Ecology

ECOLOGY

All living organisms depend on each other and they also depend on the surrounding or environment in
which they live. In ecology, these natural interdependence between living and non – living environment
around are studied.
Ecology is the study of organisms in relation to their environment.
Each organism is affected by the other organisms around it and it is also affected by the non – living
components of the environment such as air, water, mineral salts and so on.

Definitions of terms used in ecology.

1. Environment:
This refers to everything in the surrounding of an organism that influences its life. The environment of a
tadpole for example is everything in the water where it lives.

2. Biosphere
This is the part of the earth and its atmosphere that is occupied by living things or where life exists. It’s
the largest habitat.
3. Habitat
This is a place where an organism lives. In the habitat, the organism obtains water, shelter and it is able to
reproduce there. The habitat of a tapeworm is the mammalian intestines.

4. Population
This is the total group of organisms of the same species living in a particular place at a given time.
5. Community
This is a collection of populations living and interacting with non-living components. It is therefore the
total of all organisms in an area
6. Ecological niche
This refers to a particular place an organism occupies within a habitat and the role it plays there.

7. Autecology
This is the study of only one species of organism in relation to its environment, e.g. the study of a frog in
relation to its habitat.
8. Biome:
These are very large ecological divisions found all over the world they have characteristic plant and animal
communities eg equatorial rainforests biome, Amazon, Savannah woodland and grasslands, temperate
forests etc.

9. Synecology
This is the ecological study of a community of plants and animals in a particular area.
10. Ecosystem
This is a unit of the environment consisting of both living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components
interacting to form a self-sustaining unit. E.g. living things may include fish, cockroaches, and nonliving
things may include lake, pond, forest, etc.
 COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The ecosystem is made up of two components;
1. The abiotic component (non - living component)
2. The biotic component (living component)

THE ABIOTIC COMPONENT OF THE ECOSYSTEM

This is the non-living component of the ecosystem. Living organisms interact with the non-living
components in their community to form a self-sustaining unit called an ecosystem.
The abiotic components in the ecosystem include:

1. Climatic elements of the atmosphere such as rainfall, light, temperature, Humidity, air currents (wind),
atmospheric pressure, cloud cover etc.
Light intensity. Light intensity affects the process of photosynthesis in plants, visibility in some animals
and causes responses such as phototropism.
Temperature. This affects the activity of enzymes in the body of organisms and therefore determines
the overall activity of an organism. Temperature also affects germination of
2. Water bodies of all sizes. Some are fresh water bodies other are marine (high salt condition)
Features of these water bodies include:
Water temperature, water salinity, water currents/ waves, water pH etc.

3. Edaphic (soil) factors, include soil structure, profile, texture, PH, temperature etc.

Edaphic factors:
These are physical and chemical factors in soil and atmosphere that influence the life and activities of
living organisms. These factors affect different organisms differently. Such factors include.
Water. This is a very important edaphic factor. Water is a component of the bodies of living organisms. It
is a raw material for photosynthesis, it aids dispersal of seeds, it is an agent of pollination, it is a habitat
for some organisms, it is a condition for germination, etc.
1) Humidity. This is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. Humidity affects the rate of
transpiration in plants; it also affects the rate at which water is lost from the bodies of animals through
evaporation.
2) pH. This is the alkalinity or acidity of soil. PH affects the dissolution of mineral elements in water; it
affects growth of plants and microbes in an area, etc.
3) Nutrients. Presence or absence of a particular nutrient in soil determines the organisms, which can
grow in that soil. Nutrients are required for proper growth of all organisms in the ecosystem.
4) Oxygen concentration. Most of the organisms are aerobic, i.e. they require oxygen for their
respiration. Oxygen is abundant in air (21% by volume) however in water the concentration of oxygen
varies due to factors that affect its dissolution in water and over exploitation by organisms. This affects
the growth of organisms in water. In such a case anaerobic organisms can thrive and aerobic ones die.

2
 Ecology.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS
These include all the factors or ways in which organisms of a community affect each other. Living
organisms affect each other through the following ways.
1. Competition
living organism are always competing or struggling with one another for the available
resources such as light, water, space, mates, food, air / oxygen etc.
2. Predation
This is where an animal hunts, captures and kills another organism fo food or to eat it. For
example;
A cat is a predator for a rat.
A dog is a predator for a rabbit
A lion is a predator for an antelope.
3. Parasitism
This is where an organism called the parasite obtains all its nutritional needs from another
organism called its host and usually harming the host. For example
Ticks are parasites to cattle
Fleas and bed bugs are usually parasite to human beings.
4. Camouflage / protective coloration
This is where an organism resembles the background of its environment for protection in
some way. Camouflage may either be for protection from being seen and eaten by predators or
for concealment to capture prey or food. E.g. green grasshoppers resemble and hide in green
grass to escape their predators.
5. Pollination
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. Reproduction in many
flowering plants is facilitated by other organisms like insects, birds and bats through
pollination.
6. Fruit and seed dispersal
The movement of fruits and seeds is done by many animals to ensure their survival in many
areas.

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

In nature the ultimate / basic source of all energy used by living things is sunlight. Sunlight
energy is converted into biologically useful form by the green plants, during photosynthesis.
All living organisms depend on each other with respect to food. And they also depend either directly
or indirectly on solar energy of the sun.
In nature, therefore the transfer or flow of energy occurs through feeding relationships. However, as
energy is transferred from one organism to another, some of it is lost to the surroundings in form of
heat energy.
FEEDING LEVELS OR TROPHIC LEVELS IN AN ECOSYSTEM
In any community the following three feeding (trophic) levels occur;
i. Producers
ii. Consumers
iii. Decomposers

PRODUCERS
These are autotrophic organisms which can make their own food. They are called producers because
they provide or produce food for the other living organisms in an ecosystem. Examples include
plants, algae, some bacteria, euglena etc.

