GEC 7 – Ethics

Chapter 8
ETHICAL ISSUES

OBJECTIVES:
1. Identify and Discuss contemporary ethical issues.
2. Explain the pros and cons of the various ethical issues.

A. WHAT IS ABORTION?
It is the removal of the non-viable human being from the mother’s womb by
human intervention, whether by killing him before removal from the womb; or
whether by exposing him to a certain death outside the womb or by induced
termination of pregnancy before the fetus is capable of surviving and eventually
maintaining an independent life outside the uterus. It is the killing of a yet unborn
child. It is an evidence of a deep-rooted selfishness. With such an attitude, the
human race cannot survive because God made us to love, to give and not to be
selfish.

KINDS OF ABORTION
1) Spontaneous Abortion
2) Direct Abortion
3) Indirect Abortion

1. Spontaneous Abortion
Is also known as accidental abortion, generally it is a miscarriage. The
causes of spontaneous abortions are not clearly defined. Abnormal development
of embryo or placental tissue, or both, are found in about half of cases.
Spontaneous abortion may be caused also by maternal abnormalities such as
acute infectious diseases, systematic diseases such as nephritis, diabetes and
severe trauma. The most common symptom of threatened abortion is vaginal
bleeding.

2. Direct Abortion
Is also known as induced abortion. This intentional abortion takes place as
consequence of an action, the end of which is to terminate pregnancy. It is
 classified as murder. A mother may take abortifacient drugs or too much
alcoholic beverages which cause stimulation of the uterine muscles and
consequently, the expulsion of the fetus. The consequence of taking drugs
usually rejects the fertilized egg in the wall of the uterus affecting chemical
abortion.

3. Indirect Abortion
Is a secondary consequence of an act which is mutually the primary or
immediate act of the will. It is not willed, but is only allowed to take place being
an inevitable effect of a morally permissible act.

B. WHAT IS DEATH PENALTY?

The death penalty, also known as capital punishment or execution, is the
sentence of death imposed by courts as punishment for a crime. People who
receive the death penalty typically are convicted of murder and similar capital
crimes like aggravated murder or felony murder. State legislatures establish the
death penalty and set forth the offenses that may be punished by death.

C. WHAT IS BIOETHICS?
✓ Bioethics came from the Greek word (bios means life and ethos means
behavior). It was coined in 1926 by Fritz Jahr in an article about a "bioethical
imperative" regarding the use of animals and plants in scientific research.
✓ Bioethics is the study of the ethical issues emerging from advances
in biology and medicine. It is also moral discernment as it relates to medical
policy and practice.
✓ Bioethics is an interdisciplinary field that analyzes how human values and ideas
about fairness, respect, benefit and harm do and should shape the practices,
institutions, cultures and social impacts of science. Bioethicists may have
professional training in a variety of different fields, including philosophy,
medicine or nursing, law, public health, sociology or anthropology
✓ The issues of bioethics are at the intersection between medicine, law, public
policy, religion, and science
Examples of topic areas that have been the focus of bioethics for a long time
are organ donation and transplantation, genetic research, death and dying, and
environmental concerns. New developments in science and technology have
focused attention on topics such as assisted reproductive technologies, neuro
ethics (ethical issues around brain imaging and testing), and nanotechnologies
(using small particles to deliver medicine or other medical treatments.
Some issues about which bioethics concern it are:
✓ Physician patient relationship
✓ Death and dying
✓ Resource Allocation
✓ Assisted reproductive techniques and their use
 ✓ Genetic testing and screening
✓ Sexuality and gender
✓ Environmental ethics
✓ Clinical research ethics
✓ Disability issues
✓ Mental health illness, treatments, and care for patients
✓ Ethical treatment of research subjects in clinical trials
✓ Ethical treatment of animals

D. WHAT IS EUTHANASIA?
✓ It is an act of inducing death without pain. Humane death of an animal may be
defined as one in which the animal is rendered unconscious, and thus
insensitive to pain, as rapidly as possible with a minimum of fear and anxiety.
✓ the term euthanasia is derived from the Greek terms “eu” meaning and good
“thanatos” meaning death. A “good death” would be one that occurs without
pain or distress.
✓ Euthanasia, sometimes known as mercy killing is the intentional ending of a
patient’s life by a physician, usually by lethal injections.
✓ The word "euthanasia" was first used in a medical context by Francis Bacon in
the 17th century, to refer to an easy, painless, happy death, during which it was
a "physician's responsibility to alleviate the 'physical sufferings' of the body."

