4th Assignment: The Process of Urbanization in the 6th Century BCE – The Second Urbanization

The 6th century BCE marks a crucial turning point in Indian history. Often termed the Second
Urbanization, this period saw the emergence of large settlements and cities, particularly in the
Gangetic plain. Unlike the First Urbanization (represented by the Indus Valley Civilization), the
Second Urbanization was rooted in iron technology, agrarian expansion, craft specialization, and
long-distance trade. It coincided with the rise of Mahajanapadas (large territorial states), and the
emergence of heterodox religious movements such as Buddhism and Jainism, which influenced
urban society deeply.

Was There Urbanization? The Historiographical Debate

V. Gordon Childe's Criteria

Childe’s influential theory outlined ten criteria for urbanism, including surplus production, social
stratification, craft specialization, writing, and monumental architecture. When applied to the 6th
century BCE cities in India, some—like Pataliputra, Kausambi, and Rajagriha—clearly meet many of
these criteria, suggesting that urbanization was indeed taking place.

However, some historians debate whether these cities qualify as fully urban in the classic sense. G.
Erdosy, in Urbanization in Early Historic India, argues that while there was substantial growth, the
urban form was unique to South Asia, with overlapping functions of ritual, trade, and politics, often
without clear demarcation.

Role of Agriculture and Trade in Urbanization

The foundation of urbanization in this period lay in agrarian expansion. The use of iron tools enabled
forest clearance in the eastern Gangetic plains, especially in regions like Magadha and Kashi, where
rice cultivation flourished due to alluvial soil and ample rainfall.

As agricultural productivity increased, surplus production allowed for the sustenance of non-
agricultural classes, including merchants, craftsmen, and administrators. This, in turn, fostered
trade—both overland and via rivers. Trade routes such as the Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha linked
major cities with distant regions, from Gandhara in the northwest to Tamilakam in the south.

D.K. Chakrabarti, in his studies on early urban sites, emphasizes the symbiotic relationship between
rural and urban economies. Cities emerged not in isolation but as nodes in complex regional
networks that connected villages, craft centers, and religious institutions.

Examples of Cities and Their Specialisations

• Pataliputra: Political capital of Magadha, strategically located near the Ganga-Son

• Ujjayini: A key city on the trade route to the Deccan, with a flourishing textile industry.

• Kausambi: Known for its iron and craft production; important center of early Buddhist
activities.

• Rajagriha: Political and religious center, associated with early Buddhist sanghas.

• Mathura: As highlighted in V.L. Singh’s article, Mathura was not only a political and religious
hub but also a center for sculpture and trade—notably in stone and terracotta goods.
 • Taxila: Key center in the northwest, strategically important for Indo-Greek and Central Asian
trade, with a blend of Indian and Hellenistic features.

Each city had distinct economic and religious specialisations, forming a diverse urban landscape.

Craft Specialisation and Urban Economy

One of the core indicators of urbanism in this period is craft specialization. Artisans were organized
into shrenis (guilds), which regulated quality, training, and pricing.

Common crafts included:

• Pottery: Especially Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), seen as a marker of elite
consumption.

• Metalwork: Iron and copper tools and weapons.

• Textiles: Centers like Varanasi were known for fine cloth.

• Bead making and ivory carving: Found in sites like Taxila and Ujjayini.

G. Erdosy notes that the presence of workshop areas, furnaces, and kilns within or near cities is
strong evidence for an organized production economy.

Buddha Viharas and the Religious Landscape

Religious institutions played a pivotal role in urbanization, particularly the Buddhist viharas, Jaina
upashrayas, and Brahmanical temples.

• Buddha Viharas were not just monastic residences but also centers of learning, donation,
and economic activity.

• Donors included kings, merchants, and guilds, indicating close ties between religion and
urban elite.

• In places like Sarnath, Nalanda, and Vaishali, viharas grew into large complexes attracting
pilgrims, students, and monks from across regions.

The rise of religious cosmopolitanism made cities into spiritual hubs, drawing people and resources.

City Hierarchy and Settlement Plans

Cities in the 6th century BCE displayed a hierarchical pattern, with capital cities like Pataliputra and
Rajagriha at the top, followed by secondary urban centers and large towns (nigamas).

• Major cities often had fortifications, moats, and gateways, as seen in Kausambi.

• Settlements were generally organized into distinct quarters for various occupations: potters,
weavers, goldsmiths, etc.

• Residential areas were often demarcated by caste or occupational lines, a trend seen even in
early urban contexts.

V.L. Singh’s study of Mathura suggests that even in early periods, urban planning included road grids,
drainage systems, and temple zones, indicating a sophisticated understanding of spatial
organization.

Demarcation in the Cities

• Royal enclosures and assembly halls for administration.

• Residential quarters based on social hierarchy.

• Market areas and artisan quarters.

• Sacred zones with temples and viharas.

This segmentation points to urban planning principles that accommodated the growing complexity
of city life. D.K. Chakrabarti highlights archaeological findings of ramparts, bastions, and planned
roadways as evidence of intentional urban design.

Centres of Politics, Administration, and Religion

Most cities served multiple roles:

• Pataliputra: Political and administrative capital, center for Mauryan power later.

• Rajagriha and Vaishali: Served as political and religious centers for emerging republican and
monarchical states.

• Sarnath and Nalanda: Evolved into religious-intellectual centers, particularly under Buddhist
patronage.

This multifunctionality is what makes urbanization in this period distinctive: religion, economy, and
politics coexisted in urban space, often reinforcing each other.

Urbanization in Religious Texts

Religious literature of the period offers valuable insights into urban life:

Buddhist Texts

• Vinaya Pitaka and Jataka tales describe bustling cities, markets, courtesans, and merchant
caravans.

• Urban values like cosmopolitanism, luxury, and moral ambiguity are often contrasted with
the ascetic ideal.

• References to cities like Rajagriha, Sravasti, and Vaishali abound, portraying them as vibrant
and diverse.

Jaina Texts

• Works like the Acaranga Sutra also describe cities and town-dwellers, stressing the
challenges of monastic life amidst urban temptations.

• Mahavira’s travels take him through many cities, emphasizing the interconnection between
urban centers.

Brahmanical Texts

• Later Dharmasutras and Grihyasutras begin to address urban dwellers (nagarikas) and the
proper conduct of life in such environments.

• While cities are not idealized, they are recognized as integral to the dharma-based society.
These texts provide both descriptive and normative portrayals, reflecting how religious thought was
adjusting to an increasingly urban world.

The 6th century BCE undoubtedly saw the process of urbanization take firm root in the Indian
subcontinent. Driven by agricultural surplus, trade networks, craft specialization, and supported by
religious institutions, cities became centers of political power, economic activity, and cultural
exchange.

The process was not uniform or identical to urbanization in other parts of the world, but it was
deeply transformative. Whether one applies Childe’s universal model or acknowledges the
subcontinental specificity, the evidence from archaeology, texts, and settlement patterns clearly
supports the emergence of an urban ethos.