CONSUMERS
These are heterotrophic organism which are not capable of manufacturing their own food. They get
their food by feeding on other organisms.
Consumers are further classified into:
 Primary consumer
 Secondary consumer
 Tertiary consumer

The primary consumers (1st order consumers):

These are organisms that feed directly on producers. Those feeding on plants are called herbivores.
Examples are cattle, grasshoppers, goats, sheep, etc.

The secondary consumers (2nd order consumers):

These are organisms that obtain their food by feeding on primary consumers. They are also referred to
as carnivorous organisms since they feed on flesh. Examples include cats and reptiles.

The tertiary consumers (3rd order consumers):

These are organisms that obtain their food by feeding on the flesh of secondary consumers. They can
also feed on primary consumers. They are also carnivorous animals like lions, crocodiles, vultures and
tigers.

i) The decomposers
These are organisms that obtain nutrients from dead decaying organic matter. They are commonly
called saprophytes. They are basically bacteria and fungi.
Decomposers are important because they bring about decay of plant and animal tissues. This helps in
the recycling of mineral nutrients in nature so that they can be used again.
They also reduce the amount of wastes and litter in the environment.

4
 Ecology.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Feeding relationships in an ecosystem can be expressed in the ways given below;
a) Food chains
b) Food webs
c) Pyramid of numbers
d) Pyramid of biomass
e) Pyramid of energy.

FOOD CHAIN
A food chain is a sequence by which energy flows in an ecosystem from one organism to the next in
form of food. It is a sequence of interaction of organisms which shows eating and being eaten.

It is always expressed in a linear fashion beginning with producers and ending with tertiary
consumers.
The food chain shows the passage of energy from producers to consumers. Energy from the sun is fixed
by producers (plants). The herbivores eat the plants and obtain this energy. The carnivores feed on
herbivores and obtain this energy. At successive levels some energy is lost. At the end of the food chain
energy reduces.
Features of a food chain
Any food chain starts with producers.
The shortest food chain consists of two links of organisms i.e. producer and consumer.
As you move along the food chain, the energy available for the next organism becomes less because
some of the energy is lost to the environment in form of heat from one trophic level to the next.
In any food chain, the producers form the biggest or largest number because they obtain a lot of
energy from the sun which they use to grow and reproduce rapidly.
Organisms at the end of a food chain are very few because at that level they get very little energy
from their food, and so grow slowly and also reproduce slowly.

Any food chain consists of organisms as shown in below;

Producers primary consumers secondary consumers tertiary consumers Decomposers
The arrow ( ) shows the direction of flow of energy in a food chain. It points to the organism that
eats.
Example 1:
Grass grasshopper dove cat

In the food chain above, the grass is the primary producer, the grasshopper is the primary consumer, the
dove is a secondary consumer and the cat is a tertiary consumer.

There are usually few links in the chain because as the links increase energy reduces and organisms
feeding at the terminal end of the chain gain little energy.
Chemicals on the other hand accumulate in tissues and increase in succeeding levels in the food chain.
Elimination of one level from the food chain disrupts the food chain. For example in the above food
chain, when the grasshoppers are eliminated from the ecosystem, the following occur.
1) The grass grows and increases in number because the grasshopper that used to feed on it have been
removed.
2) The doves lack food because they feed on grasshoppers, which have been removed. This causes their
numbers to drop.
3) The cats also reduce in number because as the doves die due to lack of food, the cats lack food and
start to reduce because they feed on doves.

Example 2
Draw a food chain for the following organisms;
a) Vegetation, beetle, owl, fox

Vegetation beetle owl fox

b) cow, man, lion and grass.

c) Nile perch, algae, water flea and tilapia

Algae Water flea Tilapia Nile perch

d) Cheetah, chameleon, hen, caterpillar, grass

e) Lizard, grasshopper, snake, grass, hen, eagle.

6
 Ecology.

FOOD WEB
A food web is a sequence of eating and being eaten consisting of many food chains. Or
A food web is a number of interlinked food chains.
like a food chain, the arrows are used show the direction of flow of energy .
Feature of a food web
In a food web, organisms are arranged according to their feeding levels of trophic levels. Producers
form the base.
In a single food web, a single organism can be a primary consumer in chain or link, and a
secondary consumer in another depending on the number of organims involved in a given food web.
Example
The following organisms were found in an abandoned school farm;
Hawk, praying mantis, moth, grasshopper, snake, lizard, chicken, plants and predatory bug.
Qn. Use thes organisms to construct a food web in this farm area.
Solution.
Step 1: Identify and list down all the different possible food chains from the list eg.
Plants grasshopper praying mantis lizard snake hawk.
Plant moth predatory bug chicken hawk
Plants grasshopper lizard snake hawk

Step s: Arrange the organisms in their order of feeding levvels, verticaly upwards, with plants
(producers) forming the base. Also ensure that each organism is written once.

Hawk

Snake chicken

lizard

Praying mantis Predatory bug

Grasshopper Moth

Plants
Question
The organisms given in the list below were found in a certain woodland. Use the list to construct a food
web in that area.
Butterflies, small insects, caterpillars, praying mantis, eagles, small birds, rabbits, plants and
snakes.
THE EFFECT OF REMOVING SOME OF THE ORGANISMS IN A FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB
a) Removing all the producers
The primary consumers will starve and die first, then later consumers at higher levels will
also starve and die as their source of food is lost.
b) Removing all the primary consumers
The number of producers will increase rapidly because they are not being eaten.
The consumers at highern levels soon starave and die, as they fail to get food.
c) Removing all the tertially consumers.
The number of the secondary consumers will increase as they will no longer being eaten.
The number of primary consumers will decrease as many of them are eaten due to the
increasing number of secondary consumers.
Later the number of secondary consumers will also decreasse due to competetion for food,
starvation and death, when the number of primary consumers decrease.
However, the number of producers will increase, as they are being fed on by fewer primary
consumers

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
These are used to show either the number of organisms or energy present at each trophic level in the food
chain and food web. There are three types of pyramids namely;
1. Pyramid of numbers
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy

Features of normal ecological pyramids

The base of the pyramid is made up of the producers.
The size of each block / box represents the number / energy / biomass of individuals or organisms
feeding at that level.
Energy flow in a pyramid is unidirectional.