 FORMS OF EUTHANASIA:
1) Active euthanasia is when death is brought about by an act - for example
when a person is killed by being given an overdose of pain-killers.
2) Passive euthanasia is when death is brought about by an omission - i.e.
when someone lets the person die. This can be by withdrawing or
withholding treatment:
✓ Withdrawing treatment: for example, switching off a machine that is
keeping a person alive, so that they die of their disease.
✓ Withholding treatment: for example, not carrying out surgery that
will extend life for a short time.

Traditionally, passive euthanasia is thought of as less bad than active

euthanasia. But some people think active euthanasia is morally better.
Euthanasia is categorized in different ways, which include voluntary,
non-voluntary, or involuntary:

1. Voluntary Euthanasia - The person concerned asks someone to help them

die, perhaps by asking for help to take an overdose of painkillers.
2. Involuntary Euthanasia - Euthanasia is carried out without the patient's
consent, for example, if they are in a persistent vegetative state and no longer
able to live without a life support machine, which is then switched off.
 3. Non-Voluntary Euthanasia – It occurs when the person is unconscious or
otherwise unable to make a meaningful choice between living and dying, and
an appropriate person takes the decision on their behalf.
E. WHAT IS MASTURBATION?
✓ It is the sexual stimulation of one’s own genitals for sexual arousal or other sexual
pleasure, usually to the point of orgasm as a substitute for actual intercourse.
✓ Done by both males and females.
✓ The stimulation may involve hands fingers, everyday objects, sex toys such as
vibrations, or combinations of these.
✓ More common a happening in young age group.
✓ Masturbation is frequent in both sexes and at any age.
✓ Various medical and psychological benefits have been attributed to a
healthy attitude toward sexual activity in general and to masturbation in
particular.
✓ No causal relationship is known between masturbation and any form of mental
or physical disorder. In the western world, masturbation in private or with a
partner is generally considered a normal and healthy part of sexual enjoyment.

F. WHAT IS PORNOGRAPHY?
✓ It is a representation of sexual behavior in books, pictures, statues, motion of
pictures and other media that is intended to cause sexual excitement.
✓ The word Pornography was derived from the Greek word PORNI (prostitute)
and GRAPHEIN (to write) was originally defined as any work of art or literature
depicting the life of prostitutes.
✓ According to Kraus and Rosenberg, pornography is any media that describes or
depicts sexual content and is viewed with the intent of heightening sexual
pleasure or arousal. Access to this kind of material has only increased with the
invention of the internet.

G. WHAT IS DIVORCE?
✓ Divorce, also known as Dissolution of Marriage, is the process of terminating
a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the cancelling or
reorganizing of legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving
the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of the
particular country or state.
✓ The Divorce laws vary, but in most nations, this process requires the
authorization of the court in the legal process. A divorce hearing might include
various issues like Child support, Alimony, Child Custody, and Distribution of
properties among others. All countries on Earth allow its citizens to divorce
under numerous conditions except Vatican City and the Philippines.

 PHILIPPINES
The Philippines is the only United Nation member state where divorce is
illegal. The Philippines has no legal provision for divorce, and the only people
 who are allowed to get divorced in the Philippines are the Muslims. Muslims can
only get divorced under certain conditions as per their religion.

 VATICAN CITY
The Vatican is an enclave independent-city state that was established in 1929
by the Luteran Treaty. It is an Ecclesiastical city that is ruled by the Pope; therefore,
all Catholic doctrines and laws apply in the Vatican.
Catholics have strong belief in the sanctity of marriage, and they believed
that it's permanent union. The Vatican has no legal provision for divorce instead;
couples can only annul their marriage.

 GROUNDS FOR DIVORCE

Grounds for divorce are regulations specifying the circumstances under
which a person will be granted a divorce. Adultery is the most common grounds
for divorce. However, there are countries that view male adultery differently than
female adultery as grounds for divorce. Some examples of grounds for divorce
are:
•Adultery •Desertion
•Sexual harassment •Disability
•Alcoholism •Attendant circumstance
•Imprisonment
•Domestic violence (including Physical, Sexual or mental abuse of the other
spouse and/or the child/children of the couple.)

