena, Apollo, and Aphrodite take sides,
influencing battles.
4. Fall of Troy:
● The Greeks devise a plan using the Trojan Horse—a large wooden horse hiding Greek
soldiers.
● The Trojans bring it into the city as a peace offering; at night, Greek soldiers emerge,
open the gates, and destroy Troy.
5. Aftermath:
● Troy is burned, and many Trojans are killed or enslaved.
● The journey home for many Greek heroes (like Odysseus) is long and treacherous (The
Odyssey tells of Odysseus’ 10-year return).
● The war marks the end of the heroic age in Greek mythology.