THE PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

This is a representation of the number of organisms feeding at each trophic level of a given food chain
within a community.
Pyramid of numbers take the format shown below.

8
 Ecology.

Tertiary consumers

Secondary consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

Example
You are given the organism and their number below. Use them to construct a food chain and a
pyramid of numbers.
Organism Number
Hawks 2
Grass 540
Lizards 40
Locust 180
Snakes 5

Solution
Food chain
Grass locusts lizards snakes hawks

The pyramid of numbers

Hawks

Snakes

Lizards

Locusts

Grass
In some few cases the pyramid of numbers may be upside down. For example
Consider one large tree on which caterpillars are feeding and themselves eaten by predatory bird.
The pyramid of numbers of this food chain would appear as;

Predatory bird

Caterpillar

Tree

This kind of pyramid is said to be incompletely inverted.

Question
Consider a single tree infested by caterpillars and which themselves are infested by bacteria. Draw a
pyramid of numbers for the organism.

THE PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

Biomass refers to the total dry mass or dry weight of organisms in the ecosystem. The pyramid of
biomass is a representation of the total dry mass (weight) of organisms present at each level in a
community. The shape of the pyramid of biomass is similar to that of the pyramid of numbers and
for the same reasons. The problem with biomass is that it varies greatly as the organism grows. Using a
pyramid of energy can solve this problem.

THE PYRAMID OF ENERGY

The pyramid of energy is a representation of the total energy available at each trophic level in a food
chain.
The total amount of energy available is highest in the producers because for them they obtain a lot of
energy directly from the sun.
Energy flow in an ecosystem
Energy flows through food chains and food webs. Energy is obtained from the sun by green plants.
The plants trap light energy and use it to carry out photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, light
energy is converted into chemical energy. When primary consumers eat the plants, they obtain this
energy. The energy is then passed on to other organisms through their feeding relationships.
At each trophic (feeding) level there is loss of energy because;
i) Some energy is used up during respiration.
ii) Some energy is lost from herbivores in form of indigestible plant material.
iii) Some organisms die before they are eaten.
iv) Some of the chemical energy is converted into other forms such as sound, light energy, heat
energy, which easily escapes from the organisms.
At each trophic level, decomposers (saprophytes) such as bacteria and fungi break down dead organic
matter to release some of the energy locked in it.

10
 Ecology.

Energy lost

Tertiary consumers Energy lost

Secondary consumers
Energy lost
Primary consumers
Energy lost
Producers

SUN

Question:
Lukia carried out an ecological study in Kabowa. In one of the sections, she found 15 toads, 180 plants,
4 snakes and 120 grass hoppers. Use the information to answer the questions.
a) Construct a possible food chain for the above information.
b) State the trophic levels occupied by each of the organisms in the community.
c) Draw the pyramid of number for the community.
d) Explain what would happen to the rest of the organisms if all toads were destroyed.
 POPULATIONS
Population is the total number of organisms of same species living in a particular area at a given time.
Organisms live in a population in order to:
 Gain more protection as the population
 Have increased chances of gathering mates and breeding.
 Be able to get shelter
However organisms in a population face:
 High chances of overcrowding
 High competition among themselves for food, shelter, etc.
 Increased chances of predation.

PATTERNS OF POPULATION DISPERSION

The distribution of individuals in an area is known as population dispersion. It refers to the way
individuals in a population are distributed in a particular area in which they are living.

Types of population dispersion

1. Random dispersion.
This happens when the environment is uniform throughout the area and therefore there is no tendency to
aggregate. There is no particular order of distribution

2. Uniform dispersion.
This occurs when competition is very high due to scarcity of resources and the organisms are evenly distributed
in all parts of the environment.

3. Clumped dispersion
Here organisms are found in high numbers in particular areas and low numbers in other areas.
This results from:
1. Self-dispersal
2. Resources being clumped
3. Tendency of individuals in an area to live together.
4. Territorial behaviour

12
 Ecology.
5. Aggregate behaviour where organisms feed together in a group.
There are two types of clumped dispersal.
Regular illustration

Irregular illustration

Importance of distribution
 Individuals acquire themselves enough space within which they can live and breed i.e. a home with
enough resources and suitable breeding resources.
 It improves on the chances of obtaining a mate.

POPULATION GROWTH
This refers to the increase in number of organisms of the same species in a given period of time.

𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Population growth curves

The increase in number over a period of time when plotted on a graph makes what is known as a growth
curve.
When a few individuals are introduced into an unoccupied area or habitat with abundant resources
and their increase in number is studied with time, the general curves are obtained as shown below.
This kind of S – shaped curve is called SIGMOID CURVE. It shows the characteristic growth for all
organisms.
GENERAL GROWTH CURVE

The curve is divided into five stages

1. Phase J – P.
This is called the lag phase.
During this phase the number of individuals increases slowly (gradually) with time.
The possible factors are;
 The organisms are very few and widely separated or spaced and so chances of mating are very
limited.
 The organisms are not yet adapted to the new environment
 Very few organisms have reached maturity and therefore are producing.
Note: For species B, the number of individuals is decreasing hence it’s not a lag phase. The possible
factors are;
 The organisms are not yet adapted to the new environment.
 Some individuals are dying because of predators
 Some individuals are dying because of diseases or severe weather conditions.