 CAUSES OF DIVORCE
1.) Infidelity - Extra-marital affairs are responsible for the breakdown of most
marriages that end in divorce. This is one of the most common causes of divorce.
2.) Money- Everything from different spending habits and financial goals to one
spouse making considerably more money than the other, causing a power
struggle can strain a marriage to the breaking point. Clearly, money and stress
do seem to go hand in hand for many couples. Financial troubles can be
categorized as one of the biggest causes of divorce, following infidelity, the
number one reason for divorce.
3.) Lack of Communication- On the other hand, Good communication is the
foundation of a strong marriage. Yelling at your spouse, not talking enough
throughout the day, making nasty comments to express yourself are all
unhealthy methods of communication that need to be ditched in a marriage.
Poor communication is one of the biggest reasons for divorce.
4.) Constant Arguing - Couples who seem to keep having the same argument
over again often do so because they feel they're not being heard or
appreciated. Many find it hard to see the other person's point of view, which
leads to a lot of arguments without ever coming to a resolution, which can
ultimately be a cause of divorce.
 5.) Weight Gain- It may seem odd but weight gain is also one of the leading cause
of divorce. In some cases, a significant amount of weight gain causes the other
spouse to become less physically attracted while for others, weight gain takes a
toll on their self-esteem, which trickles into issues with intimacy and can even
become a cause of divorce.
6.) Unrealistic Expectations- These expectations can put a lot of strain on the
other person, leaving you feeling let down and setting your spouse up for
failure. Wrong expectation setting can become one of the reasons for divorce.
7.) Lack of Intimacy- This can be from a lack of physical or emotional intimacy
and isn't always about sex. If you are constantly giving your spouse the cold
shoulder, then know that over time it can become the ground for divorce.
Ignoring your partner's Sexual needs is being called the number one cause of
divorce in recent times.
8.) Lack of Equality- Lack of equality comes closely behind the number one cause
of divorce, lack of intimacy, in recent times.
9.) Not Being Prepared for Marriage- A surprising number of couples of all ages
have blamed not being prepared for married life for the demise of their
relationship. Divorce rates are highest among couples in their 20s. Lack of
preparation is one of the most common reasons for divorce.
10.) Abuse- Even couples with the Best intentions are sometimes unable to
overcome their challenges and end up in courtrooms. That's why it's important
to address issues in your relationship early on, don't let them become one of
the reasons for divorce. Don't wait until they are beyond fixing. Practice
kindness, make intimacy as priority, go on holidays and seek marriage
counseling (even when things are fine) to preserve the health and longevity of
your relationship.

Activity: What is your personal opinion on the different ethical issues, defend your
answer if you agree or disagree. Why is it right or wrong?

Abortion -
Disagree - Life is precious
Wrong- Every problem has
a solution
Test Your Knowledge
Direction: Write your own opinion.
Direction: Identify what is being referred to:
________1. This intentional abortion takes place a consequence of an action, the end
of which is to terminate pregnancy.
________2. The process of terminating a marriage or marital union.
________3. The study of the ethical issues emerging from advances in biology and
medicine.
________4. Any media that describes or depicts sexual content and is viewed with
the intent of heightening sexual pleasure or arousal.
________5. Refers to a kind of death is brought about by an omission
________6. Carried out without the patient's consent, for example, if they are in a
persistent vegetative state and no longer able to live without a life support machine,
which is then switched off.
________7. The sexual stimulation of one’s own genitals for sexual arousal or other
sexual pleasure, usually to the point of orgasm as a substitute for actual intercourse.
________8. It is known as accidental abortion, generally it is a miscarriage.
________9. The person concerned asks someone to help them die.
________10. Mental health illness, treatments, and care for patients

Main Points
Abortion is the expulsion or extraction from its mother of an embryo or fetus
weighing 500gm or less when it is not capable of independent survival.
Death penalty , In the Philippines, crime data showed that crime went down
when death penalty was abolished.
Bioethics has expanded to include the ethical questions such as human
genome project, stem cell research, artificial reproductive technologies, the
possibility of successful reproductive cloning.
Euthanasia “mercy killing” refer to acts which terminate or shorten life
painlessly in order to end suffering where there is no prospect of recovery.
Divorce is one of the most serious social problem in the modern [Link] is the
final termination of a marital union cancelling the legal duties and responsibilities of
marriage and dissolving the bonds of matrimony between the parties.

Chapter 9
OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss environmental ethics.
2. Illustrate their perception on the protection of the environment.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS?
It is defined as the moral relationship between humans and the natural
environment (Buzzle 2011). It is an area of environmental philosophy that faces a
lot of conflict due to the various subdivisions in terms of ethical perceptions.
 WHAT IS ANTHROPOCENTRISM?
The term anthropocentrism comes from the Greek words 'anthropos' and
'kentron‘. 'Anthropos ‘means 'human being' and 'kentron' means 'center‘. So,
etymologically, anthropocentrism means human centeredness. It thus refers to
the belief or world-view that humans are at the center of the universe.
The terms anthropocentrism and anthropocentric refer to a human-centered
perspective.
✓ According to the anthropocentric perspective, things are good to the
extent that they promote the interests of human beings. Thus, for
example, some people believe that animals are valuable only in so far as
they promote the interests of humans or are useful to us in one or more of
a variety of ways.
 For example, animals provide nutritional, medical, protective,
emotional, and aesthetic benefits for us.
✓ Those people who hold an anthropocentric view also may believe that it is
bad to cause animals needless pain, but if this is necessary to ensure
some important human good, then it is justified. We do obtain useful
products from the natural world.
 Example, Taxol is a drug synthesized from the bark of the pacific yew
tree and is useful in treating ovarian and breast cancers.