2. Phase P – Q or K – L.
This is called the log phase. It is also known as the Exponential growth phase or rapid growth phase.
During this phase the number of individuals increases rapidly with time
The possible factors are;
 The organism are now adapted to or established in their new environment.
 Many of the organism have reached maturity and are reproducing.
 Food and other resources still in plenty for all the organisms.
 Increased birth rate than death rate.
14
 Ecology.

3. PHASE Q - R or L - M:
The rate of growth starts to slow down as the organisms start to die. This is due to the fact that
their number has become big and they have started competing for food, shelter, mates and space.
The available resources cannot support a big number of organisms.
4. PHASE R - S or M - O
This phase is called the STABLE PHASE or STATIONARY PHASE.
It can also be known as the CARRYING CAPACITY PHASE or PLATEAU
PHASE: this phase is where the population becomes constant, oscillating around a
certain average or mean.
Carrying capacity is the total population the environment can support at a particular time without
exhausting the resources.
The rate of population increase at this phase is almost zero.
The possible reason for this are;
 Birth rate (natality) is equal to death rate (mortality)
 The available resources are just enough for the maximum number of organisms
i.e. the habitat has reached its carrying capacity.
 Competition for available resources is now very high.

5. PHASE S – T or N – O:
This phase is called the DECCELERATION PHASE.
It is the phase characterized by a decline in the rate of population growth. This is
most common with organisms confined in a particular place or area E.g. when a
certain number of yeast or bacteria cell are enclosed in a tin or bottle.
The possible factors in the play are;-
 Death rate is greater than birth rate (DR > BR)
 Competition for food is very high.
 Competition for other available resources very high i.e. environmental resistance
is very stiff.
 Predators are now very many.
 There are high level of diseases.
 There is accumulation or increase of toxic waste materials in the environment i.e.
pollution levels are very high.
Revision question.
1. Mention the different phase of population in plants and animals.
2. For each of the phase mentioned, give reasons or factors that are in play.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE POPULATION GROWTH IN ANIMALS IN GENERAL
They include the following.
1. Food supply; the plentiful is the food supply, the faster the organisms grow and reach the
productive stage and add new individuals to the population.
2. Predators; the higher the levels of the disease, the slower the member, physically grow and also
become reproductively weakened, and many die so very few new individuals are actually added
to the population.
3. Sex ratio i.e. the ratio of male to females; there the ratio of females to males is higher, the
population grows faster as a single male can fertilize many females to add new offspring. This
will not be the case where the males have the highest number.
4. Age differences; a population with more of its members in the active reproduction stage or age
would grow very fast, unlike like one with many young and old members
5. Immigration; where many members of a similar species are coming into a population from
somewhere else, that population grows very fast
6. Emigration where many members of a population are moving away to other places the
population in that area does not increase or grow positively.
7. BIRTH RATE (Natality); the higher the birth rate of a given population, the faster is its rate of
growth and the reverse is true.
8. Death rate (mortality); the higher the death rate in a given population, the slower that
population grows and the reverse is true.
9. Competition; where competition for the available resources is high, population growth occurs
very slowly. where resources are in plenty supply for all members, their population grows rapidly
10. Natural calamities or disasters e.g. floods, drought, earth quakes, tropical cyclone etc.
These wherever they strike, leave many populations of organisms severely affected
including death
11. Political conflicts (wars in the case of human beings). These result in death of many
individuals and some others are displaced from their places which seriously affects population
growth.

Growth of the human population

The population is presently growing exponentially. This is shown in the human population growth curve
below:

16
 Ecology.
The exponential human growth is usually due to:
 Advancement in science and technology leading to prevention of infectious diseases.
 Early warning on natural catastrophes.
 Proper nutrition.
 Decrease in infant mortality.
 Increase in life expectancy in developing countries.
 Increasing agriculture hence leading into more food.
Note:
These factors are grouped into two categories.

1. Density dependent factors; these are factors whose effect depend on the size of the population, e.g.
food, diseases, space, pollution, predation, competition, light, etc.

2. Density independent factors; these are factors which affect the population regardless of the
population size e.g. earth quakes, floods, droughts, thunderstorm, lightening, fire strong winds, etc.

METHODS OF ESTIMATING POPULATION SIZE

1. Direct count
This is suitable for large organisms living in an open habitat, e.g. elephants, lions and buffaloes. In this
method, one moves through the area along predetermined paths and counts the organisms in question.
When counting aggressive animals, a low flying aircraft is used. Several counts are made and an average
is taken to get an estimate of a particular area.

2. Aerial photography
This is suitable for large organisms living in an open area. Photographs are taken from a low flying aircraft
over the study area. When the photographs are developed the number of organisms in the photographs is
determined. The photographs are taken several times and the average number is taken for the population
of that particular organism in the area.

3. The quadrat
This is a method used for small static organisms like plants or slow moving animals. A quadrat is a square
metal or wooden frame of 1-meter long sides. It therefore encloses an area of 1m2. The quadrat is thrown
at random in the study area and the individuals covered counted. Several quadrats are thrown at random
and the average number of organisms is taken.
The average number is then multiplied by the total area of the study to get the estimated population.

4. Line transect method:

This method involves lying along measuring tapes along a selected strip within the habitat. A record is
made of the organisms touching or covered by a line at all points at regular intervals.

5. Belt transect method:

This is a strip usually a meter wide marked by putting a second line transect parallel to the other. The
species between the line are carefully recorded.
6. Capture mark recapture method:
This is suitable for animals, which are fast moving. E.g. rats and grasshoppers.
In this method animals in an environment are captured and counted (n1). They are then marked and released
back into the environment.
The traps are then laid after a given period of time.
The organisms captured are counted (n2).
The organisms that were marked and recaptured are also counted (n3). The population is then calculated
from:

Total population = number of individuals in 1st capture X number of individuals in 2nd capture
Number of individual in 2nd capture with a mark
P = n1 x n2
n3
Where;
P = population
n1 = number in the first capture
n2 = number in the second capture
n3 = number in the second capture which are marked.

Examples
1. 30 rats were caught in the bush around the school. They were all marked with ink on the tails and
released. After 3 days 20 rats were caught from the same area. 6 out of the 20 rats had a mark. Estimate
the population of rats in this bush.
Solution.

Using. P = n1 x n2
n3
P = population.
n1 = 30
n2 = 20
n3 = 6
P = 30 x 20 = 100 rats
6
Assignment:
Arthur captured and marked and replaced 45 cockroaches on the first day. He captured 26 cockroaches
from the same area 17 of which were not marked. Estimate the population in the area.

18
 Ecology.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN POPULATION

Individual organisms in the population do not live in isolation in a community. They are continuously
interacting with each other in the following ways:
 Competition
 Predation
 Mutualism or symbiosis
 Parasitism

COMPETITION
Competition can be defined in the following ways
 Competition is the interaction that occurs between two or more organisms or population of
species that share environmental resources when it is in short supply.
 Competition is the demand of organisms within a community for the same resource or substance
when this is in short supply.
 Competition is the struggle between and among organisms to obtain any resources from the
environmental for themselves first before the others.

In nature, organisms are constantly competing for resources such as food, light, water, space, shelter, air,
mates and see
Competition has the effect of reducing population growth.
TYPES OF COMPETITIONS
These are two namely; intraspecific competition and interspecific competition.
INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION-:
This is the competition that occurs between organisms of the same species.
Examples
 All maize plants in a green maize field compete for water, light, mineral salts, carbon dioxide etc.
 All cattle in a farm compete for grass, shelter, air, water, matter.
 All lions in the game park compete for food, light, water, mates etc.
INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION:
This is the competition that occurs between organisms of different species.
Examples
 Goats, cows and sheep in the farm all compete for water, space, food, light,
 Maize, cassava and sugarcane in the field all compete for water, soil nutrients, air
As the population of the individuals increase, the resources become limited and the organisms compete for
them. Examples of resources competed for include, food, space, mates, etc.

PREDATION
This is the relationship between a predator and the prey.
A predator is an organism that hunts and kills another organism (prey) for food.
A prey is an organism that is hunted and killed for food.

The graph showing the predator-prey relationship

Description and explanation of the graph:
The population of the prey is higher than that of the predator at the start. This leads to an increase in the
number of predators.
The prey reaches a peak earlier than the predators. Further increase in the predator population leads to a
decrease in the prey population due to the fact that they are being fed on by the predators. When the number
of prey goes down, the predators starve and this makes their population to go down. When the predator
number decreases below that of the prey, the population of the prey increases again due to the fact that the
predators are few which would feed on them.
Note. Both the predator and prey control the population of each other.

Adaptations of predators that enable them to feed on prey

1. They have keen eyesight to see their prey.
2. They have strong jaw muscles to tear flesh of the prey.
3. They have sharp claws to hold and kill their prey.
4. They move very fast to enable them chase the prey.
5. They have streamlined bodies to cut through air during movement.
6. Some have very sharp canines to tear flesh of their prey.
7. They have colours, which help them to camouflage.

Adaptations of the prey to avoid being eaten by predators

1. They perceive sound with high accuracy and are able to sense their predators at a distance.
2. They are very fast in movement to escape from their predators.
3. They have developed structures for defense such as horns.
4. They normally move in groups to scare their predators.
5. They prefer to stay in areas, which give them good visibility such as grasslands.
6. They have colours, which help them to camouflage.
7. Mimicry; this is where a palatable harmless organism attains colors of an unpalatable harmful organism
and it is confused for a harmful organism.

20
 Ecology.

MUTUALISM or SYMBIOSIS
This is the relationship between two organisms of different species in which both organisms derive benefits
from the association.
Examples
1. In the stomach of cattle and sheep there are bacteria. These bacteria help to digest cellulose, which is
used by the cow. The bacteria benefits by getting food and shelter from the cow.
2. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of leguminous plants. The bacteria provide nitrates to the
plant by converting nitrogen to nitrates and the bacteria are protected in the root nodules. The bacteria
may also use sugars produced by the plant during photosynthesis
3. The lichen is composed of a fungus and filament of algae. The fungus provides water and mineral salts
to the algae and the fungus benefits by using the sugars produced by the algae

COMMENSALISM
This is the relationship between the organisms of different species in which only one organism(commensal)
benefits but the other organism neither benefits nor loses.
Examples.
1. The shark and the ramora. The ramora is a small fish that lives as a commensal attached to the shark
by its sucker. When the shark feeds, the ramora feeds on left overs of the shark. The shark neither
benefits nor loses.
2. The cattle/buffalos and the egret. The egret gets food in form of insects forced to fly by grazing animals.
The cattle do not gain and do not lose.

PARASITISM
This is the association between two organisms in which one (the parasite) is nutritionally dependent on the
other (host). The host is harmed in the process.
Parasites are divided into two categories:
1. Endo-parasites; these are parasites that live inside the body of the host, e.g. plasmodium and HIV
2. Ectoparasites; these are parasites which live outside the body of the host, e.g. ticks, lice and flea.

Parasites can also be described as:

Obligate parasites; these are parasites which cannot live without their hosts. Examples of obligate
parasites are plasmodium and HIV.