In the most basic and general sense, nature provides us with our food, shelter,
and clothing.
✓ According to an anthropocentric perspective, the environment or nature has
no value in itself. Instead, its value is measured by how it affects human beings.
Wilderness areas are instrumentally valuable to us as sources of recreation and
relaxation, and they provide natural resources to meet our physical needs, such
as lumber for housing and fuel. Estuaries, grasslands, and ancient forests also
purify our air and clean our water.

 WHAT IS ECOCENTRISM?
It comes from the Greek word "oikos"(house) and "kentron"(center) literally
means house centered. It is a term used in ecological political philosophy to
denote a nature-centered, as opposed to human-centered, system of values.
A philosophy or perspective that places intrinsic value on all living organisms
and their natural environment, regardless of their perceived usefulness or
importance to human beings.
For ecocentrist, the natural environment is a house for everybody and
everything; living things and non-living things. Ecocentrism sees the natural
environment as one giant ecosystem wherein all parts are interconnected with
each other. The perspective of ecocentrism focuses on the interest of all species
and natural features of Earth's ecosystems, refusing to place any aspect or species
above to others.
 WHAT IS DEEP ECOLOGY?
Deep ecology was so named by Næss because it specifically required
people to question their most basic values and purposes with interacting with
other species and entities with nature. With entities, Næss was referring to non-
biological entities like mountains, rivers and the atmosphere.
Arne Næss, a Norwegian professor, draws a definite line between two areas
that he calls Shallow Ecology and deep Ecology. Shallow ecology is a
movement which simply promotes conservations strategies against pollution and
the depletion of resources. Deep ecology is a movement that promotes
“ecological wisdom”, which is the understanding of the reason for the Shallow
ecology movement by acknowledging the inherent value of all forms of life
Næss saw deep ecology as separate from, but not incomplete with, other
ecological movements, which he deemed shallow ecology. “Shallow” and “Deep”
provided descriptive forms for the level of introspection and the societal
formation required to fulfill what Næss thought of as humankind’s obligation to
nature. Shallow ecology movements, according to Næss, aimed to develop
solutions to ecological problems and ecological ethics through the systems and
institutions already established on society. These were predominantly based in
science and involved modifying consumer culture.

 8 Principles of Deep Ecology

1. The well-being and flourishing of human ad non-human life on Earth have value
in themselves. These values are independent of the usefulness of the non-human
world for human purposes.
2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values
and are also values in themselves
3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy
vital human needs.
4. The flourishing of human life and culture is compatible with a substantial
decrease of the human population. The flourishing of non-human life requires
such decreases.
5. Present human interference with the non-human world is excessive, and the
situation is rapidly worsening.
6. Policies must therefore be changed. These policies after basic economic,
technological and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be
deeply different for the present.
7. The ideological change is that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in
situations of inherent value) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher
standard of living. There will be a profound awareness of the difference
between big and great.
8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing point have an obligation directly to try to
implement changes.
 These principles can be reduced to three simple propositions:
1. Wilderness and biodiversity preservation
2. Human population control
3. Simple living (or treading lightly on the planet).
The ecological problems faced by the world today are due to the loss of
traditional knowledge, values and ethics of behavior that celebrate the
intrinsic value and sacredness of the natural world that give the preservation
of nature prime importance. Correspondingly, the assumption of human
superiority to other life forms, as if we were granted royalty status over Nature
- the idea that Nature is mainly here to serve human will and purpose –
receives a radical critique in deep ecology.

Activity: Collage making. Look for old newspapers, magazines or brochures, cut out
pictures that capture the wilderness and biodiversity preservation, Human
population control and Simple living. Make a short quotation about it. Present your
output to the class.

Test Your Knowledge

Direction:
_________1. It refers to a perspective in which things are good to the extent that they
promote the interests of human beings.
_________2. It deals with a movement that promotes “ecological wisdom”,
_________3. This perspective focuses on the interest of all species and natural
features of Earth's ecosystems, refusing to place any aspect or species above to
others.
_________4. It is a movement which simply promotes conservations strategies
against pollution and the depletion of resources
_________5. The natural environment as one giant ecosystem wherein all parts are
interconnected with each other.

Main Points
Anthropocentrism regards human beings as the central element of the
universe. Humans are the only or primary holders of moral standards.
Ecocentrism is an environmental ethical stance that argues ecological concern
should over and above human priorities be central to decisions about right and
wrong action.