Facultative parasites; these are parasites that can spend some time outside the bodies of their hosts. E.g.
Ticks.

Incidental parasites; these are organisms that are not usually parasite but may become parasitic due to
factors like lack of their normal food, increase in their numbers, etc. an example is Entamoeba gingivalis.
 Problems faced by parasites
i) Finding the host may be difficult since most hosts keep on moving from one place to another.
ii) Deficiency of food in case the host has similar deficiency.
iii) They may be killed by the hosts’ immune reactions.
iv) Death of parasites incase the host dies due to starvation.
v) Inabilities to live in a wide range of environment since most of them have low power of locomotion
i.e. they are not able to live freely.
To overcome some of these problems, the parasites have a number of adaptations so as to cope up with
their mode of life.
General adaptations of parasites
1. They have means of attachment to the host.
2. They have penetrative devices for entering and feeding on the host
3. They show degeneration of unnecessary organs and systems to reduce on their body size in order to fit
in the host. e.g. eyes
4. They produce many eggs, seeds or spores to enhance their survival.
5. They have vector intermediate hosts
6. They produce resistant stages to survive in periods when they are outside the host

Types of hosts
1. Intermediate host:
This is the host in which the larvae stage of parasites develops from (secondary host).
2. Primary host (infinite host):
This is the host in which sexual reproduction of a parasite occurs from.

EXAMPLES OF PARASITES

1. PLASMODIUM SPP
This is a protozoan parasite that causes malaria. It is transmitted from one person to another by the female
anopheles mosquito. The mosquito acts as the vector.

Life cycle of plasmodium

 Mosquitoes bite a human and inject saliva to stop blood from clotting in its alimentally canal.
 In the process hundreds of parasites are moved from the mosquito into the person.
 The parasites move to the liver through the circulatory system.
 They burrow in the liver cells and reproduce very fast.
 Within one to two weeks, the daughter cells break out of the liver and move to invade the red blood
cells.
 In the red blood cells they reproduce rapidly causing the cells to rapture and invade other red blood
cells.
 They then attack new red blood cells causing them to rapture also.
 If a mosquito sucks blood from an infected person, it will take up these parasites in the red blood cells.

22
 Ecology.
 The parasites reproduce in the mosquito and migrate to the salivary glands ready to infect the next
person when that mosquito bites.
Note.
Each time the daughter cells of plasmodia are released, thousands of red blood cells rapture and the patient
experiences chills accompanied by shivering and sweating. The patient may also become anemic due to
loss of red blood cells.

Control of malaria
 Spraying the walls of dwelling places with insecticides. The insecticide may also be sprayed directly
on the mosquito vector.
 Draining all stagnant water to prevent mosquitoes from breeding there.
 Removing broken bottles, old tins, old car tyres, e.t.c in which water collects. This also prevents
breeding of mosquitoes.
 Sleeping under mosquito nets
 Treating the infected people using anti-malarial drugs.

2. THE TAPEWORM
These are flatworms belonging to phylum platyhelminthes. There are two common species known.
i) Taenia sagnata (beef tape worm)
ii) Taenia solium (pork tape worm)
They live in the small intestine of humans attached to the wall of the small intestine by hooks and suckers.
They absorb nutrients from the digested food.

Life cycle of a tapeworm

 Within the infected human being, the segments containing fertilized eggs break off and pass out in
feaces.
 These eggs then tend to become attached to leaf blades of vegetation.
 When the eggs are eaten by the pig or cow depending on the species of the tapeworm, they develop
into embryos.
 The released embryos burrow through the intestinal walls into the blood, which transports them to the
muscles.
 Within the muscles they develop into bladder worms.
 If uncooked or partially cocked, meat from an infected cow or pig is eaten, the bladder worms are
released in the intestines where they develop into tapeworms.

Control
1. Avoid eating raw or half cooked meat.
2. By regular de-worming of infected individuals
3. By proper disposal of wastes
4. Inspection of meat before it is considered fit for human consumption.
 Adaptations of tapeworms to parasitic life
i) They have lost the alimentally canal hence absorb already digested food over the entire body surface
by diffusion.
ii) They have a thick cuticle to prevent attack by digestive enzymes of the host.
iii) They produce substances that inactivate the enzymes of the host.
iv) Each mature proglotids of the tapeworm contains both male and female reproductive organs
(hermaphrodites) hence fertilizes itself.
v) They produce large numbers of eggs to ensure their survival.
vi) They have suckers for attachment to intestinal walls. This prevents the tape worm from being dislodged
by host peristaltic movements
vii) They have resistant stages in their lifecycles with secondary and intermediate hosts to ensure survival
during adverse conditions.
viii) There is loss of unwanted organs like locomotally organs, eyes, etc. to ensure that they occupy as
little space as possible within the host.
ix) They have the ability to respire anaerobically and can survive in an oxygen free environment.

3. SCHISTOSOMES
These are flat worms known as flukes. They are parasites that cause bilharzia (schistosomiasis)

Life cycle
 Schistosoma requires the use of two hosts to complete its life cycle
 Eggs are shed in faeces or urine of an infected human
 Eggs can survive up to a week in dry land
 If feaces end up in water, larvae called miracidia hatch
 Find a snail and penetrate its foot
 Transform into primary sporocysts ( another larval form)
 Primary sporocysts multiply asexually into secondary sporocysts
 Travel to snails hepatopancreas
 Multiply asexually into many cercariae ( another larval form)
 Cercariae exit the snail into the water (survive for about 48 hours )
 Swim and attach to human skin with suckers
 Find a suitable spot (e.g a hair follicle) and penetrate the skin using special enzymes
 Transform into schistosomulae as they enter(another larval form)
 Only head parts enter, tails remain behind
 After a few days in rain, enter into the blood stream through dermal lymphatic vessels or blood
venules
 Travel in blood stream to get to specific blood veins
 Schistosoma reaches maturity in 6-8 weeks in humans
 Developed adult male and female find each other and pair up
 Males make a gynaecophoric channel for longer thinner females to reside
 The pair travel to rectal and mesenteric veins
 Attach to venous wall with ventral and oral suckers

24
 Ecology.
 Females lay eggs on endothelial lining of the venous walls
 Some eggs are flushed by circulating blood ending up causing inflammation in organs like liver,
lungs
 Most eggs travel to lumen of intestinal tract( for S. mansoni) ureters and bladder(for S. haematobium)
 Mature eggs produce special enzymes and can penetrate many membranes like renal veins or
intestinal walls
 Eggs get out of the body in faeces or urine
 Cycle starts again

Control
i) Boil all the water for drinking and bathing
ii) Proper disposal of feaces and all wastes
iii) Kill snails using chemicals
iv) Treatment of water in swimming pools
v) Drain water around homes.

4. TRYPANOSOMES
These are protozoan parasites living in the blood stream. There are several different types of trypanosomes
and they cause the following diseases.
1. Sleeping sickness (trypanasomiasis)
2. Nagana in cattle
 3. Chagas disease.

Life cycle of trypanosomes

The trypanosomes are transmitted by tsetse flies, which act as vectors as well as intermediate hosts.
When the tsetse fly bites an infected person, it sucks the blood from the capillary containing trypanosomes.
The parasites multiply in the body of the tsetse fly and migrate to the salivary glands. When the fly bites a
healthy person, it injects saliva, which contains trypanosomes into the blood of the normal person. These
multiply and cause symptoms of the disease and the cycle repeats.

Control
i) Clearing of bushes to destroy habitats for tsetse flies.
ii) Spraying tsetse flies using insecticides
iii) Treatment of infected animals
iv) Sleeping under treated nets
v) Putting infected areas under quarantine.
vi) Using fly traps to trap tsetse flies

26
 Ecology.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
This is the successive replacement of organisms in a community from simple one to the most complex
ones gradually. This is a gradual change in the composition of organisms in the area.
There are two types of succession.
1. Primary succession
2. Secondary succession
1. Primary succession
This is a type of succession where life begins from a bare rock or new pond, which has never been occupied
by living organisms before. The pioneer plants in such areas are those, which can with stand dry conditions
with low water content and high temperatures. The first organisms to inhabit such an area are called pioneer
organisms.

Stages of succession on a bare rock

Stage 1
The lichens grow on bare rock. When they die, they decompose to form a thin layer of soil, which traps
some moisture.
Stage 2
Mosses start growing on the soil formed by the decayed lichens. When the mosses die, they decay to form
more soil.
Stage 3
The soil formed favours the growth of ferns.
Stage 4
Grasses start to grow due to coming in of favorable conditions such as moisture, enough soil for anchorage
of the plants. During this stage some rodents may start coming in.
Stage 5
Shrubs are formed and they finally develop into trees. The trees form the climax community after which
no other changes take place.
Lichens. Trees. Climax
Pioneer Mosses Ferns Grasses Shrubs community

Succession in a new water pond

Floating plants Papyrus Trees (forest)

It takes several years for a climax community to be established. Any disturbance at any one level causes
the process of succession to go back to the initial stages and it later on re -establishes. The ability of the
community to re-establish after a disturbance is known as resilience.
A climax community is the final steady community that develops at the end of the succession process.

Characteristics of primary succession

 A pioneer community has very few species of plants and animals.
 The pioneer vegetation is shallow rooted
 The pioneer community colonizes a bare rock.
 It takes a long time to reach the climax community.
 2. Secondary succession
This is a type of succession, which takes place in an area, which has ever been occupied by organisms and
destroyed by disasters like fire, floods and human activities. This type of succession is faster than primary
succession.

Characteristics of secondary succession

 It begins on already formed soil or land.
 The pioneer community has a variety of plant and animal species.
 It takes a short time to reach the climax community
 The pioneer vegetation is of higher plants which are deep rooted.

FIRE AS AN ECOLOGICAL FACTOR

Effects of fire to the ecosystem

This is measured in the destruction made and it depends on the following factors.
1. Kind and amount of burning fuel e.g. grass generates less heat compared to wooden materials hence is
less destructive.
2. Weather conditions. Fire is spread very fast in dry conditions and thus destroying a wide area of the
eco system than in cold conditions. In cold conditions, fire spreads very slowly due to the high humidity
hence causing less destruction.
3. Direction of wind. The effect of fire is great to the ecosystem if it’s burning against the direction of
wind (back fire) because it burns in a particular area for a long period of time compared to forward
fire.

Merits of fire
 It breaks seed dormancy due to hard seed coat leading to fast germination.
 It increases recycling of nutrients in an ecosystem.
 It is used in selective weeding.
 It controls pests and diseases.
 It improves on herbage in an area.
 It improves on light penetration leading to rapid under growth in the forest.
 It improves on the visibility of the prey to predators by burning the vegetation cover down.

Demerits of fire
 It destroys the habitat of animals which may cause extinction of some animals.
 It causes air pollution
 It destroys green plants which are producers of the community.
 It destroys animals in the ecosystem.
 It increases predation due to improved visibility.
 It leads to loss of some nutrients from the soil by decomposition e.g. humus and nitrates.

28
 Ecology.

Forests as a renewable resource

Forests are renewed by afforestation and avoiding deforestation.

Ecological importance of forests

 They act as habitats of organisms.
 Source of food to organisms.
 Used in rain fall formation, this improves on the climate of an ecosystem.
 It forms soil by dropping litter which helps in decomposition into humus.
 Maintains plants and animal diversity.

Ecological effects of deforestation

 Destruction of habitats of animals.
 It leads to soil erosion
 It leads to desertification.
 It increases CO2 content in the atmosphere.
 Increases predation due to removal of vegetation cover.

Importance of forests to wild life conservation

 They are sources of food to animals
 They are habitats to animals.
 Formation of rain falls to prevent drought.
 Reduces soil erosion thereby conserving soil fertility.
 Maintains the bio diversity for a variety of plant and animal species.
 Purifies the environment by removing CO2 and adding oxygen.
 Provides a variety of litter that decomposes to form humus.
 Reduces predation of some wild animals.
 POLLUTION
This is the addition of substances or energy to the environment to levels that harm or destroy living
components of the environment (ecosystem). Substances that can cause pollution to the environment are
called pollutants. E.g. sewerage, fertilizers, oil links, etc.

Types of pollution
1. Water pollution
2. Air pollution
3. Noise pollution
4. Radioactive pollution
5. Sound pollution

Air pollution
The main pollutants of air or atmosphere are poisonous gases e.g. SO2, CO2, NO2, and CO.
Some of these gases e.g. SO2, CO2, and CO form acidic components that destroy vegetation. Another air
pollutant is smoke that causes poor vision, reduced light penetration, and reduction of photosynthesis by
coating on plant leaves.
Excess gases in the atmosphere e.g. CO2 and CFCs (Chloro Floro Carbon) used in fridges cause global
warming.

Water pollution
This is as a result of addition of excess nutrients e.g. nitrates, phosphates, potassium to water bodies making
them too nutritive leading to increased productivity of water. The highly productive lake is called eutrophic
lake and the process of polluting water bodies by adding excess nutrients is called eutrophication. The
main pollutants that cause eutrophication are fertilizers.
Domestic wastes drained in water bodies, industrial wastes e.g. detergents which contain a lot of
phosphates and nitrates also cause eutrophication in the lake.

Eutrophication:
This is the accumulation of nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) leading to increased growth of aquatic
plants e.g. algae which decompose after death leading to a decrease of oxygen contents as a result of being
utilized by decomposers of dead plants. Due to the decrease of oxygen content, in water, aquatic animals
that need oxygen for respiration e.g. fish suffocate and die.

Soil pollution
Use of excess fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides pollutes the soil. Excess herbicides and insecticides lead
to death of living organisms in the soil there by reducing the rate of decomposition of dead matter.
Non degradable insecticides do not break down but accumulate in animals along the food chain to
poisonous levels that can kill.

30
 Ecology.

Activities of man that have led to the degradation of soil

Environmental degradation is the process of destroying the quality of the environment. Human activities
that have led to degradation of soil are:
1. Over stocking leading to over grazing that reduces the amount of vegetation cover to expose the soil
there by encouraging soil erosion.
2. Deforestation exposing soil to agents of soil erosion.
3. Use of insecticides, pesticides and herbicides which cause the death of soil organisms hence affecting
the rate of decomposition.
4. Burning of vegetation that removes the vegetation cover which encourages surface run off hence
leading to soil erosion.
5. Mining, construction, quarrying leads to the destruction of soil structure which encourages soil erosion.
6. Digging or cultivating down slope also encourages soil erosion.

Radioactive pollution
This is the release of radioactive chemicals into the environment in large amounts e.g atomic substances
are from atomic bombs.

Human activities that lead to environmental pollution

1. Drainage of excess untreated sewage into the water bodies causing eutrophication.
2. Application of excess fertilizers that are later eroded in water bodies.
3. Burning of vegetation that exposes the soil to erosion agents and it also leads to the emission of smoke
which causes air pollution.
4. Emission of excess poisonous gases in the atmosphere e.g. SO2, CO2 and CO from industries and
automobiles which cause acidic rains.
5. Use of excess herbicides and insecticides which kill the soil organisms leading to decreased rate of
decomposition.
6. Spilling of oil onto water bodies which leads to suffocation of aquatic animals.
7. Construction of noisy industries in town which cause sound pollution that can damage the hearing
process of man.
8. Decomposition of non-biodegradable materials into the soil e.g. plastics, glass, etc. which destroy the
soil structure.
9. Deforestation
10. Monoculture
11. Over stocking
 UGANDA’S WATER BODIES
The major water bodies in Uganda are lakes and rivers. They are polluted by sewage from industries;
fertilizers used by man, oil from machines e.g. boat engines.
Water bodies are also invaded by water weeds especially water hyacinth which is a flowering plant
which can also reproduce asexually and with a high rate of reproduction.

Effects of water hyacinth on water bodies

 They hinder navigation
 They harbor dangerous animals e.g. snakes
 Reduction in the amount of fish in water bodies as some dies due to starvation.
 They reduce on the amount of light penetration in water column.
 Siltation of water bodies i.e. they become shallow as a result of death and decomposition of water
hyacinth.
 Reduction in the amount of water in lakes as a result of increased rate of transpiration.
 They hinder smooth flow of water in lakes since they block the drainage channels.
 It has caused economic injuries to the country especially when trying to eradicate it.

Uses of water hyacinths

 Production of biogas
 Feeds for cattle and pigs.
 A good fertilizer when used as mulches.
 A good raw material for art and craft.
 Raw material for making manure.

Methods of controlling the water hyacinth

1. Physically or removing it manually by hand picking however it is not effective.
2. By use of machines (mechanical control) however the method is effective but expensive.
3. By using biological control methods e.g. use of beetles.
4. Use of herbicides (chemical control) and it involves the spraying of herbicides directly onto the weed.
The method is quick but has the following demerits:
 It contaminates water
 Destruction of aquatic life especially fish
 Pollution of water since the weed is not completely removed but decomposes in water.
 It is expensive since it involves the use of space air crafts to apply it.

32